NOTES ON CRIMINALISTICS

POLYGRAPHY

Polygraphy – is scientific methods of detecting deception done with the aid of a polygraph
instrument.

Polygraph = (derived from the Greek words Poly) = many or several and Graph = (writing chart) is a
scientific instrument capable of recording simultaneously changes in blood pressure, pulse rate,
respiration and skin resistance as indicative of emotional disturbance especially of a lying subject
when being questioned.

The word polygraph comes from the two Greek words “poly” means many or several and “graph”
refers to writing charts. In 1790, Thomas Jefferson was the first man known to use the word
“polygraph” has been described one of his inventions, which could be made to repeatedly re-write
words or messages.

Important Events and Personalities in the Development of Polygraphy

Ancient Rome - bodyguard candidates were asked provocative questions. Those who blushed were
selected for the job. It was believed that if a person blushed in response to provocative questions, he
would not participate in plots.

Ancient Sparta - Before being admitted to certain schools Spartan young men were required to pass
the selection criteria. The young men were ordered to stand on the edge of a cliff, and were asked if
they were afraid. The answer was always negative; however its integrity was determined by the
men’s complexion. It was concluded that the pale young men lied and they were pushed from the cliff.

In 1885, the great breakthrough came at the end of the 19 th century when the well known “Father of
Criminology” Cesare Lombroso, an Italian Scientist, started experimenting with systolic blood
pressure and pulse rate changes in order to establish verification of truth in answer given to an actual
questions against criminal suspects. He used an instrument in his experiments called a
Hydrosphygmograph procedure, that a water pressure recording were measured changes in
systolic blood pressure and pulse rate together.

In 1895, Angelo Mosso, student of Lombroso was the first who actually used a physical
device to demonstrated the changes in pulse and blood volume to scientifically document his findings.
He studied fear an influence in the heart and his observation subsequently from the basis for
detection technique and developed a type of sphygmomanometer and scientific cradle for study of
fear.

In 1897, Sticker studied deception with the used of a galvanometer, and he was convinced of
a relationship between reactions from the skin’s resistance to the electricity and emotional changes.
He showed that when one is emotionally aroused by looking at a pictures of crime, suspect would
react with definite increases in electric current, while he was looking unmoved to the picture, or did
not recognize the photograph, that could which have no skin reactions. He also introduced the
method of detecting deception from the galvanic impression on the chart tracings.

In 1907, Veraguth was one of the scientists to use the Word Association Test using the
galvanometer, which is similar to Sticker’s test in that they are both applying the guilty knowledge
theory. He showed that personally significant stimuli produced larger fluctuations than indifferent
stimuli. He was the first one to use the term Psycho-Galvanic-Skin-Reflex and believed that electrical
phenomena are due to the activity of the sweat glands.

In 1907, Dr. James Mackenzie, a medical doctor and famous English heart specialist, who
first described the instrument entitled “The Ink Polygraph”, was published in the British Medical
Journal in 1907. This Ink polygraph is intended solely for medical purposes, however to be
fundamentally the same as the blood pressure-pulse and respiration recorders used for lie detection
purposes.
 In 1914, Vittorio Benussi studied inhalation and exhalation ratio as a means of determining
truth and deception. He conducted experiments regarding the respiratory symptoms of lying. His
experiments were conducted using a pneumograph that recorded the subjects’ breathing patterns.

In 1915, Dr. William Marston, the “Father of Polygraph”, devised blood pressure test that
was conducted during questioning of individuals. In 1917, he conducted an experiment involving
criminal defendants, and his conclusions using these blood pressure tests were agreement with the
evidence in all cases.

In 1918, Harold Burtt, determined that the respiratory and systolic blood pressure changes
were valuable indications of deception.

In 1921, John Larson, who worked for Berkeley California Police Department, developed an
instrument that simultaneously measured respiration and cardiovascular changes. This early form of
a polygraph instrument was used in criminal cases with much success.

In 1926, Leonarde Keeler, an American Criminologist, who contributed in the development of

the modern Polygraph. He developed Polygraph instrument recorded relative changes in blood
pressure and pulse rate, measured respiration patterns, and a metal bellows or tambours which was
connected by mechanical actuating devices to small fountain pens. Volume changes within a blood
pressure arm cuff and an accordion type tube also known as pneumograph tube circling the chest or
stomach of the subject were transferred in heavy walled rubber tubes to the aforementioned
tambours. He further designed a kymograph that pulled or drived a chart paper at a constant speed
under the recording pens from a roll of chart paper located inside the instrument. In 1938, he included
a third psychological measuring component in his instrument, the Psychogalvanometer also known as
the Galvanic Skin Reflex (GSR). The PGR reflected emotional changes by measuring changes in a
person’s skin resistance to electricity.
in 1926, he made a modification of Larson’s instrument. He developed that metal bellows and
kymograph that pulled a chart paper at a constant speed under recording pens from a roll of chart
located inside the instrument.
= in 1938, 1938, Keeler included the Psychogalvanometer (PGR), a third measuring
component of his instrument which was also known as Galvanic Skin Reflex (GSR) invented by
Italian Physiologist Galvani in 1791.
= credited as the creator on Relevant-Irrelevant Technique.
= today Keeler is known as the Father of Modern Polygraphy.

In the middle of the 19th Century, Dr. Hans Gross, an Australian known as the “Father of
Criminalistics”, defined “search for truth” as the basis and goal of all criminal investigations. He
asserted that a large part of the criminal’s work is nothing more than a battle against lies. Throughout
the centuries, man continued to experiment with more scientific methods in determining truth and
detecting deception.

In 1950, John E. Reid developed the reviewed control question consisting of a known lie
incorporated into the relevant/irrelevant tests. The control question represent a major breakthrough in
polygraph techniques. He also discovered the Guilt-Complex Test, administered to the overly
responsive subject and developed a means of recording arm and leg movement in addition to the
recording of breathing, GSR, and cardio. In 1966, he in collaboration with Prof. Fred E. Inbau wrote
the first comprehensive book regarding modern polygraph instrumentation and techniques, entitled
Truth and Deception.

In 1961, Cleve Backster’s developed a Computerized Polygraph System (CPS) of a

Standardized Quantification System of the physiological data recorded on polygraph charts, which
was introduced to the field of polygraph examination. In 1963 with the publication of Backster’s
Standardized Polygraph Notepack and technique Guide, is the current standard for traditional scoring
of polygraph charts. He developed the Backster Zone of Comparison and devised standardized
technique incorporating relevant/irrelevant questions. He also introduced a qualification system of
chart analysis, which permits the polygraphist to score numerically each relevant and neighboring
control question tracing according to standard rules and penalties for rules violations. This
Standardized Qualification System which permits completely objective chart analysis by any
polygraphist trained in the Backster technique regardless of distance, is considered a major
contribution to the polygraphy because of its scientific, objective approach chart evaluation and
analysis.
 In 1965, Richard O. Arther was the first polygraphist to record simultaneously on a regular
chest and abdominal breathing patterns and discovered that approximately one out of three times the
two differed and two galvanic skin responses. In 1966, he founded the Journal of Polygraph Science,
the oldest of the polygraph publications.

In 1969, Biometrics, Inc. of Waltam, Massachusetts, under research contract by the U. S.

Air Force, developed a Cardio Activity onitor(CAM) designed to obtain from the wrist or thumb the
same recording in chart pattern obtained with the conventional sphygmograph using the cardio
medical cuff normally placed against the brachial artery at the inside upper arm. The sensor assembly
consisted of a water-filled chamber with a very thin rubber diaphragm placed over the radial artery at
the wrist. The diaphragm was hydraulically inflated, partially compressing the artery. The artery
pulsations were transmitted through the wall of the diaphragm into the hydraulic chamber of the
sensing module where it is connected by a pressure transducer.

In 1969, Richard I. Golden presented a paper at the Annual Seminar of the American
Polygraph Association at Houston, Texas, regarding his experiments using existing control question
techniques but requiring the subject to answer each test question twice, the first time truthfully in the
second time with a lie, for the purpose of acquiring additional psychophysiological data from the
examinee by comparing his subjective truthful answer with a known lie to the same question.

In 1973, Silvestro F. Reali independently developed Reali’s Positive Control Technique,

which also requires examinee to answer each test questions twice as in Golden’s technique.
However, Reali’s technique requires the examinee to answer each test question with a lie from the
first question and second question truthfully, respectively. The examinee is not instructed to
specifically given a “yes” or “no” answer to each question. The test questions are comprised of
irrelevant/relevant questions, verified disclosure question, a question regarding a previous polygraph
tests.

In early 1980, Dr. John C. Kircher and Dr. David C. Raskin, the Stoelting Computerized
System uses propriety algorithm developed by Scientific Assessment Technologies based on
thirteen years of their research conducted at University of Utah.

Computerized Polygraph Instrument = in 1992, the polygraph made its official entrance into
the computer age

Definition of terms
1. Admission = is a statement of facts, partial acknowledgement of guilt and usually given with some
justification or exemplification in admitting.
2. Confession = direct acknowledgement of guilt or a statement of guilt.
3. Deception = is the act of deceiving or misleading usually accompanied by lying.
4. Diastolic blood pressure = refers to the downward blood pressure representing the low pressure to
the closing of the valves and heart relaxed.
5. Dicrotic notch = refers to the short horizontal notch in a cardio-tracing located at the middle of the
diastolic stem.
6. Electrodermal response = it refers to human body phenomenon in which the skin changes
resistance electrically upon the application of certain external stimuli. Also referred to a Psycho
galvanic skin reflex or galvanic skin response.
7. Emotion = it refers to an emotional response to specific danger that appears to be beyond a
persons defensive power.
8. Environment = is the sum total of the dissimulation that a person acquired from the time he was
conceived and his exposure to his surroundings.
9. Heredity = is the transmission of physical and mental traits of the parents to their offspring through
the genes.
10. Interview = simple questioning of one who is willing and cooperative.
11. Interrogation = forceful questioning of a person who is reluctant to divulge information.
12. Lying = is the act of uttering or conveying falsehood or creating a false or misleading impression
with the intention of affecting wrongfully.
13. Normal response = refers to any activity or inhibition of a previous activity of an organism or part
of the organism resulting from stimulation.
14. Ordeal = refers to the oldest form of crime detection done by subjecting a subject to an obstacle or
trial and sometimes even involving third degree.
15. Specific response = refers to the response given by the subject which considered a deviation from
the normal tracing or norms of the subject.
16. Stimulus = refers to any force or motion coming from the environment and which reach an
organism has the tendency to arouse.
17. Systolic Blood pressure = the upward blood pressure as the apex of the curve caused by the
contraction of the heart, valves are open and blood is rushing into the arteries.

Ayur Vida = a hindu book of science and health around 500B.C. Considered as an earliest known
reference to a method of detecting deception.

ANCIENT METHODS OF DETECTING DECEPTION

1. Trial by Combat = a method to settle accusations in the absence of witnesses or a confession, in
which two parties in dispute fought in single combat.
2. Trial by Ordeal = a judicial practiced by which the guilt or innocence of the accused is determined
by subjecting them to an unpleasant, usually dangerous experience or in the present term would
mean an employment of “3rd degree”. The word “ordeal” was derived from the Medieval Latin word
“Dei Indicum” which means “a miraculous decision”.

TYPES OF ORDEAL
1. Ordeal of Heat and Fire = in this test the suspect walked a certain distance, usually nine feet, over
red-hot plowshares or holding a red-hot iron.
2. Ordeal of Hot Water = this test requires that the water had to be boiled, and the depth from which
the stone had to be retrieved was up to the wrist for one accusation, and up to the elbow for three or
more accusations.
3. Ordeal of Boiling Oil = this ordeal was practiced in villages of India and certain parts of West
Africa.
4. Red Hot Iron Ordeal = this form of trial was used among the hill tribes of Rajhamal in the north of
Bengal (India) where the accused was apt to be told to prove his innocence by applying his tongue to
red hot iron nine times unless burnt sooner. If burned, he was put to death. Perhaps a sense of guilt
made the mouth dry. Not only have accused people been forced to link hot iron to prove their
innocence, but also they have been made to carry it in their hands. It is doubtful that the Ordeal arose
upon the basis of observations of physiological changes occurring in deception; for if this were so,
many false observations must have been made. Nevertheless, the ordeal of the red-hot-iron is
acknowledged thousands of years ago when, according to Persian historians.
5. Ordeal of Cold Water = this ordeal has a precedent in the Code of Ur-Nammu and the Code of
Hammurabi under which a man accused of sorcery was to be submerged in a stream and acquitted if
he survived.
= in 16th and 17th centuries, ordeal by water was associated with the witch-hunts. Floating is
an indication of witchcraft.
6. Ordeal of Rice Chewing = a method of detecting deception whereby an accused will be required
to take rice (to clergy bread or cheese).If the accused failed to swallow even a single grain of
concentrated rice he/she will be adjudged guilty.
7. Ordeal of Red Water (Food and Drink Ordeal) = in this method the accused will be required to
run fast for twelve (12 hours), take a cap of rice and drink a dark colored water (as much as one
gallon).
8. Ordeal of the Cross = the accuse and the accuser stood on either side of a cross and stretched
out their hands horizontally. The one to first lower his arms lost.
9. The Test of the Axe = in Greece, a suspended axe was spine in the center of a group of suspects,
when the axe stopped, whosoever was in line with the blade was supposed to be the guilty as pointed
by divine providence.
10. The Test of the Candle = this ordeal was used in Burma, the accuser and accused were each
given identical candles and were lighted at the same time. The candle that burns the longest
determines which the truth.
11. Donkey’s tail (Ash tail) Ordeal = a method of ordeal where all accused persons will be
instructed to select a cage with a donkey, using a donkey’s tail they will strike the donkey and
whichever cries first will be adjudged guilty.
12. The “Hereditary Sieve” = Dr. Hans Gross mentioned this Ordeal in his famous book on Criminal
Investigation in which beans were thrown into a sieve as the name of each suspect was called. The
deception criteria were described as follows--- “If the bean jumps out of the sieve, the owner of the
name pronounced is innocent, if the bean remains in the sieve, the person named is the thief.
SCIENTIFIC METHODS OF DETECTION OF DECEPTION

1. The Use of the Lie Detector Test

A test used to record the physiological changes associated with lying subject. The polygraph
machine will record the blood pressure, respiratory rate and the skin resistance to electricity in a chart
paper.

Although the polygraph has been used extensively as an investigative aid in assisting law
enforcement agencies in reducing the number of suspects in a particular offense and used as pre-
employment examination in business and industry, there are about 95 percent of the tests that are
conclusive results and 5 percent is considered inaccurate because of the error. Some test showed
positive results and yet the subject is innocent and other test gave negative results to a guilty subject.

In business and industry, the instrument is used to inquire deliberate falsification of

application and other documents, illicit use of drugs, and thefts of money or merchandize from the
previous employers.

2. Administration of the Truth Serum or Narco-Analysis

This is a detecting deception method using narcotic or anesthetic drug in order to get information
from the subject.

Principle involved:
The drug is injected hypodermically or intravenously at a certain repeated dosage or if
Trichloroethylene is used should be taken by inhalation at a certain amount. When the point was
reached where there were released materials from the mind, the subject is then asked questions by
the interrogator. The tendency of the subject is to reveal in crime. The use of this method in criminal
interrogation is not advisable because of the following reasons:

a. Administration of these drugs is dangerous.

If not properly administered, it may kill the subject or damage the brain or spinal cord in such a
manner that the subject will be turned like vegetable.
b. Unreliable result
The information gathered from the subject is not reliable to be true. If the subject gave false
information under narcosis.
c. It derived the subject of his own free will to speak freely.
d. The information taken from the subject under narcosis is not admissible; it is quite
useful for further investigation.
e. Very few doctors agreed in the use of these drugs for criminal investigation unless use
of diagnosis and treatment of ailment.

3. The Use of Alcoholic Beverage

Alcohol in the form of alcoholic beverage may be used as a deception method. Usually the
liquor is the one preferred but other soft liquor may also be used provided it serves the purpose. The
subject is made to drink the liquor undivided amount up to the point of loss of control of the mind and
thus released of inhibitions. The subject will be asked questions and the tendency of the subject is to
forget alibis and sometimes unveiling the secrets of crime.

The information taken from the subject under the influence of alcohol is also inadmissible in
court as evidence because of the involuntary condition of the subject; however, it may be admissible
if the subject can recall his statement when he was under the influence of alcohol when confronted
again.

4. Application of “Word Association Test”

In this test, the subject will be interviewed, wherein a group of words, objects or persons will be
presented to the subject. The essential element in a typical word association test is that one word or
idea is reminiscent of another and the expression of their association forms a meaningful picture. He
will then be instructed to answer the questions as quickly as possible. The time interval between each
relevant and the answer were noted down as well as the reaction of the subject to the words, objects
or persons related to the crime.
 The examiner will study the time interval and the reaction of the subject. A person presumed to
be guilty will usually make a mistake or will have a long time interval in answering questions. He may
manifest hesitation in answering critical questions and especially when the weapon used in the
commission of crime will be shown to him.

This test is also no reliable as deception-detection methods because of the following reasons:
a. A person likes the recidivist and guilty may defeat the test by telling lies.
b. Sometimes, the test requires the use of intelligence in answering questions.
c. A nervous person who is innocent may have a long time interval in answering questions and may
even have signs and symptoms of guilt.

5. The Influence of Hypnotism

The hypnotism finds its way in criminal investigation by hypnotizing the subject and then
questions will be asked when the subject is under hypnosis. The subject is made to be under the
influence of hypnosis by a qualified hypnotist. While fully hypnotized questions are asked relating to
the subject matter of the investigation.

The method of deception detection is not as dangerous as the use of truth serum; however,
authorities doubt its value because of the subject’s answer are under control and suggestion of
hypnotist. The subject is under the control and influenced by the hypnotist and therefore the
information gathered is devoid of the subject’s own free will to speak is not admissible as evidence in
court.

THE SCIENTIFIC CAPABILITIES AND USES OF POLYGRAPH SCIENCE

The polygraph is used to test or question individuals for the purpose of detecting
deception or verifying truth of statements through a visual, permanent and simultaneous recording of
a person’s cardiovascular and respiratory pattern as a minimum instrumentation requirement.
Patterns of other physiological changes accompanying attempts at deception such as; blood
pressure, muscular movements, galvanic skin reflex etc., maybe used in addition to the basic
tracings. The polygraph instrument merely measures certain identifiable physical reactions as
affecting the respiration rate, blood pressure/pulse rate and galvanic skin resistance to a very minute
amount or current, in conjunction with the application of a reliable questioning technique for
diagnosing deception.

The effectiveness of the polygraph in recording symptoms of deception is based on the

established fact that a conscious mental effort on the part of a normal to deceive, causes
involuntary physiological changes, which are in effect, a body’s reaction to an imminent
danger to its well-being. This is brought about by the simulating effect of well-prepared questions, a
truthful answer to which may result to punishment. It is not so much the lying or guilt feelings that alter
the subject’s physiological responses, but rather the fear of a consequent punishment when
established as deceptive. The greater consequences of being detected lying, the greater is the fear of
detection. The more motivation there is to deceive, the more readily the deception, as the increased
fear triggers the involuntary physiological changes, some of which, predominantly t he respiration and
blood pressure/pulse beat are capable of being recorded and accurately diagnosed.

The instrument used in the proper application of the polygraph technique is essentially a
pneumatically operated mechanical recorder of changes in respiration, blood pressure/pulse beat
supplemented with a unit for recording galvanic skin reflexes or an additional unit for recording
abdominal respiration; muscular movements and pressures; or a plethymograph for recording
changes in the blood oxygenation. Attachments for the human body comprise of a rubber-convoluted
tube for the chest and abdominal area, a blood pressure arm-cuff on one biceps, and, in some
models, an electrode on two fingers or on the palmer side of one hand. These attachments acts as
the detectors of the physiological changes and transmit the same to the instrument where it is
converted into mechanical impulses and transformed into tracings of the respiration, blood pressure
and skin resistance or the likes.

Polygraphy is conducted by asking questions previously reviewed with the subject who is
attached to the instrument. List of skillfully formulated questions in planned sequence is asked to the
subject. The questions formulated are based on the facts obtained from the investigator handling the
case. The questions are answerable by Yes or No only. The accuracy of test results is dependent on
the competency of the examiner and a well-trained investigator.
 A polygraph test measures the subject’s blood pressure, pulse, respiration and skin
conductivity as the individual is asked a series of questions. Changes in these measures from an
established baseline are thought to indicate an emotional reaction when lying in response to a
question. This emotional reaction is presumed to be fear of detection, but it may be caused by any
number of feelings, including fear of registering as a liar even when you are telling the truth.

A major problem with polygraph testing of particular importance to scientists is the

questionable effectiveness of the technique.

It is difficult, however, to say whether or not a polygraph test can actually detect lies. There
are many variables involved, and the outcome depends on the judgment of the examiner conducting
the examination. Even if the data collected in a polygraph are accurate, interpretations may vary.

Some Uses of Polygraph as an Investigative Tool Aid in Criminal Investigation

1. Eliminates innocent subjects in order to narrow the focus of inquiry

2. Recognizes false complaints
3. Determines the veracity of information provided by the informants
4. Provides a new “key” to an investigation when all other standard investigative techniques
have been exhausted
5. Gathers additional information on particular suspects
6. Invaluable aid to the investigator and to speed up the process of investigation
7. Obtain additional investigative leads to the facts of an offense after the test indicated that
the subject is lied or tried to cover-up what he knew
8. Locate fruits or tools of crime or whereabouts of wanted persons
9. Obtains valuable information from reluctant witnesses

The Polygraph is obviously mostly used in other investigation

 Crime investigation (Private or Government)

 Fraud investigation, insurance companies, etc.
 Another popular use is involved in Pre-employment Screening and honesty maintenance
checks.
 Attorneys often use it in civil court
 The private company often inquires it for matter not involving the legal or criminal justice
system.
 In certain countries, the polygraph is generally used as a tool to control and check people on
parole.

Other Important Uses of Polygraph

1. Pre-employment Screening
2. Periodic Polygraph Screening
3. Intelligence Testing

TRIPOD FOUNDATION OF POLYGRAPHY

1. Psychological Leg Premise = states that specific nervous system component whose stimulation
can thus be diagnosed are so stimulated by the involuntary and emotional processes of the individual
who is continuously attempting concealment of deception especially if that individual has something
at stake and the prevailing circumstances lead him to believe that exposure to deception is quite
possible although undesirable.

2. Physiological Leg Premise = that among the physiological responses that may be recorded are
those that automatically occur only following the stimulation of specific nervous component system

3. Mechanical Leg Premise/ The Instrumental Premise = polygraph is capable of making graphic
record containing reliable information regarding physiological responses of the subject.

EMOTIONAL FACTORS IN DECEPTION

PSYCHOLOGICAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL ASPECTS OF DECEPTION

Emotion is an acute disturbance in origin involving behavior conscious experience and

visceral functioning. It is universally accepted that the mind has a very great influence over the bodily
functions. When one grieves over the loss of a love ones it may affect the appetite and digestive
system of the body that may even produce an actual illness of one sort or another. In addition, it was
discovered that even transitory emotional states have an immediate affect on organic functioning.

The theory behind of detecting deception is based on the fact that automatic or involuntary
bodily changes accompany deception. These changes are not due to the consciousness of guilt, but
because of fear of exposure or fear of being detected.

As to the cause or origin of these physiological changes, medicine has established that an
area of the brain called “hypothalamus” acts as control center for the integration of emotional
expressions, sending out over the automatic nervous system appropriate messages for regulating the
activities of the vital functions of the body in response to physical and psychological stimulation.
When a warning of danger is received at this control center, messages are dispatched via the
autonomous or sympathetic nervous system to prepare the whole organism for fight or flight defense
mechanism. One of the results of which is an increase of blood pressure and usually a quickening of
the heart beat.

External responses are not difficult to learn. A person can control his facial expression and
postural reaction. A good liar for example can learn to tell story which although untrue but sticks
together.
The control of internal responses is another story. No human being can ever control or suppress
completely the internal activity of the body, like the rapid palpitation of the heart, the gripping of the
intestine and the rush of blood on the face.

PSYCHOLOGY OF LYING

Remember that a lying person fears detection and possible ostracism by the offended
community. He feels once detected, he could not but accept the bitter results of being penalized, thus
placing his life at stake. Since fear reaction carries emotional responses due to detection, he may
now exhibit external and internal physical and psychological changes within him, such that these
changes occur beyond his defensive power to control or repress them. These changes, on the other
hand are recorded by the polygraph instrument and diagnosed by the examiner.
A person’s fear, anxieties and apprehensions are channeled toward the situations which evoke
his instinct of self-presentation to struggle out from the consequences of the wrong of he had already
done. He may, once and for all, “grid the axe” of his self-defense mechanism come what may through
lies, alibis, and excuses. His conscience is bothered so much how to hide everything behind beyond
the capability of all his senses, and his will power and emotions are perplexed and varied. In
polygraphy, the psychological approach to all these lies or similar situations are governed by different
type of test and control questions prepared and formulated by the examiner. The test contains
relevant questions that are designed to pose a threat to the security of the guilty subject. The equally
truthful subject, though accused, is assured of the reaction he may exhibit during the whole polygraph
examination by the carefully formulated questions.
Other factors psychologically taken onto consideration are subject’s basis reaction potential is
lower than that of guilty subject. This is registered by temporary heightening of his emotional state
when the examination began.

PSYCHOPHYSIOLOGY OF LYING
The Central Nervous System (CNS) = is composed of the brain and the spinal cord. All other nerve
ways are within the peripheral nervous system which separates into two: The Somatic Nervous
System and the Autonomic Nervous System.

1. Somatic Nervous System = is involved with voluntary comparative over skeletal muscles
2. Autonomic Nervous System = involved those involuntary physiological functions of the body and
has considerable psychological impact as well.

TWO DIVISIONS OF AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM

1. Parasympathetic Nervous System (PNS) = the house keeping or braking system. It is
responsible for conserving energy and making sure necessary bodily functions. I
= restrains sympathetic arousal and attempt to maintain homeostatic (homeostasis) normal.
2. Sympathetic Nervous System (SNS) – is our emergency, or action system.
= a system which causes the sudden and dramatic change.

Homeostasis = is complex interactive regulatory system by which the body strives to maintain a state
of internal equilibrium.

Hypothalamus = is a series of groups of nerve cells of the brain that control the entire endocrine-
hormonal system.

Fight, flight, freeze = are the three stereotypic behavioral responses to threat, sometimes simply
called F3. The physiological responses concomitant to these behaviors are the same, namely
mobilizing bodily resources for an expenditure of energy, and narrowing attention and focus to the
features of the threat.

When the sympathetic nervous system is activated, it immediately prepares the body for fight
or flight by causing the adrenal glands to secret hormones known as epinephrine and norepinephrine
and the blood will be distributed to those areas of the body where it is most needed to meet the
emergency.

Epinephrine = is the hormonal stimulator of the sympathetic nervous system. It acts to constrict
peripheral blood flow, raise blood pressure, increase cardiac activity, promote metabolic activity
through the release of glucose, and inhibit digestive processes.
= it is called Adrenaline in British

Norepinephrine = is a hormone secreted by the adrenal gland, it works alongside with

epinephrine/adrenaline to give the body sudden energy in times of stress, known as the "fight or
flight" response.
=it is called Noradrenaline in British.

THE AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM

The polygraph works by recording changes caused by a person’s sympathetic nervous

system. This is the part of the nervous system that makes your heart beat and causes you to breath;
it can only be consciously controlled very slightly. Attempts to control breathing or heart rate usually
picked up by the trained examiners. A dishonest person might try to affect the outcome of their
examination by using drugs or other countermeasures in an attempt to mask the changes caused by
their sympathetic nervous system when they answer a question untruthfully.

Man in his earliest development was endowed with an emergency system of nerves that
reflexly and automatically prepared his body to meet situations that threatened his well-being. His
health and survival depends on the maintenance of a stable fluid and chemical balance in all the vital
organs of his body despite sometimes drastic changes in the environment about him; this is referred
to as homeostasis. The precision of the physiological mechanics in the maintenance of this stability is
incredible. In the center of the brain is located a regulating mechanism that corrects the slightest
deviation from particular standard within very fine limits. Sleep, oxygenation of the blood, body
temperature, levels of potassium, sodium, calcium magnesium and all the essential chemical
substances that maintain the activity of cell membranes are finely adjusted. Medical authorities
discovered that the autonomic nervous system is responsible for the regulation of all of these
complex system, and that its central control is in the hypothalamus, a series of groups of nerve cells
of the brain that control the entire endocrine-hormonal system. All of our involuntary reflexes – those
that we cannot consciously control such as our heart beat, pulse rate, increases and decreases in
blood pressure, and the expansion and constriction of arteries – are governed by the autonomic
nervous system. We do not have to think about inspiration and expiration in order to breathe; our
heart functions without deliberation; our sweat glands are not consciously regulated, nor is the flow or
blood in our vascular system. When one of our senses detects a threat to our well-being, it sends a
signal to the autonomic nervous system, which activates its sympathetic division regardless whether
the threat is physical or psychological.
 Human beings are endowed with a very sophisticated survival mechanism. Their whole well-
being depends on the maintenance of an inner balance, fluids and chemicals, throughout every organ
in the body. This balance is called homeostasis.

In the center of the brain is a gland called the Hypothalamus; our internal regulator. All our
unconscious activities such as sleep, breathing, digestion, blood volume, respiration, etc. are
regulated by the autonomic nervous system, controlled by the hypothalamus.

When our well-being is threatened, physically or psychologically, one of our sensors, hearing,
seeing, feeling or even instinct, will send alarm signals to the autonomic nervous system, which will
activate its sympathetic department and take action. When the ear of the subject receives a
potentially threatening message from the examiner, this stimulus is transferred via sensory neurons to
the temporal lobe of the cerebrum. Regarding treating the nature of the stimulus the signal is send to
the frontal lobe (the center for judgment and reasoning) where the questions is perceived and a
judgment made.

If the question is perceived as threatening, the alarm is sent from the frontal lobe through the
hypothalamus to the sympathetic system which will then take appropriate action, a sympathetic
response, the body is now programmed for “fight or flight” mode.

Other very obvious effects will take place, known by all us:

 The mouth gets dry, due to the salivary glands producing much thicker saliva.
 The heart pumps harder and faster, thereby increasing blood volume and pulse.
 Stimulation of the respiratory muscles leads to breathing changes.
 The sweat glands are stimulated and forced to release perspiration.
 The iris of the eyes dilates permitting more lights into the eye.
 The anal and urinary sphincters contract and the bladder relaxes.
 Involuntary muscles contract.

Different kinds of Lie

1. White Lie or Benign Lie, this kind of lie which is common to all, intended to protect or
maintain harmony of friendship.
2. Black Lie, a lie that is accompanied by pretension and hypocrisies, intriguing to cause,
dishonor or discredit one’s good image.
3. Red Lie, this includes political interest and motives because this is a part of a communist
propaganda strategy. This lie is prevalent in the communist countries or communist
infested nations. This kind of lies purports to destroy other’s ideology by means of
propaganda-brain washing and blackmail via espionage and treason.
4. Malicious Lie, this is pure and unjustifiable kind of lie. This is intended purely to misled
justice. The probable result by all means would be “perjury” and pure dishonest to obstruct
justice.

The other classification of Lie

      1. White or Benign Lie - lie to preserve harmony of relationship.
      2. Pathological Lie – can not tell right from wrong.
      3. Red Lie - communist propaganda
      4. Black Lie - lie to dishonor or to discredit
      5. Malicious/Judicial Lie -misleading or lie to obstruct justice.
      6. Fabrication - misrepresentation of truth
      7. Bold-Face Lie - obviously lying
      8. Lying by Omission - omission of important facts
      9. Lie to Children - to gain acceptance to children
      10.Noble Lie - to maintain law and order
      11.Emergency Lie - to prevent harm to third party
      12.Perjury - false testimony under oath
      13.Bluffing - pretense of capability/intention one does not possess
      14.Jocose Lie - meant to be jest, teasing and sarcasm
      15.Contextual lie - stating part of truth out of context
      16.Promotion lie - incredible advertisements
      Type of Liars
      1. Panic Liars- a person who lies to avoid consequences of confession.
      2. Occupational Liars- person who lies when it has higher pay off when telling the truth.
      3. Tournament Liars- person who loves to lie and is excited by the challenge of not being detected
or views an interview as a contest and wants to win.
      4. Psychopathic Liars-
      5. Ethological Liars- a person trained not to be a squealer or has taken a creed to never reveal
the truth, the creed of the underworld gangs.
      6. Pathological Liars- person who can not distinguish right from wrong or those who are mentally
sick.
      7. Black Liars- a person who always pretend and hypocrite.

GENERAL OBSERVATIONS ON THE CONDUCT AND BEHAVIOR OF

LYING SUBJECT

Everyone has least a partial understanding of the psychology of lying and lie detection. Since
lying is such a commonplace occurrence, most of us are personally acquainted with the inner
sensations that so often accompany the telling of a lie.

In endeavoring to conceal the truth, we have on occasion felt a thudding increase of the
heartbeat, the rush of blood to the face, an uncontrollable impulse to swallow, or other phenomena
resulting from fear over the possibility that the lie will be detected. We have also experienced as a
sigh of relief-ordinarily manifested by heavier breathing after the lie has been told with apparent
success. And we have encountered many occasions when we have been able to detect the lies of
other persons by various indications such as blushing, twitching of the lips, squinting of the eyes. A
failure to look the inquirer straight in the eye, a peculiar monotone of the voice, a forced laugh, a
counter inquiry of “who, me” an unnecessary request for a repetition of the question, movements of
the hands and feet exhibiting a state of uneasiness, increased activity of the Adam’s apple, and may
other reactions of a similar nature.

It is a fact, of course, that some persons are better liars than others are. There are more
successful either because they are not very much disturbed over the telling of a lie, or because they
are better able to control the emotional disturbances produced by lying and thus avoid a display of the
outward indications exhibited by persons less fortified with these essential of successful lying.
Nevertheless, even among the best of liars (insofar as outwardly observable symptoms are
concerned), there are considerable number who experience certain non-observable internal
sensations of uneasiness or fear of detection, and this is particularly true as regards matters of a
serious nature, as in the case of a criminal offense. Certainly, there was a basis for the idea, and
there obviously was a practical need particularly in the field of criminal investigation for a method,
which would render it possible to determine truth or deception more often and more accurately than
when considering outwardly observable indications alone.

VARIOUS SYMPTOMS OF DECEPTION AS OBSERVABLE ON LYING SUBJECT

Symptoms of deception under Internal Response:

 Quickening palpitation of the heart
 Dryness of the mouth
 Uncontrollable impulse to swallow saliva
 Sinking feeling in the fit of stomach
 Gripping of the intestine

Other Important Application of Polygraph

1. Pre-employment Screening
2. Periodic Polygraph Screening
3. Intelligence Testing

Symptoms of guilt under External Response

1. Facial expression

 Blushing, paling and profuse sweating on the forehead

 Twitching at the corner of the lips
  Excessive winking and movement of the vein at the temple
 Dilation of the eyes, protrusion of the eyeballs and elevation of the upper eyelid

2. Postural reaction

 Inability of the subject’s eyes to look straight to the examiner

 Excessive movement of the Adam’s apple
 Peculiar monotone of the voice
 Fidgeting with the fingers, tapping or drumming on the chair or table
 Subject’s hands and feet exhibiting a state of uneasy

MAJOR COMPONENTS OF POLYGRAPH

1. Pneumograph = designed to detect and record changes in respiration of the subject which
consists of the ff:
 Rubber Convoluted Tube = about 10 inches corrugated rubber attached to the body of
the subject.
 Beaded Chain = used to lock the rubber convoluted tube.
 Recording Pen Unit = consisting of two 5 inches recording pen
 Centering Knob = used to center the pen
 Sensitivity Knob = used to adjust the desired size of tracings
 Vent = used to release excess pressure from the system
 Pneumo Module = located inside the instrument that receives the reactions detected by
the corrugated tube and moves the pen to record the reactions on the chart

2. Cardiosphygmograph = Designed to detect changes in the cardiovascular activity of the subject.

It consists of:
a. Blood Pressure Cuff = attached to the upper right arm of the subject, above the brachial
artery.
b. Sphygmamonometer = used to indicate the amount of air pressure inflated to the system.
Usually about 60 mm of mercury for male subject.
c. Recording Pen Unit = five (5) inches length
d. Air Pump/Pump Bulb = designed to supply air to the system
e. Cardio Module = located inside the instrument that receives the reactions detected by the
cuff and moves the pen to record the reactions on the chart
f. Sensitivity Control = used to adjust the desired size of tracings
g. Centering Control = designed to center the pen on the chart
h. Vent = Used to release excess pressure from the system

Cardiosphygmograph provides a record of the following:

1. Relative Blood Volume/Pressure = is the changes in the average value of the cardio
tracing (waveform) with respect to a baseline.
a. Diastolic Blood Pressure = refers to the downward blood pressure representing the
low pressure to the closing of the valves and heart relaxed.
b. Systolic Blood Pressure = the upward blood pressure as the apex of the curve
caused by the contraction of the heart, valves are open and blood is rushing into the
arteries.
2. Pulse Amplitude = is the changes in pulse amplitude (tracing height) independent of
baseline.
3. Pulse Rate = changes in heart rate or time between pulses.
4. Dicrotic Notch = changes in relative position of the dicrotic notch or pulse waveform
= short horizontal notch in a cardio-tracing located at the middle of the diastolic stem

3. Galvanograph = designed to detect changes in skin resistance of the subject. Consists of:
a. Finger Electrode Assembly consists of:
a.1. finger Electrode Plate and Retainer Bond = attached to the index and ring finger of
the subject.
a.2. Connecting Plug = attached the system to the instrument
b. Recording Pen Unit = usually 7 inches
c. Amplifier Unit = designed to support the galvanometer in converting electrical to
mechanical current.
d. Sensitivity Control = used to adjust the desired size of tracings
 e. Centering Control = designed to center the pen on the chart
f. GSR Module = located inside the instrument that receives the reactions detected by the
finger electrodes and moves the pen to record the reactions on the chart

How does it Records?

Galvanic Skin Response = is the change in the body’s resistance to the passage of a minute
electrical sensing current.
The electrodes electrically connect the subject to the instrument. These provide a 5 microamp
sensing current to the subject, far below the threshold of feeling.

Kymograph = serves as the paper feed mechanism of the polygraph machine

= It is a motor that pulls or drives the cart paper under the recording pen simultaneously at the
rate of five seconds per vertical chart division or twelve divisions in one minute run.
a. Chart = approximately 100 ft. rolled graph paper with approximately ¼ inch horizontal
division and ½ inch vertical division equivalent to 5 seconds run
b. Cutter Bar = used to cut the paper at the end of the test
c. Rubber Roller = the one responsible for pulling the paper out of the machine.
d. Pen Table = flat portion where the pen write on the chart.
e. Paper Rail Guide = serves as the security for the unnecessary movement of the chart
paper or to ensure the paper’s forward movement without shaking.
f. Synchronous Motor = runs the chart paper at the uniform rate speed regardless of the
voltage change.

Pen and Inking System = the one that provides for the permanent record of the test
Capillary Ink = a water based ink intended for polygraph instruments

FORMULATION OF TEST QUESTIONS

General Rules in formulating Test Questions
 Questions must be simple and direct
 They must not involve legal terminologies
 They must be as simple and as short as possible
 Answerable by Yes or No.
 They must not be in a form of accusatorial.
 Their meaning must be clear and they must be phrased in a language that the subject can
easily understand.
 They must never contain inference which presupposes knowledge on the part of the subject.
 They must refer to one offense only
 They must refer to one element of the offense.
 They must not contain inference to ones religion, race or belief.

1. Irrelevant Question = a question that has no connection with the matter under investigation and
deals with known facts that the subject cannot be denied. It is designed to be emotionally neutral to
examinees and usually answerable by “yes’. Also called Neutral Question.

Characteristics of Irrelevant
1. It has no connection to the matter under investigation.
2.No threat to subject (usually).
3. Neither innocent nor guilty suspects have reason to lie.
4. Usually about the suspect’s background.
5. Generally used at the beginning of polygraph technique to establish a ‘norm’ for examinee, or
throughout the examination as needed to reestablish norm pattern.

Purposes of Irrelevant Question

1. Establish the professional authority in the room that means, the examiner asks questions and the
suspect answers.
2. It allows the examiner to assess the subject’s normal behavior for this heightened emotional
situation.
3. Allows the examiner to identify something he has in common with the subject, to establish rapport.
4. It minimizes resistance.

2. Symptomatic Question = is designed to ensure that the examiner will not ask un-reviewed
questions or that the examinee is not afraid that the examiner will ask un-reviewed questions.
Examples:
 Do you believe me when I promised not to ask a question in this test I have not gone over
word for word?
 Even though I promised I would not, are you afraid I will ask a question in this test I have not
gone over word for word?

3. Sacrifice Relevant Question = it introduces the relevant question to the subject

= designed to absorb the response generated by the introduction of relevant question in the
series
Example:
 Regarding the (matter under investigation), are you willing to answer the questions truthfully?

4. Relevant Question = a question deals with the matter under investigation. Color coded red in
computerized instruments. It is designed to generate reactions from deceptive subject.

Types of Relevant Question

a. Primary Relevant (Strong Relevant) = addresses the primary issue or direct involvement of the
subject on the matter under question. It is use primarily with the single-issue examination.
 Ex. Did you take that missing money?
b. Secondary Relevant (Weak Relevant) = deals with the physical acts that support the primary
issue. This is usually use in multi-issue examination.
 Ex. Did you participate in the theft of that missing money?
c. Guilty Knowledge = designed to probe whether the subject possesses information regarding the
identity of the offender or the facts of the case under question.
 Ex. Do you know who took that missing money?
d. Evidence Connecting Question = test question in which the examinee is asked about a particular
piece of physical evidence that would incriminate the guilty person. It could be items left at the crime
scene by the perpetrator or stolen property.
 Ex. Do you know where any of that missing money is right now?

5. Comparison Question = a question which is the same in nature with that of the relevant question
but broad in scope.
= is used for comparative purposes with the relevant question.
= designed to generate reactions from truthful subject.

Types of Comparison Question

a. Directed Lie Comparison Question (DLC) = a comparison question in which the examinee is
instructed by the examiner to answer the questions untruthfully.
Some examiners actually get admission to comparison questions and then instruct the
examinee to lie to that question when it is asked.
b. Probable Lie Comparison Question (PLC) = a question to which it is likely that the examinee is
untruthful with his answer.
= PLC questions are broad in scope and usually based on actions categorically similar to that
of the issue under investigation

Types of Probable Lie

a. Inclusive = a comparison question which include the relevant time period under investigation. It
was originally designed by Reid.
= this type of question usually starts with the phrase: “In your entire life,…..”. Also termed as
inclusionary.

b. Exclusive = a comparison question separated in time, place and category from the relevant
question. It was introduced by Cleve Backster. He believes that this prevents the guilty suspect from
perceiving the comparison question as an ambiguous relevant question.

Example:
 During the first __ years of your life, did you ever ____?
 Prior to 2009, did you ever _____ ?
 While in college ______?
 Between the ages of __ & __, did you ever _____?

Types of Polygraph Technique/Test

1. General Question Test = consist of series of relevant, irrelevant control questions in a planned
order. Developed by John E. Reid

2. Relevant/Irrelevant Test = consists primarily of series of irrelevant questions and relevant

question pertaining to the crime under investigation. Developed by Keeler.

3. Peak of Tension Test = consist of only one relevant and a series of irrelevant questions.
= resemble, in every general way, the card test, for it consist essentially of the asking of a
series of question in which only one has any bearing upon the matter under investigation.
= padding questions before and after the relevant questions.

Two Types of POT Test

 Known Solution Peak of Tension Test (KSPOT) = is used to determine whether the
examinee is aware of details of a crime that have been kept from the general public and would
presumably only be known to the perpetrator of the crime or those with incriminating
knowledge.
 Searching Peak of Tension Test (SPOT) = is used to determine details of a crime that are
not known to officials, such as the location of an unrecovered body, but would be known to a
participant in the crime.

4. Card test / Acquaintance Test / Stimulation Test = the subject is presented with seven (7)
previously numbered cards face down.
= he will be instructed to take one, look at it and return it with the rest of the cards.
= the examiner will shuffle the cards and each card will be shown to him, with the instruction
that he will answer “NO” to all cards , even if the one being shown to him is the one he has seen
earlier.

5. Guilt Complex Test = used primarily for overly responsive subjects.

= a totally fictitious incident but a similar nature to the matter being investigated and make him
believe it is real.
= The purpose is to compare the response with those response made concerning the actual
matter under investigation

6. Silent Answer Test = Subject is instructed not to give any verbal answer, the subject will only
answer in his mind.

7. Comparison Question Test (CQT) = the reactions on the control and relevant questions are
compared via numerical scoring
Polygraph Examiner = is one who is capable of detecting deception and verifying the truthfulness of
statement through the use of a polygraph instrument.
= is someone who has successfully completed formal education and training in conducting
polygraph examination and is certified by his agency to conduct such examination.

Subject = is any person who undergoes polygraph examination.

Polygraph Examination = a process that encompasses all activities that take place between a
polygraph examiner and an examinee during a specific series of interactions. For a valid polygraph
examination to exist, respiration, EDA, and Cardiovascular activity must be monitored and recorded.

Two Types of Polygraph Exam

1. Mixed Issue Exam = multiple-issue polygraph testing like screening of applicants or audit of
employees or persons with security clearances.
2. Diagnostic Exam = a test which involves specific case investigation.

Types of Diagnostic Exam

1. Single Issue Exam = a test which inquires direct involvement of subject into a specific case under
question.
2. Mult-facet Exam = test format in which the relevant questions are targeted toward different
elements of the same crime.

Stages in the Conduct of the Polygraph Test

  Initial Interview With the Investigator

1. Pre-test Interview = an interview conducted by the polygraph examiner designed to prepare or

condition the subject for the actual test. It usually last for about 20 – 30 minutes
a. Determining the subject physical, mental and psychological suitability to undergo the test
a.1. the subject should avoid taking drugs at least 12 hrs before the test
a.2. the subject if female should not be pregnant
a.3. the subject should not be hungry
a.4. the subject should not be physically or emotional abuse
a.5. the subject should not be suffering high blood or hypertension.
b. Informing the subject of his Constitutional Rights (if the examiner is a law enforcement officer)
c. Taking of the subject consent
d. Taking of the subject personal data
e. Discuss with the subject the crime/issue under investigation
f. Preparing the subject for the test – administration of stimulation test

2. ln-Test (Actual Test) = is the actual conduct of the test administered by a polygraph examiner

Conditions of the Room

 It should be spacious for two persons
 Well lighted
 Well ventilated
 Sound Proof
 Not decorated

3. Post-test Interview or Interrogation = is an interview or an interrogation administered by a

polygraph examiner after the test designed to obtain confession or admission by the subject. =
interview is conducted when the reactions indicate an innocent response and very cooperative to
the examiner. = interrogation is conducted when the reactions show sign of deception and being
uncooperative to open an information.

Chart markings = are annotations of the physiologic tracings to denote stimulus (question) onset and
offset, examinee’s answer, question number, question label, artifacts, and other details important to
the interpretation of the physiological data.

Two Types Chart Markings

1. Primary Markings = these are markings which indicate the beginning and end of examination as
well as the questions and answers of the subject. These are usually placed at the bottom or top of the
polygraph chart

a. X – it indicates the start of the test. The examiner informs the subject that the test is about to
begin.

b. I I – is a stimulus mark. The first vertical line marks when the examiner starts asking
question. Second vertical line marks when the examiner finishes asking question.

c. + - a positive sign which indicates that the subject answers the question with “yes”. This also
indicates the period when the subject answers the question and usually followed by a “number”
indicating the order number of question, example +3, +4, +5….)

d. – a negative sign indicating that the subject answers the stimulus with “no”. This also indicates
the period when the subject answers the question and usually followed by a “number”.

e. XX – indicates the end of test.

2. Secondary Markings = are markings which are placed only if the examinee does something which
will cause the physiological tracings to distort. These markings are usually placed below the affected
tracing.

a. M – Movement
 b. T – Talking
c. DB – Deep Breath
d. C – Cough
e. CT – Clear Throat
f. SW – Swallow
g. SNF – Sniff
h. Y – Yawn
i. SZ – Sneeze
j. LGH – Laugh
k. SLP – Sleep
l. B – Belch
m. OSN – Outside Noise
n. ISN – Inside Noise
o. EE – Examiner Error
p. WRQ – Will Repeat Question
q. MI – Movement Instruction
r. TI – Talking Instruction
s. AI – Answering Instruction
t. BI – Breathing Instruction
u. WU – Wake-Up
v. TDB – Take Deep Breath

INTERPRETATION OF POLYGRAPH DATA

Important Terms to Consider
 Analysis Spot = The relevant and control questions that are actually evaluated during spot
analysis.
 Artifact = A change in an examinee’s physiological pattern that is not attributable to a
reviewed test question. It includes examinee’s movements during the examination.
 Blind chart Analysis = Evaluation of PDD recordings without the benefit of extrapolygraphic
information, such as subject behavior, case facts, pretest admissions, base rates of deception,
etc
 Deception Indicated (DI) = A decision of DI in PDD means that (1) the physiological data are
stable and interpretable, and (2) the evaluation criteria used by the examiner led him to
conclude that the examinee is not wholly truthful to the relevant issue.
 Exosomatic = Something generated from outside the body. Skin resistance is exosomatic
measures because electrical current is applied from outside sources to detect the
electrodermal activity.
 EDA Recovery Phase = The physiological activity displayed in an EDA tracing that occurs
between the highest peak and subsequent return to the pre-stimulus or newly established
baseline. The EDA recovery phase begins once the tracing ahs reached its highest peak.
 EDA Rise Time = The physiological activity displayed in an EDA tracing beginning with
response onset and ending at the peak.
 No Deception Indicated (NDI) = is a conventional term in PDD, NDI signifies that the
polygraph test recordings are stable and interpretable and the evaluation criteria used by the
examiner led him to conclude that the examinee was truthful to the relevant issue.
 Test Data = The signal of interest that may consist of artifacts, recovery or examinee’s
physiological response to stimuli.
 Test Data Analysis = Analysis of the psychohysiological response activity (time) displayed
between response onset. Typically, this is the time from response onset until return to the pre-
stimulus (phasic response) or a newly established baseline (tonic) response.
 Recovery = A deviation in polygraph tracing attributable to a physiological phenomenon
occurring as a compensatory action after a response or an artifact.
 Response = A physiological change that occurs following, and is attributable to the
presentation of applied stimulus.
 Phasic Response = A known origin response to a specific stimulus that is generally seen as
an upward movement from the baseline with subsequent return to the pre-stimulus or original
baseline.
 Tonic Response = A known origin response to a specific stimulus that is generally seen as a
movement from the pre-stimulus baseline and establishment of a new baseline without
returning to the pre-stimulus baseline.
  Response Amplitude = The displayed physiological activity reflected in a polygraph tracing
occurring between response onset and response peak (highest level from pre-stimulus
baseline).
 Response Duration = The physiological activity (time) displayed between response onset and
offset. Typically, this is the time from response onset until return to the pre-stimulus baseline
(phasic response) or a newly established baseline (tonic response).
 Response Latency = The time between stimulus onset and response onset.
 Response Onset = The first indication of change from the pre-stimulus level of physiological
activity to an applied stimulus.
 Response Onset Window = The period of time between stimulus onset (verbal presentation
of question) and an examinee’s verbal answer to that stimulus.
 Spot Analysis = The procedure wherein each component tracing is separately evaluated by
comparing the response of a relevant question to the response of a comparison question.
 Stimulus Onset = It is the beginning of the presentation of the first word of a question.
 Tonic Level = It describes the examinee’s physiological response when resting. An
examinee’s level of physiological activity occurring prior to stimulus onset. This is sometimes
referred to as the resting or baseline activity level.
 Zone = A concept coined by Cleve Backster. A zone is a twenty to thirty-five seconds block of
polygraph chart time initiated by a question having a unique psychological focusing appeal to a
predictable group of examinees

Two types of Chart Interpretation

 Global Analysis
 Numerical Scoring
 Manual Numerical Scoring
 Computer Scoring Algorithm

GLOBAL ANALYSIS
In global analysis, the examiner looks for significant reactions that occur repeatedly
which is referred to as “Conspecnificance”. Conspecnificance is the consistency of reaction to a
specific question with significant magnitude
 NUMERICAL SCORING
The numerical scoring is a method of rendering polygraph decisions that are based
exclusively on numeric values that have been assigned to physiological responses recorded during a
structured polygraph examination

ELEMENTS OF SCORING SYSTEM

1. Reaction Features = are raw physiological data that a polygraph examiner should look into the
polygraph chart for numerical interpretation. It can be scored using the seven position or three
position rules. Only reactions on the relevant and comparison questions are scored during
interpretation.
2. Transformations = In transforming physiological data, combine observations of reactions to
relevant and control stimulus into a single value for each component and for each presentation of
each of the target stimuli.
 Red questions (relevant) are compared to Green question (control)
 Assign a - score when there is a larger response to a relevant question
 Assign a + score when there is a larger response to a control question
 Different scoring systems used different scoring rules in assigning numerical value to particular
reaction features on the relevant and comparison questions.
3. Decision Rules = determines when data meet the criteria for inclusion in a particular category.
= final step in polygraph numerical scoring, producing decisions of Deception Indicated, No
Deception Indicated, and Inconclusive.
= artifacts such as deep breaths, coughs, movements, and physiological abnormalities
(premature ventricular contractions) affect the quality of tracings for scoring. All these should not be
scored.

ACCURACY AND RELIABILITY OF POLYGRAPH RESULTS

 Accuracy = the condition or quality of being true, correct, or exact
 = refers to validity (state or quality of being well founded).

Types of Validity
 Face Validity = opinion or consensus of experts
  Content Validity = selection of pertinent issues of inquiry
 Predictive Validity = ability to predict a future outcome
 Concurrent Validity = ability to identify what is already known
 Convergent Validity – new info coincide with extant info
 Divergent Validity – new info separates extant ideas
 Construct Validity – meaningful defined and understandable relationships (correlations)
between various phenomena
 Criterion Validity – accuracy of category decisions
 Incremental Validity – professional decision accuracy improves with the use of additional
information

Reliability = refers to stability or consistency of measurement. Reliability studies in PDD often

examine the rate of decision agreement among examiners on polygraph test charts.
Two Types of Reliability
1. Interrater reliability = denotes agreement among examiners
2. Intrarater agreement (test-retest reliability) = pertains to an examiner agreement with his own
decisions when evaluating the charts on different occasions.
Note:
Reliability is not the same as validity, which means accuracy. A technique cannot be
more valid than it is reliable. A technique can have high agreement without high accuracy, though the
reverse is not true.

Goals of Polygraph Testing

 Sensitivity = Ability to detect or notice the issue.

 Specificity = Ability to reject non-involved cases.

Threshold of Accuracy According to American Society for Testing Materials (ASTM)

 Ninety (90) Percent = for evidentiary polygraph examinations. Evidentiary polygraph
examinations are those conducted specifically for courtroom purposes.
 Eighty (80) Percent = for investigative polygraph examination. Investigative polygraph
examinations are used for non-judicial purposes.
 Both evidentiary and investigative examinations are permitted to an inconclusive rate of twenty
(20) percent.

Result Errors
 False Negative = refers to the failure to detect the presence of a particular event or item.
= in polygraphy refers to the incorrect decision that deception was not practiced by the
examinee.
 False Positive = is the false detection of something that is not actually present. In polygraphy
= it is the incorrect decision that deception was practiced by the examinee.

Admissibility of Result
In the Philippines, polygraph results are not admitted as evidence. Many polygraph examiners
and lawyers have attempted presenting polygraph evidence in court but all resulted to futile.

Philippines
 Rule 130 section 49 of the Rules on Evidence provides that:
“The opinion of a witness on matter requiring special knowledge, skill, experience or
training which he shown to posses, may be received in evidence.”

U.S. United States v. Frye – 1923 – NOT ADMITTED AS EVIDENCE (First case in Polygraphy)
 
Daubert v. Merrell Dow Pharmaceuticals - 1993 (U.S.)
Areas of Inquiry:
 the theory or technique in question can be (and has been) tested;
 whether it has been subjected to peer review and publication;
 its known or potential error rate;
 the existence and maintenance of standards controlling its operation; and
 whether it has attracted widespread acceptance within a relevant scientific community.

In New Mexico, the Supreme Court, in State v. Dorsey in 1973, ruled that:
 “Polygraph results are admissible as long as (1) the polygraph operator is competent,
(2) the procedure used is reliable, and (3) the “tests made on the subject” are valid.”

In 1983, New Mexico then codified the admissibility of polygraph results with Rules of
Evidence, which states that:
"Subject to the provisions of these rules, the opinion of a polygraph examiner may in the
discretion of the trial judge be admitted as evidence as to the truthfulness of any person called as a
witness if the examination was performed by a person who is qualified as an expert polygraph
examiner.”

PRELIMINARY PREPARATIONS AND OB0SERVATIONS ON SUBJECT FOR THE TEST

In order to conduct a satisfactory polygraph examination it is necessary for the examiner to

obtain the accurate information regarding all the available facts and circumstances that form the basis
for the suspicion or accusation directed against the person to be examined. Where the victim or other
eyewitness to an occurrence is available, he should be interviewed. Whenever several investigators,
the examiner may obtain only a garbled version the facts of the case.

A crime scene sketch, prepared by an informed investigator, is usually better for polygraph
examination purposes than mere verbal descriptions, or even photographs. The latter are less
revealing for this purpose than rough sketches supplemented by the investigator’s verbal details.

Unless an examiner is fully informed about the case, he will not be in a position to conduct an
adequate pre-test interview with the subject, during which the relevant, irrelevant, and control
questions are formulated. It is also helpful for the examiner to know as much as about the subject and
his background as is available. Such information facilitates the pre-test interview as well as a post-
test interrogation of a lying subject.

Whenever circumstances permit, the person or persons to be tested should told about the
plans for a polygraph examination a reasonable time in advance of the scheduled examination. Such
advance notice will give the presumably against will but truthful person a chance “to cool off,” while at
the same time the interval may serve to increase the apprehension of detection on the part of a lying
subject.

Although the polygraph records themselves will usually permits a reliable diagnosis of truth or
deception by a competent examiner, much can be gained from preliminary observations of the
subject from the time he enters the examiner's office or reception room until he is escorted into the
examination room. The recorded observations of a secretary or receptionist as to the subject’s
general conduct or behavior while in the waiting room will be very helpful to the examiner. They will
furnish him with a clue or guide to the most effective handling of the subject, particularly with regard
to his possible against will toward the test or other attitude which should be understood and
relieve/lessen before the actual administration of the test.

THREE STAGES INVOLVED IN THE CONDUCT OF A POLYGRAPH TEST

The polygraph examiner will conduct interview with the investigator handling the case or
person requesting the examination for purposes of some requirements are needed to the test.

The polygraph is not a substitute for a comprehensive field of investigation. It cannot be

substituted for thorough field work. Only when the investigator and the polygraph examiner work
together as a team from the beginning of the investigation, with special attention to each other’s
needs, can maximum benefit be derived from the use of the polygraph.

The polygraph examiner based from information obtained from the investigator formulates test
questions. General facts, theories and suspicious are not enough basis for a polygraph test.
Questions formulation depends greatly upon detailed and accurate information regarding all the
available facts and circumstances that form the basis for the suspicion or accusation directed against
the subject. This must be supplemented, as far is feasible, with crime scene sketches, statements
taken, photographs, investigator’s findings, laboratory results if any and all-available background
information of each subject. Unless the examiner is fully informed about the case, he will not be in a
position to conduct an adequate pre-test interview with the subject during which, the appropriate
questions to be asked, are formulated.

The investigator on case must provide the examiner with as much a background information
and other related matters about the crime possible of subject/s involvement, in order to enable the
polygraph examiner to develop good test questions. Because one of the best polygraph tests is the
peak-of-tension test, the examiner is greatly aided if at least three different case facts known to the
police are withheld from all suspects and reportees. These facts may concern stolen items, pieces of
entry and exit, tools left behind, weapons used; or any anything unusual about the crime. If only the
true offender knows these facts at the time of the examination, the examiner can identify him because
innocent suspects will demonstrate greater emotion to the control question than relevant questions,
while the offender exhibits the opposite reactions.

In addition, the examiner should be provided in advance with all facts of the case and all information
known each suspect who is to be examined.

 Initial Investigation Report/Facts of the Case prepared by the investigator-on-case.

 Sworn Statement of the complainant, suspect/s and witnesses (complainant is not
included in the examination).
 Background/Synopsis of the Case/Incident Report

This information should be given to the polygraph examiner as far in advance of the examination as
possible several days for important or complicated cases. This gives the examiner the opportunity to
develop the best possible test questions, and allows sufficient time to resolve any questions with the
police.

The investigator on case should personally inform the examiner of such facts as:

1. Background information particularly previous police records or verified facts which subject
denies.
2. Specific articles or exact amounts of money stolen.
3. Exact time, date and place the offense occurred.
4. Exact type of firearm, weapons or tools used.
5. Peculiar aspects of the offense or any strange or obscene acts committed at the scene.
6. Known facts about a suspect’s actions or movements immediately preceding or after the
incident.
7. Facts indicating a connection between suspects, victims and witnesses, especially when they
deny any connection.
8. Results of laboratory tests conducted.
9. Unpublicized facts of the offense known only by the victim, the investigator and the offender.

I. The Conduct of the Pre-test Interview with the Person to be Examined

Before any polygraph test is administered, a pre-test interview is first conducted to condition
the subject psychologically for responses. During this period, the subject is apprised his constitutional
rights against self-incrimination, and his written consent, which must be freely and voluntarily given, is
taken. The taking of his personal data and an explanation of test procedure follow this.

The pre-test interview is very essential for through it, extraneous fear, apprehension,
nervousness or distaste of the idea of the test is overcome. It places the subject in a cooperative and
objective point of view to willingly approach the test, and at the same time afford the examiner to
make an observation and evaluation of the subject to form the basis for the type of polygraph
technique best applicable. The success of a polygraph test greatly depends on the rapport existing
between the examiner and his subject.

During this period, attachment of the polygraph transducers should be explained briefly as well
as the functions of each accessory attachment. This is followed by a review of the details of the case
and the subsequent development and introduction of the questions to be asked.

The time interval for the pretest interview will usually range from 20 to 30 minutes. The
examiner should not withhold any information with the subject about the instrument, its attachments
or recordings. This will serve to increase a lying subject concern over possible detection, which, as
will be subsequently discussed, is the most important requirement for an effective examination by
means of this technique. Conversely, such information will allay whatever apprehension; a truthful
person may have with respect physical and from the instrument attachments.

A completely unbiased and objective approach using a friendly manner should be used during
the pre-test interview. No approach that could raise anger in the part of the subject/examinee should
be used. For this reason, no accusatory approach should be made. The best source of information
about the subject’s behavior is usually the subject himself.

During the pre-test interview, the examiner should ascertain whether or not the subject is
physically uncomfortable, either because of the temperature in the examination room or because of
such factors as need to use toilet facilities. Some subjects and particularly the truthful ones are
reluctant to request a temperature change or to request the use of toilet facilities, as a result of which
they may be uncomfortable throughout the test. Any discomfort of this type may materially affect the
accuracy of the test.

Sometime during the course of the instrument attachment, the examiner should ask the
subject: “Have you ever had a lie-detector test before?” The examiner should make no further
comment during the time when instrument is attached to the subject, but, for reasons to be
subsequently explained, the examiner should listen carefully to whatever the subject himself may say
by way of his reaction to the instrument and to the test itself.

Following the attachment of the pneumograph assembly, the blood pressure cuff, and the
finger electrodes to the subject, the examiner should then sit down in a chair in front right sideways of
the subject. At this point, the examiner should make written notes of whatever comments the subject
may have made since entering the examination room. Note also should be made during the pre-test
interview regarding the subject’s composure (e.g. apprehensiveness or uneasiness). Particular
attention should be paid to his expressions reflecting his attitude toward the test and to any
comments or questions from him regarding his physical, mental, or emotional condition.

At no time during the pre-test interview should the examiner indulge in any interrogation aimed
at determining the subject’s deception or truthfulness, or at obtaining a confession or guilt. The only
exception to this rule is where the subject clearly evidences a desire to confess before the test.

Throughout the pre-test interview, the examiner’s attitude should be completely objective and
noncommittal; he must be impartial as to the subject’s deception or truthfulness. To adopt any other
attitude will place the examiner in the role of an interrogator rather than those of the results have
indicated deception, should the examiner embark upon any form of accusation or interrogation for the
purpose of obtaining an admission.

II. The Conduct of the Instrumental Test with the asking of a prepared list of Questions
previously reviewed with Subject.

After the pre-test interview, the examiner should proceed to place the attachment of polygraph
components on the body of the subject; such as the rubber convoluted tube with beaded chain, the
blood pressure cuff, and the finger electrodes. Review all the questions being prepared with the
subject and determine his answer for every question asked. Although questions the subject ask the
instrument should be answered (as briefly as possible), the examiner should discourage any lengthy
comments or statements by the subject respecting the matter or incident under investigation or his
disclaimer of responsibility for it. Test instruction should be given to the subject. Any bodily movement
of the subject during the test will affect the tracing results on the chart paper. The answer of the
subject of all questions is limited by Yes or No only in order to avoid distortion on the tracings chart.

III. Post Test Interview/Interrogation with the Subject is being

Examined

This phase included or consideration that bear on the examinations just after the instrument is
turn off. If the polygraph test indicated deception, the examiner will then proceed to conduct a short
interrogation. The purpose of which is to obtain confession or admission of an offense. However, if
the polygraph result indicated the subject is innocent, the examiner just releases the subject cordially
and thanks for his cooperation from the test. Just to say “thank you for your cooperation”.
Preparations of the Examiner with a Subject for the Test
1. Appraisal of Constitutional Rights of the subject
2. Obtain consent of the subject to undergo polygraph test
3. Taking of Personal Data of the subject
4. Inform the subject involvement with the case
5. Evaluate the psychological preparations of the subject
6. Determine his/her suitability as a subject for the test

The Constitutional Rights of the subject shall be informed prior the test in order not to violate
such rights (Art. III, Sec. 12, 1987 Phil. Constitution)

1. He has the right to remain silent; anything can say can be used as evidence in
favor or against him/her in any Court of Justice in the Philippines.
2. He has the right to inform of the nature and the cause of his accusation.
3. He has the right to have a competent and independent counsel preferably of his
own choice, or he will be provided one. .
4. He has the right against self-incrimination to witness against himself.
5. He has the right to refuse to undergo the test.

FACTORS CONTRIBUTING TO THE EFFECTIVENESS OF POLYGRPAHY AS TO THE

EXAMINATION ROOM, MACHINES USE AND SUBJECT’S FITNESS

As an Ideal Polygraph Examination Room to be Effective as it:

1. The room must be spacious for two persons with furnishing polygraph desk, a subject’s chair with
armrest and an examiner’s stool.
2. The room must be adequately lightened and well ventilated.
3. The room must be devoid of pictures, paintings, decors or other ornaments.
4. The room must be a private and generally free from all outside noise and distracting influences,
preferably 90 percent sound proof.
5. The room may be furnished with an observation one-way mirror and remote sound system or
video tape, tape amplifier for monitoring the test proceedings to an authorize observers.

As to the Machine Use

1. Machine brand is tested and used by most Asian countries

2. Machine is the latest version
3. Machine is properly and regularly maintained
4. Machine is properly set and used
5. Machine is well running condition

AS TO THE SELECTION OF SUBJECT’S FITNESS FOR POLYGRAPH TEST

Certain mental and physical conditions influence suitability of a subject to the test and may adversely
affect his recorded reactions. The following conditions of the subject contribute to the effectiveness of
polygraphy be considered fit:

1. The subject must have a good night sleep for at least five hours prior to the test.
2. He must not be suffering from any permanent/temporary physical illness such as
mental derangement, high blood, certain heart breathing disorder, fever, severe cold
and cough, pain, allergy, stomachache, toothache, open wound and the like.
3. He must refrain from the use of alcoholic beverages, narcotics drugs, sedatives, and
other cold syrups or capsules are definite causes that makes a person unfit.
4. He must be free from any physical harm and emotional trauma.
5. He must not be interrogated for a prolong period with constant accusation directed
against him.
6. He must not be highly emotional nervous.
7. He must not be hungry or overfed.
8. He must refrain from smoking for at least two hours before the test.
9. He has no sexual indulgence/activities.
10. The female subject must be free in pregnancy and monthly menstrual cycle.
POLYGRAPH INTERROGATION

The instrument, polygraph techniques and procedures have a very strong psychological
effect upon a guilty suspect in inducing him to confess. Confessions are sometimes given at the mere
suggestions of the test, upon the seeing the instrument, after attachments to the instrument but
before actual test has commenced, and others immediately after the test was terminated. Some were
given without any word of inducement from the examiner, while the others after the examiner pointed
out the different indices of deception.

Two opposing line of though are in the mind of every lying subject; 1) an inherent urge to the truth, to
confess for mental relief and comfort, and 2) counter balanced by the desire to avoid the legal
consequence of a crime. The polygraph examiner in every polygraph test has utilized this factor by
allowing a subtle interrogation process throughout the test.

BETWEEN-CHART-PROBING

After the taking of each chart, the examiner shows the recorded result to the subject with a brief
explanation as to the significance of any recorded reaction. He points out the dissimilarities between
reactions accompanying irrelevant and relevant questions. The examiner informs the subject that the
probing being done is necessary in order for the best to be objective. The purposes of between-chart-
probing are:

1. To determine the true cause of recorded responses.

2. To calm an overly stimulated subject.
3. To clarify the confusion or misunderstanding any one or more questions may have created in
subject’s mind.
4. To convince doubtful subjects who may be testing the instrument and the examiner’s efficiency.
5. To re-stimulate a subject who has produced little or no response
6. To elicit the cause or origin of a flat or unemotional chart.
7. To gain additional information pertinent to any specific issues.
8. To set the stage for the succeeding chart by rectifying given questions that may necessitate
rephrasing.
8. To maintain a gentle psychological pressure.
9. To verify whether or not the subject has been truthful in answering thequestions asked.

Sample probing questions normally asked are:

a. Tell me, what was going through your mind when I asked you these questions?
b. Did you recall of any similar incident when I asked you these questions?
c. Is there something you are afraid to tell me about?
d. Can you tell me what could have caused this reaction when I asked this
question?

Post Test Interrogation

After the polygraph examiner is convinced of the guilt of his subject from the charts taken, he
employs an interrogation technique to secure an admission or confession. Procedure followed:

1. Inform that he cannot be cleared from his chart.

2. Convince the subject that the responses were created due to his own emotions
and not by any mechanical manipulations by the examiner.
3. Use persuasiveness, sympathetic attitude and perseverance in eliciting admission or
confession.
4. Point out recorded reactions with a brief explanation of their significance as an
objective, concrete and tangible evidence that the eye can see and the mind can easily grasp.
5. Listen attentively to any ramifications, pursue a line of mild interrogation as to the
reasons why the criminal act was committed or how it was done rather than merely acquiring
admission of guilt.
6. In some cases, rationalize the subject’s act by offering a way to excuse his conduct,
minimize the significance, or shift the blame to someone or some situation.
 7. If a confession is forthcoming, allow subject to relate it in his own words, tactfully
concentrate on possibility of recovering physical evidence that will support confessions and if
possible, request subject to write out in his own hand the whole story.
8. Listen carefully to specific details and write it down at the first opportunity.
9. Never make any promise particularly concerning immunity, reward or leniency.
10. Inform investigator what the examiner gathered, and let him take the necessary
formal statements.
11. If no confession was derived, release the subject in a cordial manner.

QUALIFICATIONS OF A POLYGRAPH EXAMINER

A polygraph examiner is one who is capable of being able to detect deception or verify truth of
statement through instrumentation or the use of a mechanical device. The instrument or device
utilized to detect deception or verify truth of statements must meet the basic instrumentation
requirement of being capable of recording simultaneously on moving charts, respiratory, galvanic skin
resistance and cardiovascular patterns.

Today, some polygraph examiners prefer to be called “Forensic Psychophysiologist”. The behavior of
the polygraph examiners greatly influences the results of the examination because he or she is alone
in the room with a subject.

As technically speaking; such as:

1. He must be a Licensed Criminologist and have undergone special training on

polygraph under a credited supervision of polygraph examiner.
2. He must have a complete knowledge of the instrument and its capabilities
and limitations as to the most polygraph techniques.
3. He must be proficient in the conduct of polygraph examinations, formulation
of test questions, and chart interpretations.

As morally; such as:

1. He must be devoted himself to the polygraph profession, with high personal

integrity and professional proficiency.
2. He must have a sincere desire to become a polygraph examiner.
3. He is an impartial seeker of the truth and free of prejudice.
4. He must have always conduct an examination in a professional and ethical
manner.
5. He never allows his personal feelings, sympathies, prejudices or other
influences the result of the examination.
6. He has to maintain his good moral character.
7. He must be well-groomed or wearing laboratory gown during conduct of
polygraph examination.

BARRIERS/LIMITATIONS OF POLYGRAPH AS TO BE USED

1. It is an invaluable investigative tool aid, but never to be used a substitution for an investigation.
2. It is not only a lie detector machine, but it is also a scientific diagnostic instrument.
3. It does not determine facts; it records responses to that which the subject knows to be true.
4. It is not an accurate instrument uses as the examiner is incompetent.
5. The machine will not be utilized until enough facts of the case have been established to permit the
examiner to prepare a complete set of suitable questions.
6. No polygraph test can be conducted without voluntary consent of the subject.
7. Never use the machine for the test especially when the subject is physically and mentally unfit.
8. The test will not be given until the accusations have been explained to the subject.
9. No attempt to use polygraph for mental or physical evaluation to any person.
10. No indications will be made to any person to be considered lying because he refused to take the
test.

IMPORTANT PERSONS IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF POLYGRAPH

Daniel Defoe = wrote an essay entitled, “An Effectual Scheme for the Preventing of Street Robberies
and Suppressing all other Disorders of the Night”

Angelo Mosso = In 1878, science came to the aid of the truth seeker through the research of an
Italian psychologist Angelo Mosso. He made used of an instrument called plethysmograph in his
research on emotion and fear and its influence on the heart and respiration. 
= developed a scientific cradle

Cesare Lombroso = In 1895, Cesare Lombroso, an Italian Criminologist and tutor of Angelo Mosso,
published the second edition of his book entitled “L’Homme Criminel” which he relates the used of
hydrosphygmograph during interrogation of suspects. He called it blood pressure pulse test.
= he is considered as the first person to conceive the idea of lie detection and the first to apply
the technique in actual criminal suspects

Francis Galton = in 1879, introduced the Word Association Test using series of irrelevant
questions and relevant question separated in time.

B. Sticker = believed that the origin of the galvanic skin phenomenon was under the influence of the
exciting mental impressions and that the will has no effect upon it.
= he made the earliest application of psychogalvanometer to forensic problems.

Sir James Mackenzie = an English clinician and cardiologist, constructed the Clinical Polygraph in
1892, an instrument to be used for medical examinations with the capability to simultaneously record
undulated line tracings of the vascular pulses (radial, venous and arterial), by way of a stylus onto a
revolving drum of smoked paper.
In 1906, Sir James Mackenzie refined his clinical polygraph of 1892 when he devised the Clinical Ink
Polygraph with the help of Lancashire watchmaker, Sebastian Shaw. This instrument used a
clockwork mechanism for the paper-rolling and time-marker movements and it produced ink
recordings of physiological functions that were easier to acquire and to interpret.

S. Veraguth = he is said to be the first person to use the term Psychogalvanic Reflex. Veraguth
was the first scientist to use the word association test with galvanometer.
= in 1907, he described his observation on galvanic phenomena and emotions that there was
an ascending galvanometer curve during the presentation of relevant stimuli versus the rest curve on
non-crucial stimuli.

Vittorio Benussi = in March 1913, he presented a paper before the second meeting of the Italian
Society for Psychology in Rome where he described how he record the subject’s breathing patter
using a Marey Pneumograph which he noted the changes in inspiration-expiration ratio during
deception.
= he also included recording of heart rate and blood pressure curve in detection of deception
and probably the first person to record more than one physiological response.

Dr. William M. Marston = in 1915 was credited as the creator of the systolic blood-pressure test
used in an attempt to detect deception during questioning, and using a standard blood pressure cuff
and stethescope, requiring repeated inflation of the pressure cuff to obtain readings at intervals during
examination. This was called Discontinuous Technique.

Harold Burtt = In 1918, Burtt suggested that the changes in respiration were an indication of
deception.
= He was able to determine that the changes in respiration were of less value in the detection
of deception than the changes in blood pressure

John A. Larson = encouraged by August Vollmer of the Berkeley Police Department to conduct a
research on deception.
= Cardio-Pneumo Psychogram was Larson’s first instrument which was borrowed from Dr.
Robert Jessel and was invented by Earl Bryant
= in 1921, Earl Bryant made an instrument for Larson in which he used a breadboard as a
base and from that it became in the industry as Breadboard Polygraph – capable of recording
continually and simultaneously the respiration and cardiovascular activities.
 = today he is known as the Father of Scientific Lie Detection and at the same time the
Father of Polygraph

Leonarde Keeler = in 1926, he made a modification of Larson’s instrument. He developed that metal
bellows and kymograph that pulled a chart paper at a constant speed under recording pens from a
roll of chart located inside the instrument.
= in 1938, 1938, Keeler included the Psychogalvanometer (PGR), a third measuring
component of his instrument which was also known as Galvanic Skin Reflex (GSR) invented by
Italian Physiologist Galvani in 1791.
= credited as the creator on Relevant-Irrelevant Technique.
= today Keeler is known as the Father of Modern Polygraphy.

Ruckmick = in 1936, the term Psychogalvanic Reflex used by Veraguth was repudiated by Ruckmick
and proposed the term Electrodermal Response.

John E. Reid = in 1950, he developed the Control Question which consist of a known lie and
incorporated it into the relevant/irrelevant technique.
= he developed a movement or activity sensor a means of recording arm and leg
movements
= Reid also developed the silent answer test and guilt-complex test to be administered to
overly responsive examinee

Cleve Backster = developed the psychological set theory and the anticlimax dampening
concept.
= he also developed and introduced the Quantification System of Chart Analysis
(Numerical Scoring) which permits the examiner to score the charts numerically according to
standard rules.

Richard O. Arther = introduced the Arther II polygraph instrument which contains a stimulus marker
capable of recording the beginning and ending of question and the moment the examinee answered.
= credited as the creator of Stimulus Marker
= developed an instrument with two Galvanic Skin Resistance

Computerized Polygraph Instrument = in 1992, the polygraph made its official entrance into the
computer age