LIE DETECTION

TECHNIQUE
Jeferson J. Fianitog, RCrim, MSCJ, CCS
COURSE DESCRIPTION:
 This course includes the study of the different methods and
techniques in lie detection. The anatomy of lying, its theory, kinds
and types. It includes the conduct of polygraph examination. It
covers also the history, personalities and developments of Lie
detection in different countries as a tool of crime investigation and
also in relation to court proceedings.
COURSE CONTENT
⮚ Theories of Lying, Psychology of Lying, Physiological
responses of Lying, Practical ways to detect a lie, and why People
lie?
⮚ Different Methods of Detecting Deception.
⮚ Early and Contemporary Methods of detecting deception.
⮚ Polygraph Uses and Significance.
⮚ Phases of Polygraph Examination
⮚ Timeline of the modern Polygraph.
COURSE CONTENT
⮚ Factors affecting the accuracy of Polygraph technique.
⮚ Limitations and barriers of Polygraph technique.
⮚ Modern components of Polygraph Instrument: Its part and
accessories
⮚ Question formulation, Types of Test question, General Questions
Test, Supplementary test question, Question sequencing.
⮚ Chart making and Polygraph Interpretation
⮚ Rules in chart interpretation
⮚ Evaluation of Polygraph Results
COURSE CONTENT
⮚ Rights of person under polygraph examination, Legal and
Ethical Issues in Polygraph Testing.
⮚ Validity and reliability issues of Polygraph Testing, Polygraph
admissibility in Court.
⮚ Standards of Admissibility, Comparative Setting.
⮚ Status of Polygraph in the Philippines, Institutions using
Polygraph Test results in the Philippines and Abroad.
OBJECTIVES
⮚ To define and understand Polygraphy
⮚ To discuss the uses and significance of Polygraphy
⮚ To be able to discuss the Different Methods of Detecting
Deception.
⮚ Early and Contemporary Methods of detecting deception.
 TERMS TO PONDER
Polygraphy – refers to the scientific method of detecting
deception with the aid or use of a polygraph instrument. The
term polygraph is a composition of two words: poly means
many and graph which means writings. Literally means “many
writings.”

Polygraph - a machine designed to detect and record changes in

physiological characteristics, such as a person's pulse and
breathing rates, used especially as a lie detector.
 TERMS TO PONDER
Polygraph Examination - The entire environment within which a
qualified polygraphist renders an expert opinion as to the veracity of an
examinee’s statements concerning the primary issue of the matter under
investigation. Is a scientific test that collects physiological data from a
person with the purpose of detecting reactions associated with dishonesty.
Polygraph Examiner - interpret the charts generated by the polygraph
machine. Polygraph came from the Greek word "polys" - many writings
and "grapho" write. Is one who is skilled and capable to detect deception or
verify truth of statement through instrumentation or the use of mechanical
device.
 Polygraph
Machine
Measure and
Record the ff:

Skin
Blood Pressure Heart Rate Respiration
Conductivity
 EARLY METHODS OF
DETECTING DECEPTION
 Ordeal, Trial or Judicium Dei is a common
EARLY METHODS method of deciding guilt or innocence and a
OF DETECTING practice of referring disputed questions to the
DECEPTION judgment of God, determined by various
means, particularly by physical tests.
 EARLY METHODS OF
DETECTING DECEPTION
1. Red Hot Iron Ordeal
Practiced in the hill tribe of North Bengal. The
accused had to carry a bar of red-hot iron in his
hands while he walked nine marked paces. In the
unlikely event of no burns appearing on his hands,
he was adjudged innocent. Otherwise, he was
promptly hanged.
EARLY METHODS OF
DETECTING
DECEPTION
2. Ordeal by Balance
Practiced in the Institute of Vishnu, India.
A scale of balance is used, in one end of
the scale the accused is placed and in the
other end is a counterbalance. The person
will step out of the scale and listen to a
judge to deliver an exhortation on the
balance and get back in. If he was found
lighter than before, then he should be
acquitted.
EARLY METHODS OF
DETECTING
DECEPTION
3. Ordeal by Water
Ordeal by water was the usual mode of
trial allowed to members of the lower
classes.
EARLY METHODS OF
DETECTING
DECEPTION
 Boiling Water Ordeal – according to
the laws of Athelstan, the first king of
England, the ordeal of boiling water
consisted of lifting a stone out of
boiling water, if the accused was able
to lift a stone out of the boiling water
he is considered innocent otherwise
he is guilty.
EARLY METHODS OF
DETECTING
DECEPTION
 Cold Water Ordeal – The usual mode
of trial for witchcraft. In this ordeal,
the accused was tied at feet and hands
and was lowered to cold water by rope.
This rope is tied around the
defendant’s waist and had a knot a
particular distance from the torso. If
both know and accused dipped beneath
the surface of the water, the accused
was proven innocent. If the know is
dry or if the water refused to receive
him, the defendant was guilty.
 EARLY METHODS OF
DETECTING DECEPTION
4. Ordeal by Rice Chewing
It is performed with a kind of rice
called sathee, prepared with
various incantations. The person on
trial eats the sathee, with the face
to the east and then splits upon a
pea leaf. If saliva is mixed with
blood or the corner of his mouth
swells or he trembles, he is
declared to be a liar. Indians
practice this ordeal.
EARLY METHODS OF
DETECTING
DECEPTION
5. Ordeal of the Red Water
Those accused of a crime were forced to
drink a poisonous red liquid. If they
vomited, then they were judged to be
guilty. If they did not vomit, they were
deemed not guilty. However, for those
that did not vomit this usually brought
death by poisoning. Their possessions
were then seized, and their family
members were sold into slavery.
 EARLY METHODS OF
DETECTING DECEPTION
6. Ordeal by Combat
The aggrieved party claimed the right to fight
the alleged offender or to pay a champion to
fight for him. The victor is said to win not by
his own strength but because of supernatural
powers that had intervened on the side of the
right, as in the duel in the European Ages in
which the “judgment of God was thought to
determine the winner”. If still alive after the
combat, the loser might be hanged or burned
for a criminal offense or have a hand cut off
and properly confiscated in civil actions.
 EARLY METHODS OF
DETECTING DECEPTION

7. Ordeal of the Corsnaed (Ordeal by

Blessed Bread)
A priest puts the corsnaed or hallowed
bread into the mouth of the accused, with
various imprecation. If the accused
swallowed it, he was freed from
punishment.
 EARLY METHODS OF
DETECTING DECEPTION
8. Test of the Eucharist
This was applied chiefly among the
clergies and monks. When they took the
host, it was believed that God would
smite the guilty with sickness or death.
Others believe that if the accused is
innocent, when given a poisonous drink
for him to take in, Angel Gabriel will
descend from heaven to prevent the
accused from taking in the poisonous
drink.
 EARLY METHODS OF
DETECTING DECEPTION
9. Ordeal of the Bier
It was an ancient belief that the slain dead could
point out their killer. In England, it was customary
for the accused approach the bier on which the
corpse lay. In view of the witness, the wound of
the victim were observed to see if they began to
bleed again. They believe that murderer is near,
which causes the blood to flow out from the
wound of the victim. This ordeal was recorded
well by Shakespeare in “Richard III”.
 EARLY METHODS OF
DETECTING DECEPTION
10. Ordeal of the Needle
A red-hot needle was drawn through the
lips of the alleged criminal and if blood
flowed from the wound, he was deemed
guilty; but if none, he is innocent.
Wanaka, Eastern Africa practiced this
ordeal.
11. Ordeal by head and fire
The accused walked barefooted over coals
of fire, or was made to walk through fire,
if he was unharmed by fire he was
considered innocent.
EARLY METHODS OF
DETECTING
DECEPTION
12. Trial of the Cross
The accuser and the accused were placed
under the cross with their arms extended
or crosswise and the first to move his
hands or suffer them to fall was held
guilty. Or the accused was placed before
relics and two dice were then produced,
one marked with a cross. Of these, one
was taken up at hazard. If it happened to
bear the sign of the cross, the accused
was acquitted.
 EARLY METHODS OF
DETECTING DECEPTION
13. Trial of the Waxen Shirt - The accused was dressed in cloth covered with wax and
walked barefooted over coals of fire. If he was unhurt by the fire and the wax did not
melt, he was considered innocent.
14. Hereditary Sieve Method - Hans Gross, the Father of Criminalistics, in his famous
book in criminal investigation in which beans were thrown into a sieve as the name of
the suspect was called, mentioned this ordeal. If the beans jump out of the sieve, the
owner of the sieve is innocent. If the beans remained in the sieve the person named is a
thief.
15. Donkey’s Tail Ordeal - The donkey is placed in one room alone and observed it, and if
the donkey cried the accused is guilty of the crime charged, because inside and in his
conscience he is guilty.
16. Ordeal of the Tiger - Practiced in Siam, the accused and accuser are place on a cage of
a tiger; if the tiger spare one of them he is considered innocent.
CONTEMPORARY METHODS
OF DETECTING DECEPTION
 CONTEMPORARY METHODS
OF DETECTING DECEPTION
1. Forensic Assessment Interview 4. Verbal Lie Detection
Technique a. Statement Validity Assessment
2. Physiological Lie Detection b. Reality Monitoring
a. Deception Test
c. Scientific Content Analysis
d. Assessment Criteria Indicative of
b. Recognition Test
Deception
3. Non-Verbal Lie Detection 5. Functional Magnetic Resonance
c. Multifactor Model Imaging-Based Lie Detection (fMRI)
- Emotional Reaction 6. Optical Motor Detection of
- Cognitive load Deception
- Attempted Behavioral Control
b. Self – Presentational Perspective
c. Interpersonal Deception Theory
CONTEMPORARY METHODS
OF DETECTING DECEPTION
Forensic Assessment Interview Technique – allows the interviewer to assess
nonverbal and verbal behavior without the need of attachments to make the
accurate determinations of truth or deception.

Verbal – are signs of lying observe to a person through the words that are spoken,
speed of delivery of words, choice of words, tone of voice and the tense of
language.

Non-Verbal – are signs of lying observe to a person through patterns of body

movements, gestures, facial expression, body posture, positioning and movements
use to explain chosen words.
 CONTEMPORARY METHODS
OF DETECTING DECEPTION
Verbal Clues Methods of responding to the Question
are the Length of Time before Giving response
following: Repetition of Question
Fragmented or Incomplete Sentences
Being Overly Polite
Oaths
Clarity of Response
Use of words
Assertiveness
Inconsistencies
Slip of the Tongue
Tirades
Pauses
Speed of Speech
 CONTEMPORARY METHODS
OF DETECTING DECEPTION
Non - Verbal Emblems
Clues are the
following: Manipulators
Breathing
Sweating
Frequent Swallowing
Facial Muscles
Eyes
Face
CONTEMPORARY METHODS
OF DETECTING DECEPTION
2. Physiological Lie Detection
The use of modern equipment to record the
physiological changes that occur on a person was
employed in determining guilt or innocence. The
polygraph is one that is used to accurately records
and measures physiological changes which include
respiratory, electrodermal, cardiovascular, and
vasomotor activity. These parameters are monitored
by the sensors connected on a particular parts the
body of the person being tested.
 CONTEMPORARY METHODS
OF DETECTING DECEPTION
a. Deception Test
An approach in polygraph testing that is conducted to determine
the involvement of an examinee to a known incident or to
multiple issues of concern:
• Comparison Question Technique
• Non-Comparison Question Technique
b. Recognition Test
This approach in polygraph testing is intended to determine if
the examinee has knowledge about the issue being tested. An
examinee who are knowledgeable on the case information or
facts, will exhibits physiological reaction when confronted with
the item relevant to the test.
 NON-VERBAL LIE
DETECTION
A. Multifactor model
- There are elements that may influence cues to deception
and each has distinct effect on the non verbal behavior of
liar.
- Emotional Reaction
Telling a lie is most commonly associated with different
emotions such as fear, guilt, or delight
- Cognitive Load
There are various aspects that may explain why lying
requires more cognitive demand than telling the truth.
Liars who engaged in cognitively complex tasks
experiences speech hesitations and errors, speaks slower,
and takes to give answer.
 NON-VERBAL LIE
DETECTION
- Attempted Behavioral Control
Liars are aware that they must appear convincing in the eyes of an investigator,
thus they will try to control their behavior.
B. Self-presentational Perspective
This approach predicts that as liars experience one or more factors in multifactor
model, it is plausible that signs of deception will occur.
C. Interpersonal Deception Theory
This theory suggests that liars must performed several simultaneous
communication task during a face to face encounters.
 TOOLS FOR NON-
VERBAL LIE DETECTION
a. Facial Emotional Expression
- The aspect of facial communication are beyond control
and ca be betray a deceiver’s true emotion via micro
expressions of that emotion. However, researchers have
found out that micro expressions of emotions are
common to both liars and truth tellers.
b. Behavioral Analysis Interview (BAI)
- The procedure involved in BAI includes asking of non-
threatening, investigative and behavior-provoking
questions. The guilty suspect is supposed to probably
display nervous behaviors such as crossing their legs,
shifting seating position, and preforming grooming
behavior when giving answer to the questions.
VERBAL LIE
DETECTION
The basic premise of verbal lie detection are that
liars have to think harder to fabricate a lie and will
try to make more convincing impression that truthful
persons. Verbal lie detection is a memory-based
approach, regarded as a unique sign of deception. It
is presumed that people remember differently the
events that he experienced from the events that are
fabricated. Hence, they talk about them in different
ways.
TOOLS FOR VERBAL LIE
DETECTION
A. Statement Validity Assessment (SVA)
• The SVA is a tool designed to verify the accuracy of the
testimony of child witnesses during the trial of a sexual cases.
There are times that an investigator encountered difficulty in
determining the facts of sexual offense involving children due to
unavailability of evidence. Also, because of the absence of
possible witness that could provide independent version of the
events to validate contradicting statement of victims and
accused.
TOOLS FOR VERBAL LIE
DETECTION
Stages of Statement Validity
Assessment (SVA):
• Case-file analysis
• Semi instructed interview
• Criteria-based content analysis
• Validity checklist
 TOOLS FOR VERBAL
LIE DETECTION
B. Reality Monitoring (RM)
This method is used only for scientific research and
said to have strong theoretical support. It is based on
memory theory and is centered on the concept that
memories of experienced events differs in quality
from memories of imagined events.
 TOOLS FOR VERBAL LIE
DETECTION
C. Scientific Content Analysis (SCAN)
 This tool was developed by Avioam Sapir, a polygraph
examiner and a former Israeli police lieutenant. It supposed in
this approach that truth tellers and liars differ from each other.
However, no theoretical support is available to support the
said assumptions. The procedure requires an examinee to
write down in detail his/her activities on a crucial period of
time. Handwritten statement is then analyzed based on the
criteria set for this tool. SCAN criteria like denial of
allegation and use of self-references mostly occur in truthful
than deceptive statements, while other criteria like change in
language and missing information are likely to appear in
deceptive than truthful statements.
TOOLS FOR VERBAL LIE
DETECTION
D. Assessment Criteria Indicative of Deception (ACID)
The process of Assessment Criteria Indicative of Deception, involves
detailed examination of the length of response, admitting potential
errors, and use of Reality Monitoring (RM) criteria to distinguished the
differences die to memory and impression management or control of
information. This extended approach to RM corresponds to the unique
external, contextual, and internal details as observe during the process
of investigative interview for detection of deception. The first
experiment with this approach indicates 95% of the statements of honest
and deceptive participants were determined accurately.
FUNCTIONAL The method of monitoring brain activity has
been employed by several researchers in an
MAGNETIC attempt to detect deception. The fMRI approach
RESONANCE involves measurement of changes in regional
cerebral blood flow cause by the activity of the
IMAGING- nervous system. The activity of the brain in
response to a specific type of events is
BASED LIE measured through fMRI procedure.
DETECTION
 A. Cognitive control processes
• It includes working memory,
memory-retrieval conflict
CLASSES OF monitoring, and response
inhibition. These refers to the
POSTULATED processes with higher complexity
of producing lies relative to telling

NEURAL
the truth.

PROCESSES
ENGAGED C. Social cognitive
processes
B. Memory-relate
processes
• It refers to the idea that a • These refers to the fact
DURING successful liar needs to
take into account the
that lies and truths may
differ in how well they
DECEPTION perspective of the target
of the lie in order to be
are encoded, and in the
richness and quality of
able to deceive the target. these memories.
 OPTICAL MOTOR DETECTION
OF DECEPTION

The idea of measuring the size of pupil can be traced The Autonomic Nervous System controls the dilation
from the theory suggested by Charles Darwin that and constriction of the pupil. The iris dilates when the
pupil dilations was associated with fear and other sympathetic nervous system is activated, the
emotion. It was speculated based on research that parasympathetic subdivision of the ANS causes the
sympathetic nervous system influenced the pupillary constriction of the iris.
changes which could be used to measure the value of
interest and pleasure on visual stimuli. Succeeding
researches suggests that cognitive effort can be related
to pupil dilation.
 OPTICAL MOTOR
DETECTION OF
DECEPTION
 EyeDetect is a new technology available
designed for optical motor detection of
deception test. It measures eye
movements, pupil diameter, reading
behavior, etc., during the process of
examination using an infrared camera and
scoring algorithm to determine the test
outcome.
EVOLUTION OF
THE
POLYGRAPH
Jeferson J. Fianitog, RCrim, MSCJ, CCS
 DEVELOPMENT OF
CARDIOSPHYMOGRAPH
 Cesare Lombroso – An Italian scientist
who in 1885 used hydrospygmograph
procedure and was credited to be the
pioneer who envisioned the idea of using
scientific procedures to lie detection. He is
considered as the first person to use an
instrument for the purpose of detecting
deception.
 hydrospygmograph A device consisting of
a cylinder containing water and connected
with a registering tube, used to record the
amount of blood forced with each pulsation
into a limb incased in the apparatus.
 DEVELOPMENT OF
CARDIOSPHYMOGRAPH
 Angelo Mosso – A pioneer who developed
in 1895 a type of sphygmanometer and
utilized a scientific cradle and focus on the
significance of fear as an indication of
deception.
 This is Angelo Mosso's
sphygmomanometer, an early device for
measuring blood pressure. The patient
inserted their fingers into the tubes
(marked 'E') which were filled with water
- both diastolic and systolic pressures (and
a pulse wave) were recorded on the black
cylinder.
 DEVELOPMENT OF
CARDIOSPHYMOGRAPH
 Dr. William Moulton Marston (1893-
1947), an American lawyer and
psychologist, is credited with the
invention of a primitive form of lie
detector when he developed in 1915, of
the systolic blood pressure test, which
would become, subsequently, a
component of the modern polygraph. This
technique of Dr. Marston used a standard
blood pressure cuff and a stethoscope to
take intermittent readings of the systolic
blood pressure of subject during an
examination in order to detect deception.
DEVELOPMENT OF
CARDIOSPHYMOGRAPH
 Marston was also the creator of
the systolic blood pressure test,
which lead to the creation of the
polygraph (lie detector). Because
of his discovery, Marston was
convinced that women were more
honest and reliable than men and
could work faster and more
accurately.
 DEVELOPMENT OF
CARDIOSPHYMOGRAPH
 John A. Larson - developed an
instrument that continually and
simultaneously measures blood
pressure, pulse and respiration. He
designed the first two recording channel
polygraph in the history. The first
mechanical form of detecting
deceptions because it does not only
have a recording pen for cardio,
pneumo, & galvano but also it has the
muscular movement pen for the arms
and thighs.
 DEVELOPMENT OF
CARDIOSPHYMOGRAPH
 Giovani Lancisi – His study about emotion and
mental functions was conceived in 1782. Lancisi
believed that emotions are produced, by thought, by
more or less forceful heart action. He concluded
that the characteristics of the mind derived from the
structure and physical changes going on in the
body.
 DEVELOPMENT OF
CARDIOSPHYMOGRAPH
 Stephen Hales, English clergyman – a priest
who pioneered clinical physiology. In 1733,
he was the first to study the measurement of
blood pressure in animals.
 Hugo Munsterberg – In 1908, he suggested
the use of blood pressure test, pulse tracings
for measuring deception in court proceedings.
 Galileo – in 1581, he was the first to conduct
experiments using pulsiologium, an apparatus
designed for measuring human pulse.
 DEVELOPMENT OF
PNEUMOGRAPH
 Vittorio Benussi - (1914) noted the changes
in inhalation and exhalation ratio occurring
during deception. He recorded the respiratory
curves of the pneumograph.
 DEVELOPMENT OF
PNEUMOGRAPH
 Harold Burtt - a scientist who, in 1918 determined that
the respiratory changes were signs of deception and
concluded that systolic pressure changes are valuable in
determining deception.
 Burtt is a researcher into deception tests using respiration
and devised a formula to evaluate respiratory responses
for detecting deception based largely on the ratio of the
time to inhale to that of the exhalation.
 He partially confirmed the results obtained by Benussi and
improved upon his technique. However, Burtt considered
this respiratory method of less diagnostic value than the
blood pressure technique that he (Burtt) considered the
best indication of deception.
DEVELOPMENT OF
PNEUMOGRAPH
 Leonarde Keeler – Keeler made significant changes in
the polygraph instrument by adding channels for
recording blood-pressure pulse, respiration changes, a
galvanometer and kymograph. The instrument record
breathing pattern, galvanic skin response, heartbeat,
pulse rate and strength plus changes in mean blood
pressure.
 Keeler’s polygraph was portable, ultimately had all of
the current channels, and contained an inking system. It
included a sprocket drive similar to that used earlier by
Lee, but his kymograph had a differential gear train with
three settings. Keeler’s instrument became the standard
in the field and remained so for many years. The
“Keeler Polygraph,” as it was called, was designed to
be reliable, rugged, and portable.
 DEVELOPMENT OF
PNEUMOGRAPH
 William M. Marston – The work of Marston also
included experiments to record the respiration and
the time of the subject’s verbal response.
 John E Reid (photograph below) found that by
various forms of unobserved muscular activity a
subject’s blood pressure could be changed in such a
manner as to seriously affect the accuracy of the
examiner’s diagnosis. He then devised and invented
the “Reid Polygraph” for recording muscular
activity along with changes in blood pressure,
pulse, respiration, and psychogalvanic skin reflex.
 DEVELOPMENT OF
GALVANIC SKIN RESPONSE
 Sticker - (1897) worked on the galvanograph
component & studied the influence and relation of
the sweat glands to skin resistance.
 “whoever takes the meaning of something to heart
will react with a strong galvanic skin phenomenon.
Whoever is from any cause emotionally roused on
looking at a picture will react with a definite
increase of the current whilst whoever is unmoved
by the picture, in whom it rouses no memory, will
have no skin excitation.”
 DEVELOPMENT OF
GALVANIC SKIN
RESPONSE
 Veraguth- (1907)formulated the term
psycho-galvanic skin reflex. He claimed that
electrical phenomena are due to the activity
of the sweat glands.
 He made the first suggestion for using the
psycho-galvanic reaction for detecting
deception and wrote that, “The galvanic skin
phenomenon is under the influence of
exciting mental impressions and the will
have no effect upon it”.
 DEVELOPMENT OF
GALVANIC SKIN RESPONSE

 Carl Jung (picture below) took to using EDA as

an indicator of emotional complexes along with
his word-association tests. However, the EDA was
slow to be adapted to polygraph applications
largely due to problems in devising a method of
producing a permanent recording, and the difficulty
in the interpretation of the recordings once they
were available.
 DEVELOPMENT OF
GALVANIC SKIN RESPONSE
 As the technology improved, the application of the
electrodermal channel in criminal tests found an
enthusiastic advocate in the Reverend Walter
Summers. Summers reported a success rate of
more than 98% using his “Pathometer,” an
electrodermal recorder, though the vast majority
of his tests with the device were on students in a
laboratory setting. His method entailed
constructing a series of test questions and then
recording electrodermal response amplitudes during
the presentation of the questions. Reverend
Summers demonstrates his apparatus below.
 DEVELOPMENT OF GALVANIC SKIN
RESPONSE
 Richard O. Arthur- developed an improvised polygraph machine with
two galvanic skin resistance.
 Emil Du Boi-Reymond, German physician and physiologist – In 1849,
he discovered the flow of current from the two limbs by applying
chemical compound on the hands and feet. Du Bois-Reymond inferred
that the human skin is a conductor of electricity. He regarded that the
observed phenomena was influenced potentially by muscle activity.
 Herman and Luchsinger – in 1878, they reported their findings about
the connection of sweat gland activity and flow of current in the skin of
a cat. In 1881, Hermann discovered that the finger and palms areas of
the hands produces greater sweat compared to other body parts.
 DEVELOPMENT OF GALVANIC SKIN
RESPONSE
 Jean Martin Charcot, French nuerologist – He was famous
for his work on hysteria and hypnosis. Charcot laboratory
was used by Vigouroux and Fere in their research.
 Romain Vigourox, electrotherapist – in 1879, he conducted
research on emotionally disturbed patients by measuring the
changes in skin resistance through adjusted dosages of
medications applied to them. He suggested the vascular
theory in electrodermal activity, which associated the
changes in skin resistance with changes in blood flow.