CRIM 102 - Chapter 4

PSYCHOLOGICAL THEORIES

1. PSYCHODYNAMIC THEORY

Jointness is defined as a dynamic process representing an emotional system for attachment and for
communication between separate individuals who jointly approach each other in third, joint, virtual space.
Jointness represents an encounter-between mother and infant, psychotherapist and patient, or any partners
experiencing while concomitantly safeguarding separateness.

Psychotherapy is the use of psychological methods, personal interaction, to help a person change and
overcome problems in desired ways. Psychotherapy aims to improve an individual's well-being and mental
health to resolve or mitigate troublesome behaviors & beliefs, compulsions, thoughts or emotions, and to
improve relationships and social skills. Certain psychotherapies are considered evidence-based for treating
some diagnosed mental disorders.

Psychotherapists may be mental health professionals such as psychiatrists, psychologists, clinical social
workers, marriage and family therapists, or professional counselors. Psychotherapists may also come from a
variety of other background, and depending on the jurisdiction may be legally regulated, voluntarily
regulated or unregulated (and the term itself may be protected or not).

2. BEHAVIORAL THEORY

The second major psychological theory is behaviorism, This theory maintains that human behavior is
developed through learning experiences. The hallmark of behavioral theory is the notion that people alter or
change their behavior according to the reactions this behavior elicits in other people (Bandura, 1978). In an
ideal situation, behavior is supported by rewards and extinguished by negative reactions or punishments.
Behaviorists view crimes as learned responses to life's situations. Social learning theory, which is a branch
of behavior theory, is the most relevant to criminology. The-most prominent social learning theorist is
Albert Bandura (1978). Bandura maintains that individuals are not born with an innate ability to act
violently. He suggested that, in contrast, violence and aggression are learned through a process of behavior
modelino (Bandura, 1977). In other words a children arm violence through the observation of others.
Aggressive acts are modeled after three primary sources:
(1)family interaction,
(2)environmental experiences, and
(3) the mass media. Research on family interaction demonstrates who are aggressive are more likely to have
been brought who are aggressive (Jacoby, 2004).

The second source of behavioral problems, environmental experiences, suggests that individuals who
reside in areas that are crime prone are more likely to display aggressive behavior than those who reside in
low-crime areas (Shelden, argue that high-crime areas are without norms, rules, and customs (Bohm, 2001).
Furthermore, there is an a sense of conventional behavior. Manifestations of unconventional behavior
include the inability to gain employment; drug or alcohol abuse; and failure to obey the local, state and
federal laws.

The third sources of behavioral problems are the mass media. It is difficult to discern the ultimate role of
the media In regard to crime. Scholars have suggested that films, video games, and television shows that
depict violence are harmful to children. Ultimately, social learning theories beckon us to accept the fact that
the mass media are responsible for a great deal of the violence in our society.

3. COGNITIVE THEORY

A third major psychological theory is cognitive theory. In recent years, significant gains have been made in
explaining criminal behavior within the cognitive theory framework. Here, psychologists focus on the
mental processes of individuals. More important, cognitive theorists attempt to understand how criminal
offenders perceive and mentally represent the world around them (Knepper, 2001).

4. PERSONALITY AND CRIME

Personality can be defined as something that makes us what we are and also that which makes us different
from others (Clark, Boccaccini, Caillouet, & Chaplin, 2007). Ideally, personality is stable over time.

FIVE DOMAINS ACCOUNT FOR INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES IN PERSONALITY

Neuroticism involves emotional stability. Individuals who score high on this domain often demonstrate
anger and sadness and have irrational ideas, uncontrollable impulses, and anxiety. In contrast, persons who
score low on Neuroticism are often described by others as even tempered, calm, and relaxed.

The second domain, Extraversion, is characterized by sociability, excitement, and stimulation. Individuals
who score high on Extraversion (extraverts) are often very active, talkative, and assertive. They also are
more optimistic toward the future. In contrast, introverts are often characterized by being reserved,
independent, and shy (Clark et al., 2007).

The third domain is Openness, referring to individuals who have an active imagination, find pleasure in
beauty, are attentive to their inner feelings, have a preference for variety, and are intellectually curious.
Individuals who score high on Openness are willing to entertain unique or novel ideas, maintain
unconventional values, and experience positive and negative emotions more so than individuals who are
closed-minded.

Conscientiousness, the fifth domain, focuses on a person's ability to control impulses and exercise self-
control. Individuals who score high on Conscientiousness are described as organized, thorough, efficient,
determined, and strong willed. In addition, those who are conscientious are more likely to achieve high
academic and occupational desires. In contrast, people who score low on this domain are thought to be
careless, lazy, and more likely assign fault to others than to accept blame themselves (Clark et al., 2007).

5. PSYCHOPATHIC PERSONALITY

Antisocial personality, psychopathy, or sociopath is terms use interchangeably (Siegal, 2009 sociopaths are
often a product of a destructive home environment. Sociopaths are often a product of a defect or aberration
within themselves antisocial personality is characterized by low levels of guilt, superficial charm, above-
average intelligence, persistent violations of the rights of others, incapacity to form enduring relationships,
impulsivity, risk taking, egocentricity, manipulativeness, forcefulness and cold-heartedness, and shallow
emotions (Jacoby, 2004). The origin may include traumatic socialization, neurological disorder, and brain
abnormality (Sieoal, 2008).
6. INTELLIGENCE AND CRIME

Criminologists have suggested for centuries that there exists a link between intelligence and crime (Dabney,
2004). Some common beliefs are that criminals and delinquents possess low intelligence and that this low
intelligence causes criminality. As criminological research has advanced, scholars have continued to suggest
that the Holy Grail is causality. The ability to predict criminals from noncriminal is the ultimate goal. Tie
ideology or concept of IQ and crime has crystallized into the nature-versus-nurture debate (Jacoby, 2004).

7. FREUDAN-PSYCHOANALYUTIC THEORY

Sigmund Freud (6 May 1856 - 23 September 1939) is considered to be the founder of the psychodynamic
approach to psychology which looks closely at the unconscious drives that motivate people to act in certain
ways.

The role of the mind is something that Freud repeatedly talked about because he believed that the mind is
responsible for both conscious and unconscious decisions based on drives and forces. Unconscious desires
motivate people to act accordingly. The id, ego, and super ego are three aspects of the mind; Freud believed
to make up a person's personality. Freud believed people are "simply actors in the drama of [their] own
minds, pushed by desire, pulled by coincidence. Underneath the surface, our personalities represent the
power struggle going on deep within us".

8. PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY
Id

Proponents of psychodynamic theory suggest that an individual's personality is controlled by unconscious

mental processes that are grounded in early childhood. This theory was originated by Sigmund Freud (1856-
1939), the founder of psychoanalysis. Imperative to this theory are the three elements or structures that make
up the human personality: (1) the Id, (2) the ego, (3) the superego. One can think of the id is as the
primitive part of a person's mental makeup that is present at birth. Freud (1933) believed the id represents
the unconscious biological drives for food, sex, and other necessities over the life span.

9. Anxiety and Defense Mechanisms

Sigmund Freud proposed a set of defense mechanisms in one's body. These set of defense mechanisms occur
so one can hold a favorable or preferred view of themselves.

Freud noted that a major drive for people is the reduction of tension and the major cause of tension was
anxiety. He identified three types of anxiety; reality anxiety, neurotic anxiety, and moral anxiety is the most
basic norm of anxiety and is based on the ego. It is typically based on the fear of real and possible events, for
example being bit by a dog or falling off of a roof. Neurotic anxiety comes from an unconscious fear that the
basic impulses of the id will take control of the person, leading to eventual punishment from expressing the
ids desires. Moral anxiety comes from the superego. It appears in the form of a fear of violating values or
moral codes, and appears as feelings like guilt or shame.

Defense Mechanism:
1) Denial- believing that what is true is actually false
2) Displacement- taking out impulses on a less threatening target
3) Intellectualization- avoiding unacceptable emotions by focusing on the intellectual aspects
 4) Projection- attributing uncomfortable feelings to others
5) Rationalization- creating false but believable justifications
6) Reaction Formation- taking the opposite belief because the true belief causes anxiety
7) Regression- going back to a previous stage of development
8) Repression- pushing uncomfortable thoughts out of conscious awareness
9) Suppression- consciously forcing unwanted thoughts out of our awareness
10) Sublimation- redirecting 'wrong' urges into socially acceptable actions. These defenses are not under
our conscious control and our unconscious will use one or more to protect one's self from stressful
situations. They are natural and normal and without these, neurosis develops such as anxiety states,
phobias, obsessions, or hysteria.

1O. LOW IQ THEORY

Once the IQ-crime correlation is measured, the next task is to explain it. Why IQ and crime are negatively
correlated? Explanations of the IQ-crime correlation typically take one of three approaches, that: (1) IQ and
crime are spuriously, not causally, correlated; (2) low IQ increases criminal behavior; or (3) criminal
behavior decreases

11. ATTENTION -DEFICIT-HYPERACTIVITY THEORY

Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a men all disorder of the neuro developmental type. It is
characterized by problems paying attention, excessive activity, or difficulty controlling behavior which is
not age. The symptoms appear before a person is twelve years old, are present for more than six months, and
cause problems in at least two settings (such as school, home, or recreational activities).

12. FRUSTRATION AGGRESSION THEORY

Frustration—aggression hypothesis, otherwise known as the frustration—aggression—displacement theory,

is a theory of aggression proposed by John Dollard, Neal E. Miller et al. in 1939 and further developed by
Miller et al. in 1941 and Leonard Berkowitz in 1969. The theory says that aggression is the result of
blocking, or frustrating, a person's efforts to attain a goal.

Frustration is the feeling of irritation and annoyance when something blocks you from achieving a goal. In
the previous scenario, your goal of turning in your research paper on time is being hindered by the printer's
malfunction. You throw your backpack down in exasperation and proceed to kick it several times. This is an
example of frustration turning into aggression. Aggression is a malicious behavior or attitude towards
someone or something, usually triggered by frustration.

13. INFERIORITY COMPLEX AND ALFRED ADLER'S THEORY

An inferiority complex is a lack of self-worth, a doubt and uncertainty about oneself, and feelings of not
measuring up to standards. It is often subconscious, and is thought to drive afflicted individuals to
overcompensate, resulting either in spectacular achievement or extremely asocial behavior. In modern
literature, the preferred terminology is "lack of covert self-esteem". For many, it is developed through a
combination of genetic personality characteristics and personal experiences.

13. DELINQUENT SUBCULTURE THEORY

Walter Miller published an article in a journal called Lower Class Culture as a Generating Milieu of Gang
Delinquency. In this article he displayed the lower-class focal concerns, which include six of the following:
trouble, toughness, smartness, excitement, fate, and autonomy. Trouble, as he states about lower-class
communities, is evaluated by how much a person creates it (Miller, 1958). Getting into trouble, as we all
know it, is pretty much breaking the law such as fighting. What this does is creates an image for that one
subject. So if the subject gets into a fight and wins, his reputation is therefore increased, people will start
recognizing and won't try to fight the subject.

14. RATIONAL CHOICE THEORY

Rational choice theory and its assumptions about human behavior have been integrated into numerous
criminological theories and criminal justice interventions. Rational choice theory originated during the late
18th century with the work of Cesare Beccaria. Since then, the theory has been expanded upon and extended
to include other perspectives, such as deterrence, situational crime prevention, and routine activity theory.
The rational choice perspective has been applied to a wide range of crimes, including robbery, drug use,
vandalism, and white-collar crime. Rational choice theory purports that a person will commit crime after
determining if the pain or punishment is worth the pleasure or reward of the act. This theory comes from the
Classical and Neoclassical Schools.

15. CHOICE THEORY

Choice theory is the belief that individuals choose to commit a crime, looking at the opportunities before
them, weighing the benefit versus the punishment, and deciding whether to proceed or not.

Choice theory posits behaviors we choose are central to our existence. Our behavior choices are driven by
five genetically driven needs, survival, love and belonging, freedom, fun and power. Survival needs include

● Food
● Clothing
● Shelter
● personal safety
● security and sex, having children

And four fundamental psychological needs:

● Belonging/connecting/love
● Power/significance/competence
● Freedom/autonomy
● Fun/learning

16. DRIFT THEORY (NEUTRALIZATION THEORY)

Neutralization theory is the idea that people who violate the law learn to neutralize the orthodox attitudes
and values of society, allowing them to drift between outlaw and orthodox behavior. Drift is the motion in
and out of delinquency, moving from orthodox and criminal values. Neutralization techniques allow the
person to occasionally 'drift' out of orthodox behavior and get into criminal behaviors, such as stealing or
shooting someone. The theory was based off four observations. Delinquents sometimes express quilt and
remorse over their act.

17. LABELING THEORY

Labeling theory, in criminology, a theory stemming out known as "symbolic interactionism," a school of
thought based on the ideas of George Herbert Mead, John Dewey, W. I. Thomas, Charles Horton Coole, and
Herbert Blumer among others. The first as well as one of the most prominent labeling theorists was Howard
Becker, who published his groundbreaking work Outsiders in 1963. A question became popular with
criminologists during the mid-1960s: What makes some acts and some people deviant or criminal? During
this time, scholars tried to shift the focus of criminology toward the effects of individuals in power
responding to behavior in society in a negative.

Frank Tannenbaum
- is considered the grandfather of labeling theory.
- First introduced the idea of "tagging"

Hard and Soft Labeling

People who believe in hard labeling believe that mental illness does not exist. It is merely deviance from
the norms of society that people attribute to mental illness. Thus, mental illnesses are socially constructed
illnesses and psychotic disorders do not exist. People who believe in soft labeling believe that mental
illnesses do, in fact, exist. Unlike the supporters of hard labeling, soft labeling supporters believe that mental
illnesses are not socially constructed but are objective problems.