CRIM 102 - Chapter 5

SOCIOLOGICAL THEORIES

1. SOCIAL DISORGANIZATION THEORY

Social disorganization is defined a an i of community members to achieve shared values or to solve

In sociology, the social disorganization theory is one of the most important theories developed by the
Chicago School, related to ecological theories. The theory directly links crime rates to neighborhood
ecological characteristics; a core principle of social disorganization theory is that place matters. In other
words, a person's residential location is a substantial factor s aping the likelihood that become involved in
illegal activities. The theory suggests that, among determinants of a person's later illegal activity, residential
location is as significant as or more significant than the person's individual characteristics (e.g., age,
gender, or race). For example, the theory suggests that youths from disadvantaged neighborhoods
participate in a subculture which approves of delinquency, and that these youths thus acquire criminality in
this social and cultural setting.

Edwin Sutherland adopted the concept of social disorganization to explain the increases in crime that
accompanied the transformation of preliterate and peasant societies—in which Influences surrounding a
person were steady, uniform, harmonious and consistent"—to modern Western civilization, which he
believed was characterized by inconsistency, conflict, and un-organization.

2. STRAIN THEORY
Society are composed of two core aspects: culture and social structure.

a sociology and in 1938 by Robert K. Merton. The theory states that society puts pressure on individuals to
achieve socially accepted. goals (such as American dream) though they lack the means this leads to strain
which may lead the individuals to commit crimes. Examples being selling drugs or becoming involved in
prostitution to gain financial security.

Strain may either be:

1. Structural: this refers to the processes at the societal level which filter down and affect how the
individual perceives his or her needs? i.e. if particular social structures are inherently inadequate or
there is inadequate regulation, this may change the individual's perceptions as to means and
opportunities; or
2. Individual: this refers to the frictions and pains experienced ¯by an individual as he or she looks for
ways to satisfy his or her needs, i.e. if the goals of a society become significant to an individual,
actually achieving them may become more important than the means adopted.

Merton's theory

Robert King Merton was an American sociologist who argued society can encourage deviance to a large
degree. Merton believed that socially accepted goals put pressure on people to conform. People are forced
to work within the system or become members the desired goal. Merton's belief became the theory
known as Strain Theory. Merton continued on to say when individuals are faced with a gap between their
goals (usually finances/money related) and their current status, strain occurs. When faced with strain,
people have five ways to adapt:

1. Conformity: pursuing cultural goals through socially approved means. Conformity is the tendency
to align your attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors with those around you. All a powerful force that can
take the form of overt social pressure or subtler unconscious influence. As much as we like to think
of ourselves as individuals, the fact is that were driven to fit in, and that usually means going with
 the flow. Conformity is the act of matching attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors to group norms. Norms
are implicit, specific rules, shared by a group of individuals that guide their interactions with others.
This tendency to conform occurs in small groups and/or society as a whole, and may result from
subtle unconscious influences, or direct and overt social pressure. Conformity can occur in the
presence of others, or when an individual is alone. For example, people tend to follow social norms
when eating or watching television, even when alone.
2. Innovation: using socially unapproved or unconventional means to obtain culturally approved
goals. Example: dealing drugs or stealing to achieve financial security. Innovation can be defined
simply as a «new idea, device or method". However, Innovation is often also viewed as the
application of better solutions that meet new requirements, unarticulated needs, or existing market
needs. This is accomplished through more-effective products, processes, services, technologies, or
business models that are readily available to markets, governments and society. The term
"innovation" can be defined as something original and more effective and, as a consequence, new,
that "breaks into" the market or society. It is related to, but not the same as, invention Innovation is
often manifested via the engineering process. The opposite of innovation is exnovation.
3. Ritualism: using the same socially approved means to achieve less elusive goals (more modest
and humble). Ritualism is when someone reject traditional cultural goals, but still adheres to the
usual steps to obtaining rejects goals an accepts or adheres to institutionalized means of obtaining
them
4. Retreatism: to reject both the cultural goals and the means to obtain it, then find away to escape it.
The rejection of culturally prescribed goals and the conventional means for attaining them. The
rejection of culturally prescribed goals and the conventional means for attaining them. It could lead
to socialization, depersonalization, social alienation, Anomie (normslessness), psychic dysfunctions,
which could on the other hand result in criminal intentions and/or deeds (because of social deviance
due to the aforementioned states) or rebellious attitudes (i.e. pursuit of activities advancing new
means and new goals, usually via all means possible) the attitude of being resigned to
abandonment of an original goal or the means of attaining it (as in political or cultural matters)

5. Rebellion: to reject the cultural goals and means, then work to replace-them. open, armed,
defiance of or resistance to an established government. Rebellion, uprising, or insurrection is a
refusal of obedience or order.

General Strain Theory

General Strain Theory (GST) is a sociology and criminology theory developed in the 1992 by Robert
Agnew. The core idea of general strain theory is that people who experience strain or stress become
distressed or upset which may lead them to commit crime in order to cope. One of the key principles of this
theory is emotion as the motivator for crime. The theory was developed to conceptualize the full range of
sources in society where strain possibly comes from, which Merton's strain theory does not. The theory
also focuses on the perspective of goals for status, expectations and class rather than focusing on money
(as Merton's theory does). Examples of General Strain Theory are people who use illegal drugs to make
them feel better, or a student assaulting his peers to end the harassment they caused.

GST introduces 3 main sources of strain such as:

1. Loss of positive stimuli (death of family or friend)

2. Presentation of negative stimuli (physical and verbal assaults)
3. The inability to reach a desired goal.
3. SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY

People develop_motivation to commit crime and the skills to commit crime through the people they
associate with. Social Learning Theory is a theory of learning and social behavior which pro es that new
behaviors can be acquired by observing and imitating others. It states that learning is a cognitive process
that place in a social context and can occur purely through observation or direct instruction, even in the
absence of motor reproduction or direct reinforcement.

Skinner Bandura's Social Learning Theory states that people learn from one another, via observation,
imitation, and modeling. The theory has often been called a bridge between behaviorist and cognitive
learning theories because it encompasses attention, memory, and motivation.

There are four Meditational processes proposed by Bandura:

1. Attention: The extent to which we are exposed/notice the behavior. For a behavior to be imitated it
has to grab our attention. We observe many behaviors on a daily basis and many of these are not
noteworthy. Attention is therefore extremely important in whether a behavior has an influence in
others imitating it. - in order to learn, observers must attend to the modeled behavior. Experimental
studies have found that awareness of what is being learned and the mechanisms of reinforcement
greatly boost learning outcomes. Attention is impacted by characteristics Of the observer (e.g.,
perceptual abilities, cognitive abilities, arousal, past performance) and characteristics of the
behavior or event (e.g., relevance, novelty, affective valence, and functional value). In this way,
social factors contribute to attention - the prestige Of different models affects the relevance and
functional value of observation and therefore modulates attention
2. Retention: How well the behavior is remembered. The behavior may be noticed, but is it not always
remembered which obviously prevents imitation. It is important therefore that a memory of the
behavior is formed to be performed later by the observer. In order to reproduce an observed
behavior, observers must be able to remember features of the behavior.
3. Reproduction: This is the ability to perform the behavior that the model has just demonstrated. We
see much behavior on a daily basis that we would like to be able to imitate but that this i not always
possible. We are limited by our physical ability and for that reason, even if we wish to reproduce the
behavior, we cannot.

● Motivation: The will to perform the behavior. The rewards and punishment that follow a behavior will
be considered by the observer. If the perceived rewards outweigh the perceived costs (if there are
any) then the behavior will be more likely to be imitated by the observer.

4. Routine Activity theory

Followers of the routine activity theory believe that crime is inevitable, and that if the target is attractive
enough, crime will happen; effective measures must be in place to deter crime from happening. Routine
Activity Theory is a sub-field of crime opportunity-theory that focuses on situations of crimes. It has been
developed by Marcus Felson and Lawrence E. Cohen,
The premise of routine activity theory is that crime is relatively unaffected by social causes such as poverty,
inequality and unemployment.

Routine Activities Theory is a theory of crime events. This differs from a majority of criminological
theories, which focus on explaining why some people commit crimes—that is, the motivation to-commit
crime— rather than how criminal events are produced. Although at first glance this distinction may appear
inconsequential, it has important implications for the research and prevention of crime. Routine activities
theory suggests that the organization of routine activities in society create opportunities for crime.

RAT argues that when a crime occurs, three things happen at the same time and in the same space:
 ● a suitable target is available
● there is the lack of a suitable guardian to prevent the crime from happening
● a likely and motivated offender is present.

A Suitable Target

first condition for crime is that a suitable target must be available. lhe word target has been chosen
carefully, rather than other words such as victim.

There are three major categories of target. A target can either be:

1. A person

Is a being, such as a human, that has certain capacities or attributes such as reason, morality,
consciousness or self-consciousness, and being a part of a culturally established form of social relations
such as kinship, ownership of property, or responsibility. The defining features of personhood and
consequently what makes a person count as a person differ widely among cultures and contexts.

2. An object

Anything that is visible or tangible and is relatively stable in form. Something material that may be
perceived by the senses

3. A place

An area with definite or indefinite boundaries; a portion of space. A location, settlement, or populated place
is likely to have a well defined name but a boundary which is not well defined in varies by context. London,
for instance, has a legal boundary, but this is unlikely to completely match with general usage. An area
within a town, such as Convent Garden in London, also almost always has some ambiguity as to its extent.
The terms location and place in geography are used to identify a point or an area on the Earth's surface or
elsewhere. The term location generally implies a higher degree of certainty than place, the latter often
indicating an entity with an ambiguous boundary, relying more on human or social attributes of place
identity and sense of place than on geometry.

Absence of a Capable Guardian

The first condition for crime is that there must be a suitable target present. The second condition is that a
capable guardian whose presence would discourage a crime from taking place must be absent.

A capable guardian is anything, either a person or thing that discourages crime from taking place. These
can be formal or informal.

Some Examples of Capable Guardians:

Police Patrols - patrol officers are law enforcement officers assigned to monitor specified geographic
areas—that is, to move through their areas at regular intervals looking out for any signs of problems of any
kind.

Security Guards - A security guard, security officer, or protective agent is a private person who is hired to
protect the employing party's assets (property, people, equipment, money, etc.) from a variety of hazards
(such as waste, damaged property, unsafe worker behavior, criminal activity such as theft, etc.) by using
preventative measures.
Neighborhood Watch Groups - A neighborhood watch (see spelling differences), also called a crime
watch or neighborhood crime watch, is an organized group of civilians devoted to crime and vandalism
prevention within a neighborhood.
● door staff
● locks Fences
● lighting
● alarm systems
● vigilant staff and co-workers
● friends
● neighbors
● Close Circuit Television (CCTV) systems

Likely Offenders
When a suitable target is unprotected by a capable guardian there is a chance that a crime will take
place.

Gain/Need

● poverty
● to feed a drug habit
● greed

Society/Experience/Environment

● living in a culture where crime is acceptable

● because of peer pressure
● coercion
● lack of education
● poor employment prospects
● family background
● mental illness
● poor housing envy
● as a rebellion against authority.

Beliefs

● a belief that crime in general or particular crimes aren't wrong

● as a protest on a matter of principle
● prejudice against certain minority/ethnic groups

5. UTILITARIANISM
Utilitarianism is a philosophical view or theory about how we should evaluate a wide range of things
that involve choices that people face. Among the things that can be evaluated are actions, laws, policies,
character traits, and moral codes. Utilitarianism is a form of consequentialism because it rests on the idea
that it is the consequences or results of actions, laws, policies, etc. that determine whether they are good or
bad, right or wrong. In general, whatever is being evaluated, we ought to choose the one that will produce
the best overall results. In the language of utilitarians, we should choose the option that "maximizes utility,"
i.e. that action or policy that produces the largest amount of good.
Utilitarianism is an ethical theory which states that the best action is the one that maximizes utility.
"Utility" is defined in various ways, usually in terms of the of sentient entities. Jeremy Bentham, the founder
of utilitarianism, described utility as the sum of all pleasure that results form
an action, minus the suffering of anyone involved in the action.
6. DIFFERENTIAL ASSOCIATION THEORY

Have you ever asked yourself why certain individuals become criminals? Differential association theory
is a theory in crime Differential association theory suggests that individuals who commit deviant acts are
influenced to do so by primary groups and intimate social contacts. The degree of influence one receives
from messages favoring deviant behavior varies by intensity, priority, frequency, and duration. An overview
of differential association theory of deviance is provided beginning with a general review of the theory,
followed by brief explanations of specific assumptions of differential association theory. A brief summary of
key research developments are provided. Critiques of differential association are highlighted throughout the
report and further developments of the theory are reviewed.

7. CONTAINMENT THEORY
Social control theorists posit that crime and delinquency occur among members in society because
an individual's behavior is not well regulated. Recent control theories have emphasized the importance of
high self-control and strong bonds to society in deterring criminal behavior. However, one of the original
theories of self-control has been largely ignored among scholars. Developed by Walter Reckless in the
1960s, containment theory suggests that criminals are pushed and pulled into crime. Pushes are elements
that pressure individuals to engage in delinquency while pulls draw individuals away from accepted forms
of behavior.

The outer containment consists of, "effective family life, in which roles are averted or handled; of life in a
community which still retains an interest in the activities of its members; of membership in organizations
that are interested in the activities of its members, etc.," as well as the influence of good companions
(Reckless, 1972, pp. 50- 51). However, over subsequent revisions,he determined that there were three
broad areas that were essential to the outer containment: reasonable limits such as discipline from parents
and adult figures, meaning( roles an & activities such as involvement with school programs and community
involvement that instills conformity in its members, and group reinforcement and supportive relationships
breeding acceptance and belonging into society (Reckless, 1967).

The inner containment was of greater emphasis in Reckless work. As he states, "internal containment
involves the withstand pressures and pulls, to handle conflicts, to divert oneself exciting risks, and to stay
out of trouble".

Favorable self-concept is argued to be an insulator of delinquency among adolescents (Carroll, Houghton,

Wood, Perkins, & Bower, 2007; Levy, 2001; Reckless, Dinitz, & Murray, 1956; Vermeiren, Bogaerts,
Ruchkin, Deboutte, & Schwab-Stone,

2004). The idea of self-concept stems from Charles Horton Cooley (1964) with his 13 development of the
"looking-glass self." In short, people develop self-image from their interactions with those close to them. For
Reckless (1967), self7concept is seen as protective when individuals view themselves a$law-abiding
citizens. Further, parents are argued to be the most important means of developing positive self-concept
along with other authority figures such as teachers

Goal orientation is the second element of the inner containment. Reckless (1976) defined it as having
direction and orientation towards legitimate goals. Further, these goals must be viewed as attainable by the
individual.The third element is frustration tolerance, which is the result of low self-control. Low frustration
tolerance originates from "upsets, disappointments in life," and is characterized by exert self-control, to
tolerate frustration, to recognize limits, [and] (Reckless, 1967; p. 20-21). Self-control is vital to coping with
failures, for without it, individuals are more prone to engage in delinquency as a means to cope with such
stressors.
The final element of the inner containment is norm retention. This refers to acceptance of societal norms,
laws and the willingness to comply with such laws. Reckless ( 1972) postulated that sometimes "norm
erosion" occurs, meaning that an individual will develop criminogenic norms. Norm erosion has close ties
with Sykes and Matzas (1957) techniques of neutralization.

Reckless - Containment Theory

Reckless realized that urban life contained many temptations to commit crime. He suggested that to
commit crime the individual must break through a combination of outer and inner containment. We could
probably accept that inner containment is in reference to self-control and outer containment is social
control(s).

9. SOCIAL CONTROL THEORY/SOCIAL BOND THEORY

Social Bond Theory - The Social Bond theory was created by Travis Hirschi in 1969. Social Bond theory,
that later developed Ion: into the Social Control Theory, has historically been an interesting way of
approaching social problems and how we in turn explain this them. Before one can apply the Social Bond
theory, they must first have a firm understanding of its definition, which can be accurately described by
Hirschi (1969) as, "Elements of social bonding include attachment to families, commitment to social norms
and institutions thl (school) employment), involvement in activities, and the belief that these things are
important" (p. 16). This theory is rooted and derived from the General Theory of Crime. The basic
difference between the General Theory of Crime and Hirschi's (1969) Social Bond is the focus on peers
and peer groups of individuals. The four basic elements of social bond theory are attachment, commitment,
involvement in conventional versus deviant or criminal activities, and lastly the common value system within
an individual's society or subgroup.

Attachment - is described as the level of values and or norms that an individual holds in society.
Attachment is especially important when it come to the person's parental figures. . According to Hirschi
(1969) other attachments, such as school, play a tremendous role in conventional society. School has
tended to be a middle to upper class involvement since it was first created. The middle class children tend
to make fun of or demoralize the lower class children.

10. LIFE-COURSE THEORY

The life course perspective is a broad approach that can be used in a variety of subject matters such as
psychology, biology, history, and criminology. As a theory, the denotation establishes the connection
between a pattern of life events and the actions that humans perform.

In the criminology field, life-course theory is used as a backbone (or a starting branch) for an assortment of
other theories that are less broad and more specific. The history of the theory partially stems from the
1920's theorist, Karl Mannheim, who wrote the ground- breaking dissertation, The Sociological Problem of
Generation.

11. DURKHEIM'S ANOMIE THEORY

Crime is necessary; it serves a function in society. Although it is not preferable, with the progression and
evolution of modernity and emphasis on monetary success, crime is inevitable because a perfectly stable,
uniform, and able society is impossible. As the father of sociology and a functionalist, Emile Durkheim
provides a variety of explanations of society's ills, like crime and deviance, and accounts for the
punishments and repercussions that follow.

Theory of social anomie

Basic concept of social anomie is an enormous gap between the desires of the individual and its real
capabilities to satisfy those desires. When an individual is the one who gives, or who carries out its social
obligations in accordance with his social role, and the social environment does not give any feedback on
his conduct this will result in the alienation of the individual. To the individuals it will not be clear why he is
doing socially useful activities, when he knows he could opt for another model of behavior that is apparently
easier and does not require any effort (e.g. it is easier to steal than to work). The process of social
interaction is based on reciprocity of care, attention and trust. Both sides give something in the interaction,
but also receive from the whole process of social interaction. Social anomie also happens when old rules or
values are no longer relevant and new values or rules are in direct conflict with old rules and values.

12. SELF-DEROGATION THEORY

According to a self-esteem model of deviance, juveniles may become involved in delinquency as a

response to negative self attitudes. In particular, self-derogation theory predicts that low self-esteem
motivates youths to try out delinquent activities that are aimed at restoring self-esteem. While the
correlation between self-esteem and delinquency has been widely studied, the proposition that delinquent
behavior can have self-enhancing effects remains uncertain and undocumented. This study examines
some conditions under which engaging in delinquent behaviors may boost self-esteem. Applying
multivariate procedures (dummy variable regression) to the Youth-in-Transition data panel, the article tests
and estimates the combined effects of initial self-derogation and participation in delinquency on subsequent
self-attitudes.

13. INTERACTIONAL THEORY

Interactional theory offers a broad explanation for the causes and consequences of involvement in anti-
social behavior. When first proposed by Thornberry in 1987, it primarily focused on delinquency and drug
use during adolescence and early adulthood. The theory proposed that delinquent behavior was caused by
weak social bonds and involvement in delinquent networks but that delinquency also had feedback effects
to further weaken prosocial bonds and further embed the individual in deviant network and belief systems.
Prolonged and serious involvement in antisocial behavior gradually evolved over the life course as a
function of these reciprocal processes.

Interactional theory proposes that the fundamental or primary cause of delinquent behavior is a weakening
of conventional society.

14. SELF CONTROL THEORY

The self-control theory of crime, often referred to as the general theory of crime, is a criminological
theory about the lack of individual self-control as the main factor behind criminal behavior. The self-control
theory of crime suggests that individuals who were ineffectually parented before the age of ten develop less
self-control than individuals of approximately the same age who were raised wit better parenting. Research
has also found that low levels of self- control are correlated With criminal and impulsive conduct. The
theory was originally developed by criminologists Travis Hirschi and Michael Gottfredson, but has since
been subject to a great deal of theoretical debate and a large and growing empirical literature.

15. CULTURE DEVIANCE THEORY

Charlene is experiencing what sociologists Clifford Shaw and Henry McKay called cultural deviance
theory. The theory states that the individual is not responsible for their deviance as much as the
community within which they reside. People are Influenced by the place, people and social structure of the
community in which they reside.
In the 1930's, Shaw and McKay were tasked by the Illinois Institute on Juvenile Research to determine
causes of crime in Starting with a they drew concentric circles surrounding that which extended to the most
distant suburbs.

16. THE THEORY OF FEMINISM

1.) Feminism on Crime Causation and Deviance

The perspective of this theory is women's victimization, delinquency, and gender inequality. It highly
criticizes the traditional mainstream criminology of stereotyping where crimes and delinquency is heavily
focused on male subjects in which research on crimes is mostly on male offenders. Feminism approach
attempts to examine if women delinquency and criminal behavior can be incorporated into the mainstream
of deviance theory. The contention of the advocates of feminism is that, whether, for instance, the theory on
anomie, social control tradition and social disorganization theory can also be applied on women's
delinquency.

2.) Feminist School of Thought

There are three (3) feminist schools of thought that emerged regarding deviance, to wit:

(1) Liberal Feminism — is simply the idea that those liberal ideals of equality and rights of liberties apply
to women. In this sense, it is not so much a distinctively feminist theory as liberalism applied to women.
Liberal feminism has been particularly associated with the ideas of formal equality and of equality of
opportunity, although contemporary liberal theories such as that of Ronald Dworkin also subscribe to
stronger principles of equality such as equality of resources or equality of concern and respect. (Lacey, P.
7: Paper Feminist Legal Theory). According to this school of thought, women's deviance is a rational
response to the gender discrimination that women experience at work, in marriage and other relationships
(e.g. lack of opportunity leads to lack of education / employment, which leads to deviance).

(2) Radical Feminism - according to this school of thought, patriarchy, meaning that, male domination over
males, keeps women more attached to the family, children and home. Women are supposed to be
domestically bound so that when they detach from domestic roles, they are most likely to be singled out as
deviant.

In the case of prostitution, for instance, women are most likely to be arrested and charged than their male
counterpart because of the domestic perception labeled against them. Gender inequality plays a vital part
here, although, under the law, they should and must be equally guilty. Radical feminists consider sexual
difference as having a certain priority in social life. Sexual difference here is viewed as structural.

(3) Social Feminism - this school of thought argues that women deviancy is the by-product of exploitation
of capitalism and patriarchy. Fewer economic resources, opportunities and low paying jobs availability are
just left over of men who dominate capitalism. Women are exploited by capitalism and patriarchy and as a
result, they are left with only fewer opportunities. These factor lead to deviancy.

17. DIFFERENTIAL OPPRESSION THEORY

The developmental-ecological perspective provides a means for understanding how the oppression of
children occurs within multiple social contexts that interrelate to produce harmful outcomes for children.
Because children lack power due to their age, size, and lack of resources, they are easy targets for adult
oppression. Children are exposed to different levels and types of oppression that vary depending on their
age, level of development, socioeconomic class, race, and the beliefs and perceptions of their parents.