1 |UC-CCJE

intended5

NOTES IN
TRAFFIC ACCIDENT
INVESTIGATIONq

NAME:
SCHEDULE:
2 |UC-CCJE

UNIT I
TRAFFIC OPERATION AND ENFORCEMENT

DEFINITION OF TERMS
Traffic
It refers to the movement of persons, goods, or vehicles, either
powered by combustion system or animal drawn, from one place to
another for the purpose of travel.
It was derived from the word trafficare which means “to carry on trade”.
Congestion
A situation in which a place is crowded with people or vehicles, so that it
is difficult to move around (Macmillan Dictionary).
Traffic Congestion
A condition on road networks that occurs as use increases, and is
characterized by slower speeds, longer trip times, and increased
vehicular queuing.
Major Causes of Traffic Congestion
1. Physical inadequacy
2. Poor control measures
3. Human errors
4. Poor maintenance
Management
It is the skillful use of means to accomplish a purpose.
Traffic Management
It is the method of control for roadwork, that is, the measures that are
generally intended to improve road safety for all its users and ease
congestion or control the use of the cars (ask.com).
It is the systematic administration and operation of traffic.
Scope of Traffic Management
In connection with the above stated causes of congestion, authorities
conceived that a systematic and effective traffic management is need which
includes but not limited to the following:
3 |UC-CCJE

1. All public surface facilities traversing and parking and all types of
conveyances for the movement of persons and things.
2. All agencies having responsibilities for ascertaining traffic flow
requirements, planning, approving, funding, construction and/or
maintaining theses public facilities for such movements.
3. All agencies responsible for licensing, approving, restricting, stopping,
prohibiting or controlling the use of these facilities.
Traffic Unit
Any person using the roadway as a pedestrian or driver including the
vehicle or animal he is using.
Accident
Any unexpected occurrence which results to unintended death, injury
or damage to property.
Traffic Accident
Any accident involving travel transportation on a traffic way.
Traffic Accident Investigation
Systematic process of establishing facts and circumstances pertaining
to a traffic accident.
Operation
Pertains to a course or series of acts to effect a certain purpose;
manner or action; or a vital or natural process of activity.
Roadway
It refers to that part of the traffic way over which motor vehicle pass.
Shoulder
It refers to either side of the roadway, especially along highways.
Traffic way
It refers to the entire width between boundary lines of every way or
place of which any part is open to the use of the public for purposes of
vehicular traffic as a matter of right or custom.
4 |UC-CCJE

HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF LAND TRANSPORTATION

Transportation is the movement or conveying of persons and goods
from one location to another for the purpose of travel.
Man’s need to travel dates back as early as the creation of human
beings. Biblical passages alleged that when Adam and Eve ate the fruit of the
forbidden tree, God sent them out of the Paradise of Eden.
Since then, the human race expanded and our ancestors constantly
move from one place to another to enable them to survive and others for
various reasons.
Other biblical passages mentioned that Moses was chosen by God to
speak to the Pharaoh of Egypt to let His children out of Egypt. So the children
of Israel were gloriously brought out from Egypt to serve God.
Soon, others became nomadic. They constantly migrate from one
place to another according to their own detailed knowledge of exploitable
resources.
The term nomad, from the Greek word “to pasture”, was originally used
to refer to pastoralists – groups that migrate in an established pattern to find
pasturelands for their domestic livestock. However, the term has since been
generalized to include all non-settled populations, of which there are three
types:
Foraging population – who wander in search of their food. It is
estimated that 99% of all humanity once lived in this way.
Pastural nomads – who move with their families, belongings, and
herds of cattle, camel, sheep, or goats through an annual cycle of
pastures whose availability is determined by the alternation of hot
and cold or wet or dry seasons.
It comprises the gypsies, tinkers and similar itinerants in urban and
complex societies.
What worth noting is how man travelled during the ancient period. It
is believed that early human beings traveled to places by foot, carrying their
loads on their backs or on their heads while other pulled crude sleds. They
used every means to make their transportation with the least time and effort.
5 |UC-CCJE

Early Modes of Transportation

A. Manpower Transportation
It originated in the Stone Age during the primitive years wherein man
used sled, the invention of sled the early man have gotten the idea for skiffs-
pieces of smooth board resembling sled runner but worn on the feet of the
hunter and inter of snow-shoes. The first water craft, the manpower ran, and
the cause probably evolved from the floating log.
1. Carrying pole
2. Back load and tumpline
3. Sledge on rollers
4. Sledge on runners
5. Travois
B. Animal Power
1. Ox – first domesticated in Mesopotamia.
2. Reindeer – first domesticated in Siberia around the beginning of the
Christian Era.
3. Dog – first animal domesticated.
4. Donkey – first domesticated in the Middle East.
5. Llama – pre-Columbian America, the Llama was the only new world
animal other than the dog capable of domestication for use in
transport.
6. Elephant – Carthaginians used African elephant in their war against
Rome.
7. Horse – around 2, 000 B.C.
8. Camel – bred by the Arab nomads.
9. Yak – a long-haired type of cattle that lives in high altitudes on the
Tibetan plateau.
C. Wind Power
1. Ancient Chinese Kite – first used for transport when a Korean general
employed one in bridge building.
2. Da Vinci’s Ornithopter – made used of the flight of the birds and his
notebooks sketched a number of ornithopter which derives its principal
support and propelling from flapping wings like those of a bird.
6 |UC-CCJE

3. Montgolfier Balloon – brothers Joseph Michel and Jacques Entienne of

France have successfully released several balloons when they propose
to use two condemned prisoner for the first ascent with passengers.
Pilatre de Rozier, a natural historian protested this and claimed the
honor for himself. In 1783, he and the Marquis d’ Arlanoes became the
first men to make a free balloon ascent.
4. Siemen’s Rocket Plane – Ernst Werner Von Siemens, in 1847, designed
rockt place which was to be propelled by the explosive force of
gunpowder.
5. Lilienthal Glider – Otto Lilienthal, a German inventor who also made a
study of the flight of the birds and experimented with ornithopters,
going so far as to build a model ornithopter. His chief work was with
gliders.
6. Santos Dumont’s Airship – Alberto Santos Dumont, a Brazilian who
experiment with the steam-powered balloons in Paris made his first
balloon ascent in 1897 and 1898 completed the construction of his first
airship.
7. Wright Brother’s Flying Machine – built biplane kite then over 200
different wing types which they tested in a wind tunnel of their own
invention, before they conducted their first man-carrying powered
machine.
8. Lindbergh’s Spirit of St. Louis – the first solo flight from New York to
Paris, made by Capt. Charles A. Lindbergh in May 1927.
Roads and Vehicles History
A. Wheel was invented probably in Western Asia
1. Solid wheels on fixed axle – cart represents an early step in the
evolution of wheeled vehicles. Its solid wheels which were made of a
single piece of wood, rotated on single axle.
2. Sumerian chariot with flank wheels – about 2400 B.C. had solid wheels
built of three pieces.
3. Greek quadriga with spoked wheels – drawn by four horses was a light
and elegant vehicle for gentleman about 250 B.C.
4. Roman carpentum – a closed, two-wheeled cart, the favored vehicle
when Roman women journeyed outside the city.
7 |UC-CCJE

5. Italian cocchio, 1288 – a traveling wagon in which the passengers

were protected by a covering or leather or cloth fixed over a wooden
framework.
B. Wheeled vehicles could not use the narrow paths and trails used by pack
animals, and early roads were soon built.
C. The Romans were the major road builders in the ancient world.
D. John L. Macadam – perfected the Macadamized Road in England about
1815.
E. After the fall of the Romans in the 5 th century, land haulage generally
declined because highways suffered from inadequate maintenance. Such
improvements, however, as the horse collars (10th century), the addition
of spring to coaches; new methods of road construction, and the
introduction of toll roads (18th century) all continued to ease and speed
land travel.
F. Significant improvement of road vehicle began with the adoption of Coach
Spring about 1650.
G. John Palmer introduced his first fast mail coach in March of 1785.
H. The invention of Bicycle – early 19th century served as a nursery of
automobile builders. One of the modern ancestors of the modern bicycle
was the Hobbyhorse, or dan horse.
a. The German Baron Karl Von Drais in 1817 introduced a steerable
wheel, creating the “draisienne”, or “dandy horse”.
b. In 1838, Kirkapatrick Macmillan, a Scottish blacksmith, made the first
machine with pedals, which were attached to and drove the rear wheel
by means of cranks.
I. Pneumatic Tires by a Scot – John Boyd Dunlop appeared in late 19th
century (about 1888).
J. Motor Vehicle – the first mode of transportation to challenge the railroads.
a. French Entiene Lenoir made possible the introduction of motorized
carriages by his invention in the 1860’s and 1870’s of the Internal
Combustion Engine.
8 |UC-CCJE

b. Nicolaus Otto and Gottlieb Daimler pioneered the manufacture of gas

engines, and later Daimler became a successful automobile
manufacturer.
c. Rudolf Diesel, a German engineer, developed an engine, which
requires no electrical ignition system or carburetor and uses other
form of liquid fuel, the diesel fuel.
d. Automobile found its greatest popularity in the U.S., first HORSELESS
CARRIAGE (1890s).
e. In 1908, Henry Ford introduced the Model T which was proved so
popular that 1914, Ford had adopted MASS PRODUCTION.
f. In 1956, Felix Wankel, a German mathematician, developed an
advanced-type of engine, named after him, that operates very
differently from gas and diesel engines. It was started by a moving
crankshaft.
9 |UC-CCJE

PILLARS OF TRAFFIC
I. TRAFFIC ENGINEERING
It is the science of measuring traffic and travel.
The study of the basic laws relative to traffic laws, rules and regulations.
It is the application of this knowledge to the professional practice of
planning, deciding, and operating traffic system to achieve safe and
efficient transportation of persons and goods.
It is the foundation of traffic, without which the flow of traffic will be
disastrous or hazardous.
It deals with the planning and geometrical designs of streets, highways
and abutting lands and with the operation thereon for the safe,
convenient and economic transportation of persons and goods
(Valdueza, 2013).
Areas of work for Traffic Engineering
1. Safety 6. Highways
2. Convenience 7. Planning
3. Economy 8. Design
4. People 9. Operations
5. Vehicle
Functions of Traffic Engineering
1. Fact finding, surveys and recommendations of traffic rules and regulations.
2. Supervisions and maintenance to the application of traffic control devices.
3. Planning of traffic regulations.
Objectives of Traffic Engineering
1. To achieve efficient, free and rapid flow of traffic.
2. To prevent traffic accident.
3. To simplify police enforcement actions and performance.
4. To show that good police actions and performance make engineering
plans effective.
5. To present the close relationship of the pillars of traffic in the improvement
of traffic problems.
10 |UC-CCJE

Agencies Concerned in Traffic Engineering

1. Department of Public Works and Highways (DPWH)
a. National in scope.
b. Responsible for determining traffic law, pattern, draw, origin, and
destinations, studies of persons and things, planning, approving,
funding and construction of:
national roads – interconnecting cities and municipalities;
a network of national roads through cities and municipalities; and
a yearly maintenance and repair programs which include widening
and redesigning of current road system.
2. Provincial government – municipalities within the province.
3. Municipal government – network of streets and roads within the barangay.
4. Chartered cities – barangay within the cities.
Road Classification
1) According to Political Subdivision
a. National Roads – main road as conduit system with a right of way from
20 – 120 meters.
b. Provincial roads – the linkages between two municipalities with right of
way from 15 – 60 meters.
c. City roads – the interlink between municipalities and the city proper
with right of way of 15 meters.
d. Municipal roads – all roads within the town proper with right of way of
not less than 10 meters.
e. Barangay roads – commonly called farm to market road with right of
way not less than two meters.
2) According to Functions
a. Feeder road – intended for farm to market road.
b. Local collector road – intended as major arteries to collect inter locality
traffic to municipal road.
c. Major collector road – intended as major arteries to collect inter
locality provincial road.
11 |UC-CCJE

d. Major highway – serves as main artery that caters on big volumes of

vehicular traffic on national roadways.
e. Expressways – a through traffic for free flow of vehicular movement.
f. Tunnel road – a passage of wide section cut through a hill or sea to
shorten circuitous roadway.
g. Subway – an underground conduit running entirely under the ground
for fast travel route of commuters.
h. Skyway – a modern urban system of roadway above street level for
free flow of traffic.
3) According to Topographical terrain
a. Flat road
b. Zigzag road
c. Steep hill climbing road
d. Downhill road
e. Winding road
f. Mountainous road
g. Roller coaster road
Functional Classification of Roadway
1) Where vehicles pass safely on
a. Climb lane
b. Overtaking lane
c. Acceleration lane
d. Deceleration lane
e. Thru traffic lane
f. Turning lane
2) Where part of the roadway is used for
a. Standing lane
b. Stopping lane
c. Bus stop
3) Where the portion of the roadway is for
a. Turning lane
b. Median lane
12 |UC-CCJE

c. Speed change lane

d. Merging flow lane
e. Contra flow lane
f. Bus lane
Application of the Objectives of Traffic Engineering
1. Habitually congested commercial areas
2. Heavily travelled thoroughfares
3. Congested local areas and intersections
4. Special occasions and events
5. Disaster or emergencies
6. School crossing
Methods in Achieving the Objectives of Traffic Engineering
1. Factors Employed in Planning and Geometric Design
a. Composition of traffic streams
b. Traffic volumes for capacity
c. Origin and destination
2. Factors Influencing Design
a. Composition of traffic
b. Volume of traffic
c. Speed of vehicles
d. Starting, turning and stopping abilities of traffic units
e. Performance values
3. Regulation and control traffic regulation
a. Based and confined within the boundaries of safety, public welfare and
convenience.
b. Limitations impose on road users and their load.
c. Basic general rule of road use and conduct
d. Prohibitions and restrictions
II. TRAFFIC EDUCATION
It is the process of giving training and practice in the actual application of
traffic safety knowledge.
13 |UC-CCJE

It is considered as the “Light Bringer” in traffic operations, the prime

mover in instilling knowledge on all people involve in traffic safety
management.
Safety Training
The three principles that have been emphasized as effective in the
prevention of traffic accidents are known as the three (3) E’s of traffic:
Engineering, Education and Enforcement.
Three Levels of Traffic Safety Education
1. Imparting knowledge concerning traffic safety.
2. Training and practice in the actual application of traffic safety knowledge.
3. Developing traffic safety morality.

Driver’s Education
The basic purposes of these are:
To develop good traffic citizens who are equipped to live in a
motorized society and achieving traffic safety.
To develop citizens who are legally eligible to get a driver’s license.
In general, driver instruction aims primarily to teach the rudiments of
driving.
Secondary aims are as follows:
To instill awareness of one’s legal and moral responsibilities in traffic.
To teach the abilities required for one to be eligible for a driver’s
license.
Four Basic Types of Instruction Methods Used in Driver Education Program
1. Comprehensive
This method places the student into real life of driving situation from the
beginning.
2. Traditional Instruction
This type of instruction depends on instruction-student communication.
3. Commentary Driving Method
The student-driver will be accompanied by an instructor. As the student-
driver drives, the instruction has to give comments on his driving.
4. Simulated Conditions and Off the Road Training
14 |UC-CCJE

The premise of simulated conditions’ training is that the behavior the

driver-subject placed in condition will be relatively analogous to normal
behavior.
Two Methods of Simulation Presently Adopted are:
1. Partial Simulation
This method has the specific aim of training for the subtask of the
driving task.
2. Global Simulation
Training is simulated in traffic situations and conditions with the use of
simulations. Simulators are most commonly used for the following types
of training:
Training in basic car control skills
Perceptual training
Emergency training
Simulator
It is a static machine with all the important features of a car used in
driving method or driving training.
Classification of films as shown by the simulators
1. The analytical film which provides an objective analysis of the driving
situation presented to the student.
2. The didactic film which aims to show good driving behavior.
3. The simulation film which offers visual realism to driving situations and
therefore a good aid in actual practice.
Biorhythm
The theory which asserts that man exhibits a constant variation of life
energy and mood states.
Public Information Programs
The public should be informed on all activities affecting the citizens and
the community relating to traffic (dissemination of information).
Safety Campaign
15 |UC-CCJE

This is a mass publicity aimed to make road users to behave more

safely. This basically focuses on public information attitudes, and
particular or specific behaviors, or combinations of these.
Road propaganda may be intended simply to inform or it may be felt
that the public is already aware of the recommended behavior by need
to be persuaded into adopting it.
A. Safety Campaign Classification
1. According to purpose – may be categorized as informational,
attitudinal, and behavioral.
2. Kind of appeal – used to reason by simply feeding the public with
authenticated factual data.
B. Safety Campaign Design
1. Initial Campaign Planning
2. Final Campaign Design
3. Campaign Evaluation
C. Private and Government Entities Responsible for Safety Campaign
1. Newspapers
2. Radio broadcasting networks
3. Television broadcasting networks
4. Public information agencies
5. Citizen Support Groups (NGOs)
a. Develop citizen’s responsibilities
b. Conduct organized educational campaign
c. Awareness of the traffic problems
d. Major traffic requirements and need

III. TRAFFIC ENFORCEMENT

This field deals mostly on the implementation and enforcement of
traffic law, rules and regulations.
Agencies Responsible in Traffic Enforcement
A. Land Transportation Office
1. Vehicle registrations
16 |UC-CCJE

2. Vehicle inspections
3. Driver’s licensing
4. Public to police on stolen or wanted vehicles
B. Legislation – passing of laws and ordinances and appropriations of
budget
1. Congress
2. Council (city or municipal)
3. Provincial boards
C. Police – direct enforcement of traffic laws
1. Philippine National Police (PNP)
2. Metropolitan Manila Development Authority (MMDA)
3. Police Auxiliaries
What traffic laws are?
All traffic enforcement is based on the traffic laws.
1. The first law concerning driving behavior, which was developed
mostly from experience over the years, resulted from customs and
common usage.
2. Traffic laws, like all other laws, reflect the beliefs, behavior and
standard agreed on by the society.
Why people violate traffic laws?
1. Physical disabilities
2. Ignorance of traffic laws, rules and regulations
3. Mental disorders
4. Lack of training and experience
5. Wrong attitudes towards driving, risk taking, enforcement and traffic laws
6. Habitual traffic violators
7. Drivers of public utility vehicles for increase compensation and commission
Considerations that act as deterrent to motorists and pedestrians
1. Fear of fine or punishment
2. Loss of driving privileges
3. Possibility of being involved in accidents
17 |UC-CCJE

4. Positive area of good citizenship – doing what is right and setting an

example
TRAFFIC LAW ENFORCEMENT
Traffic law enforcement action is part of enforcement involving the
arrest, issuance of Temporary Operator’s Permit (TOP) or Inspection Report
Summons, or warning of any persons who is believed to have violated a law,
ordinance or regulations pertaining to the use of traffic roads.
Scope of Traffic Law Enforcement
1. The action taken by the police and the court to compel obedience to
traffic laws and ordinances regulating the movement and use of motor
vehicles for the purpose of creating a deterrent to unlawful behavior by
all potential violators.
2. Enforcement of traffic legislation is an area of activity aimed at
controlling road used behavior by preventive, persuasive and punitive
methods in order to effect a safe and efficient movement.
3. It applies to all statutes, ordinances and legally authorized regulations
relating to the use of street and highways and operation of motor
vehicles.
Functions of Traffic Law Enforcement
1. Police Traffic Law Enforcement
The part of the traffic law enforcement performed by the police and
other agencies with police power including deterrent to law violation
created by the presence of uniformed police officers and their special
equipment, special assistance to courts and prosecutors and incidental
services to highway users.
2. Court Traffic Law Enforcement
The part of traffic law enforcement performed by the court by
adjudication and penalization
3. Police-Court Enforcement Process
a. Detection – wholly police responsibility which requires adequate
training and experience on the part of the police traffic enforcers so
18 |UC-CCJE

that their enforcement duties and responsibilities are effectively

and efficiently carried out/implemented.
b. Apprehension – mandatory application of the various traffic laws,
ordinances, rules and regulations, wherein violator/s are dealt with
accordingly but justly, humanely and judiciously. Enforcement
apprehension must be constructive.
c. Prosecution – the traffic police enforcers in coordination with the
proper court, prosecutorial arm or agency, will provide
corresponding facts, basis, evidence and other relevant
documentation needed in the effective prosecution of notorious and
incorrigible traffic violator/s, specifically when it involved traffic
accident/s.
d. Adjudication – this is the court function, but traffic police enforcers can
recommend to the proper court the appropriate punishment/penalty
to be imposed against subject traffic violator/s.
e. Penalization – the court imposed to respondent erring traffic
violator/s the appropriate penalty/punishment in consonance with
law.
Three Important Goals of Enforcement Activities
1. To increase safety level.
2. To increase traffic efficiency.
3. To insure harmonious and comfortable environment.
Objectives of traffic law enforcement activities can be achieved through:
1. Preventive activities
2. Persuasive activities
3. Punitive activities
Major Elements of Traffic Enforcement System
1. Enforcement system
It consists of legislation, police, court, and penalties.
2. Road users system (traffic way users)
It includes pedestrians, drivers, passengers, and vehicles.
3. Road system (traffic system)
It consists of the entire road and vehicle complex.
19 |UC-CCJE

Police Traffic Enforcement Action

The part of police traffic law enforcement involving arrest, citation or
warning of any person believed to have violated a law, ordinance or rules and
regulations pertaining to the use of traffic ways, when the person has
knowledge of his action and when it is to:
1. Prevent such violation from endangering persons or property or
inconveniencing other users of the traffic way.
2. Prevent continued violation.
3. Discourage future violation.
Basis for Decision of Enforcement Action
1. degree of violation
2. accuracy of observation
3. continuous or momentary action
4. traffic and weather condition
5. evidence gathered
6. a new law or not

Kinds of Enforcement Action

1. Traffic Arrest
It is an enforcement action which consists of taking a person into
custody for the purpose of holding or detaining him to answer a charge
of law violation before a court.
Arrest is made when:
a. Offense committed is serious.
b. Detention is necessary to avoid continued violation.
c. There is reasonable doubt that the violator will not appear in court
2. Traffic citation – is made of having violator appear in court without
physical arrest.
3. Traffic warning – is an enforcement action which does not contemplate
possible assessment of penalty by the court or otherwise as a result of
warning alone.
20 |UC-CCJE

Types of Traffic Warning

1. Visual warning – usually used when you have observed a minor
violation but are more importantly occupied at a moment. It is
indicated by gesture of the hand and/or of the head.
2. Verbal warning – a form of traffic safety education. Tell the driver or
violator that he violated a law and explain the hazards of such
violations.
3. Written warning – combination of verbal warning and citations. It
gives the spirit of verbal warning and the form of citation.

IV. TRAFFIC ECOLOGY OR ENVIRONMENT

The study with potentially disastrous population explosion changes in
urban environment due to scale and density of new urban concentration and
new activities carried out air pollution, water pollution and crowding,
especially transport congestion which result therein.
Kinds of Environmental Effects of Urban Transportation
1. Noise
2. Vibration
3. Dirt
4. Visual intrusion
5. Loss of privacy
6. Change in amount of light
7. Neighborhood severance both physical and sociological
8. Relocation
9. Distraction during planning and construction
10. Accident experience
11.Pedestrian journey
12.Congestion and other benefits to vehicles
External Factors that Influences the Existing and Future Behavior of Population
1. Rapidly increasing population growth
2. Rapidly increasing urbanization
3. Rapidly increasing motorization
4. Industrialization and technical modernization
21 |UC-CCJE

5. Improvement of the transportation network that is the street network

and the public transportation facilities.
Schemes to limit traffic and to improve the efficiency and quality of
service of buses and transport:
1. Pedestrian scheme should be introduced whenever possible to
improve the environment and safety for pedestrians. The use of
non- carbon emitting vehicles should be encouraged like bicycle
whenever practical.
2. Motor vehicle reduction scheme should also be introduced.

V. TRAFFIC ECONOMY
It deals with the benefits and adverse effects of traffic to our economy.
Traffic operation is designed to expedite the movement of traffic. However,
with the prevailing traffic congestion during rush hours in any given locality
adversely affect the economic status of the commuting public.
One aspect affecting our economy is the unending increase of oil prices
in the world market. Somehow, programs must be instituted in order to
minimize the ill effect of rising prices of basic commodities.
Delay resulting from traffic congestion affects not only the time of
travel but the productivity of an individual as well.

OFFICER-VIOLATOR RELATIONSHIP
In officer-violator relationship, the first reminder for an officer in traffic
enforcement is to establish pleasant relationship with the offending motorist
or pedestrian.
Two Objectives in Dealing with a Violator
1. Immediate objective is enforcement action against the driver.
2. Ultimate objective is to change his future driving behavior.
Pleasant Relationship can be accomplished by:
1. The appearance of your uniform, equipment and person which will create
the violator impression of you. A neat, clean and properly worn uniform
and well-groomed person will create a good impression.
22 |UC-CCJE

2. Observance of the following rules when talking with violators:

a. Get your emotions under control. Do not appear before him when you
are both at the peak of tension or excitement.
b. Advise the violator the nature of the alleged violation in the manner
that he can fully understand.
c. Allow the violator to talk and explain his side.
d. Be courteous and business like. You may introduce yourself or use
only good morning, Sir or Madam. Using Sir or Madam identifies you
identified as a gentleman.
e. Request compliance. Use requesting words such as “May I”, “Please”
and “Kindly” when directing the violator.
f. Avoid telling the driver what not to do. If you want him to do
something whenever possible, explain why you want him to do it.
3. Never open your conversation in sarcastic or derogatory way.
4. Be alert at all times for the unexpected. Approach the violator with these
cases:
a. Take time to get ready.
b. Know what you are going to say and do.
c. Have any equipment you will need such as flashlight, clipboard, or
citation pad.
d. Review the facts which lead to your stopping the violator before you
begin to talk.
e. Decide what enforcement action you are going to take before you
approach the violator.
In requesting for the driver’s license and vehicle registration certificate,
observe the following suggested procedures:
1. Do not put your head or arms in the car window.
2. While waiting for the license, ask the driver: “What is your name Sir?”
3. Never accept anything other than the paper requested.
4. Ask the papers being requested be removed from the billfold or other
container.
5. Have the driver hand the requested papers to you outside the window.
23 |UC-CCJE

6. Establish the identity of the driver and check the entries of both the
license and the registration papers for any possible fraud, false identities
or falsifications.
7. Do not return the driver’s license and vehicle registration certificate until
you are about to terminate the interview.
In terminating your contact with the violator, observe the following:
1. Explain to the driver what action he must take.
2. Tell him when and where he must appear.
3. Do not discuss probable bail or penalties with the violator.
4. Avoid any naughty suggestion that he should engage in the services of
a counsel or how he should plead.
5. When you are certain that the driver understands what he should do,
close the interview by thanking the driver for his cooperation and
explaining how he may avoid further difficulty.
6. Help the driver get safely through the traffic.
7. When the violator leaves, do not follow him immediately. He may feel
that you are just waiting to nab him again. Either turn around and
patrol in the opposite direction or you may stay where you are for a
moment to decide what to do next.

TRAFFIC DIRECTION
All men in the department should be trained to direct traffic at the following:
1. Accident scene
2. Other emergencies
3. Planned social events
4. Regular point and integration control
5. Directing pedestrian movement
All men in the department should be trained how to direct traffic on the following:
1. Unsignalized intersection
2. Signalized intersection
3. Between intersections
24 |UC-CCJE

Signaling:
1. Use hand signal to designate you decision to the motorist.
2. Signal must be uniformed and understood by the motorist and pedestrian.
3. Must be clear and positive.
4. Do not give them verbal signals or instructions.
5. Be alert and stand erect on both feet.
6. Look to a person to whom you are signaling.
7. The arm signal should be shoulder high and a full circular motion of the arm.
8. Supplement the arm signal with whistle.
9. Stand sideways to incoming traffic while stopping vehicular traffic.
10.Let your hands hang at side when not using them.
11. Constant weaving of the hand is confusing and serves to distract or
slow down traffic.
12.When changing phase, maintain a 90-degree turn of the body.
13. If turns are permitted, described the movement to be made with an
arc of a man.
14.To stop a moving lane, point at the car you intend to stop and give him or
her opportunity to stop.
15. The hand signal should be with the arm extended and the palm
facing the person to be stopped.

Whistle Signals
1. One lost blast for stop.
2. Two short snappy for go.
3. Three blast to be used for assistance or for the motorist to be attentive.

SIGNALS AND GESTURES FOR DIRECTING TRAFFIC

Objectives
1. Traffic law enforcers assigned to traffic control.
a. Expected to indicate the drivers and pedestrians how, when and
where they should move.
25 |UC-CCJE

b. An inexperienced traffic law enforcer immediately presents a

problem of communication to the people on what he wants them to
do. This lead to chaos or confusion, and results to an impassable
traffic flow.
2. Purpose of the instruction received is to make the meaning clear to
drivers and pedestrians. The instruction to start and stop at a given
line of traffic must be clear.
3. Uniformity of signals and gestures to all traffic law enforcers and
volunteers.
4. Attire and appearance of a traffic law enforcer directing traffic.
a. Be in the official uniform.
b. Clean shaved, haircut and clear uniform.
c. To enable the motorist and the pedestrian to recognize the traffic
law enforcer.
d. The manner of his appearance and actions either gains or looses
the respect of the citizens.

Command of Traffic
1. Stand where you can be seen.
a. Normally in the middle of the intersection.
2. Postures and Stances
a. Show that you mean business.
b. Weight should be the same on each foot.
c. When not signaling, hands hung at sides.
d. Do not face vehicles you authorize to move. Stand sideways.
Gestures used to stop traffic
1. Point your arm and index finger and look straight to the driver you want
to stop and give him time to stop. Then raise your hand only so your
palm is towards the driver.
2. Repeat the process for traffic in the opposite direction.
3. Do not lower arms until vehicles from both directions are stopped.
Gestures to start traffic movement
1. Stand sideways toward the lanes of traffic you want to move.
26 |UC-CCJE

2. Point your arm and index finger toward the vehicles you want to start.
Hold it until the driver sees you and with you palm up, swing your hand
up and over to your chin. Bend arm only at elbow.
3. With one side, drop the arm to the side and raise other arm and repeat
process for opposite lane.
4. Use same signals when drivers are moving too slow or are hesitant in
moving.
Right Turn Gestures
1. Usually required at intersection.
2. If required for vehicles to the right, point arm at vehicle and then point
in the direction he is to move.
3. Moving vehicles to your left for right turn, you may bend your left arm
at elbow and with thumb and forearm indicates movement.
Left Turn Gestures
1. Left turn vehicles from your left.
a. Stop vehicles from right and direct vehicles making left turn to
proceed.
2. Left turn vehicles from your right.
a. Turn around facing direction vehicle will turn and use same
procedure above.
3. Streets with only one available moving lane.
a. Allow space for cars going straight and turning left.
b. Direct the left turn cars with the proper finger, hand and arm motion.
Two Officer Traffic Direction
1. Occasional need for two men
a. If there is a need, the first to command must be given by the team
leader followed by the member.

REFERENCE
Ask.com (2014). Available online at http://www.ask.com/question/what-is-traffic-
management
Bragado, F.A. (1998). Trafficology: the science of traffic.
27 |UC-CCJE

Delizo, D.B. (2009). Traffic management and accident investigation: an

instructional handbook. Quezon City: Wiseman’s Book Trading
Lichauco, R.C. (1998). The Philippine road rules and regulations handbook.
Green Ads Group
Macmillan Publishers Limited 2009-2013. Available online at
http://www.macmillandictionary.com/us/dictionary/american/congestion
Traffic Management Group. Traffic management group handbook.
Valdueza, F.L. (2013). Fundamentals of Traffic Management and Accident
Investigation. Quezon City: Wiseman’s Book Trading, Inc.
28 |UC-CCJE

UNIT II
TRAFFIC LAWS AND CONTROL
Specific Objectives: At the end of the unit, the students should be able to:
1. recognize and acquaint themselves to the existing traffic laws in the
Philippines;
2. familiarize themselves on the different traffic signs and its meaning; and
3. explain and apply the objectives and the types of traffic control.

TRAFFIC LAWS, RULES AND REGULATIONS

REPUBLIC ACTS
R.A. 4136 It is otherwise called as the Land Transportation Code of
the Philippines.
This is the basic law regulating land transportation in the
Philippines.
It repealed Act No. 3992, which is the Revised Motor
Vehicle Law.
R.A. 6539 Anti Carnapping Act of 1972
R.A. 8749 Clean Air Act
R.A. 8750 It provides for the attachment of seatbelts for all types of
motor vehicles and impose penalty for the non-compliance
thereof.
R.A. 7924 The act creating the Metropolitan Development Authority,
defining its powers and functions, providing funds therefore
and for other purposes.
R.A. 8794 Overloading Act of the Philippines
PRESIDENTIAL DECREES
P.D. 96 Regulating the use of sirens, bells, horns and others by
prohibiting the attachment of any siren, bells, or horns on
motor vehicles which produce unusual or startling sounds
as well as blinkers and other similar devices unless the
vehicle
belongs to the AFP, NBI, LTO, PNP, BJMP, hospitals and fire
29 |UC-CCJE

departments and are specifically intended for use in

emergencies.
P.D. 101 Expediting the methods of prescribing, redefining or
modifying the lines and modes of operations of public utility
motor vehicles in the Philippines.
PRESIDENTIAL DECREES
P.D. 612 Requiring compulsory insurance for all types of motor
vehicles against third party liability as an additional
pre-
requisite for registration by the LTO.
P.D. 207 Declaring as part of the laws of the Philippines the Vienna
Convention on Road Traffic Signs and Signals.
P.D. 1686 Imposing a tax on every motor vehicle equipped with air
conditioner.
P.D. 1181 Providing for the abatement of air pollution from motor
vehicles and for other purposes.
P.D. 1605 Granting the Metropolitan Manila Commission
certain powers related to traffic management and
control in Metropolitan Manila providing penalties
and for other
purposes.
P.D. 98 Regulating the issuance of license plates of all motor
vehicles.
P.D. 109 Modifying P.D. 98.
P.D. 1729 Authorizing the Bureau of Land Transportation to dispose of
impounded motor vehicles unclaimed by owners for a
certain period of time.
P.D. 1730 Declaring the syndicated printing, manufacturing,
distribution, possession or use of fake official Bureau of Land
Transportation forms, documents, plates, and stickers as
offenses involving economic sabotage.
LETTER OF INSTRUCTIONS
L.O.I. 43 Providing for the removal of all impediments on roads,
30 |UC-CCJE

streets, and highways such as constructions, stalled or

parked vehicles and other movable property that obstruct
free passage.
This abrogated city or municipal ordinances governing
the disposition of traffic on city and municipal streets
throughout
the country.
L.O.I. 112 Prohibiting freight and cargo trucks from using roads,
highways and bridges whose load capacities are in excess
of specific allowable limits.
L.O.I 229 Requiring all motor vehicle owners, users, or drivers to have
in their possession at all time while driving at least one (1)
pair of early warning device for use when the vehicle is
disabled on roads, streets and highways or other
emergencies
compelling the vehicle to be on stop position.
L.O.I. 716 Every motor vehicle to equip at least a pair of early warning
device.
L.O.I 551 Directing the law enforcement agencies to implement the
Pollution Control Program.
LETTER OF INSTRUCTIONS
L.O.I. 1009 All owners of private motor vehicles who desire to stop
operating or using their number plates and registration
certificates to surrender to BLT.
ADMINISTRATIVE AND SPECIAL ORDERS
A.O. 8, s-1968 Requiring the towing and impounding of stalled motor
vehicles on public highways and the imposition
of corresponding fees thereof.
A.O. 1, s-1973 Prescribing guidelines and procedures in the implementation
of P.D. 96.
A.O. 1, s-1975 Laying down specific rules of action in the imposition of
uniform fines and penalties for violation of the provisions of
R.A. 4136.
31 |UC-CCJE

S.O. 101 Enumerating and identifying various city streets where

parking is prohibited.
MEMORANDUM CIRCULARS
M.C. 2005-14 Supplement to M.C. 2003-033, which grants fare discounts to
elderly, disabled persons and students.

DRIVER’S LICENSES
Driving a motor vehicle in the Philippines as in other countries is NOT a
right but a privilege granted by the Philippine Government through LTO based
on R.A. 4136 and B.P. Blg. 398. Further, it is a privilege, which may be
suspended or revoked.
Driver’s License
Any document issued to a qualified driver who possesses the statutory
qualification as provided therefore. It is also a public document which has
the legal presumption of genuineness.
Types of Licenses, Procedures and Requirements
1. International Driver’s License
Bonafide tourists and transients who are duly licensed to operate
motor vehicle in their respective countries may be allowed to operate motor
vehicles during their stay but not beyond 90 days of their sojourn in the
Philippines.
Requirements
a. The original foreign license plus a photocopy of the same license.
b. In the event that the foreign license is written in the language of the
license holder other than ENGLISH, a translation of the contents of the
license into ENGLISH from the embassy from which the license was
issued.
c. In the event that the applicant applies for a license or if his foreign
license is expired at the time that the application is filed, the applicant
will have to undergo both a WRITTEN EXAMINATION and ACTUAL ROAD
TEST.
d. An application form filled by the applicant.
Foreign license applicants can only be issued a NON-PROFESSIONAL
DRIVER’S LICENSE
32 |UC-CCJE

2. Military Driver’s License

Enlisted military personnel of the AFP operating motor vehicles owned
by the government shall be licensed in accordance with R.A. 4136 but no
license or delinquency fees shall be collected thereof.
All licenses so issued shall bear the words “FOR GOVERNMENT
VEHICLES ONLY” plainly marked or stamped in red inks across the face
thereof. A military driver’s license does not authorize the holder to operate a
privately owned motor vehicle.
3. Professional Driver’s License
This license is issued to a driver hired or paid for or operating a motor
vehicle whether private use or for hire to the public. Any person driving his
own motor vehicle for hire is a professional driver.
Requirements: (Update yourselves)
a. zust at least be 18 years of age.
b. Presentation of either the following documents:
A Student’s Permit, which has been issued in the possession of the
applicant for at least 5 months.
A Non-Professional Driver’s License that has been in the possession of
the applicant for not less than 4 months.
c. A certificate from an LTO accredited doctor attesting to the following
that the applicant:
is physically and mentally sound;
has normal, non-impaired vision and
hearing; does not have any contagious
ailments; and
does not have a history of heavy drinking and drug abuse.
d. A Police, NBI, or Prosecutor’s Clearance certifying that the applicant
does not have a criminal record or any case involving the taking of a
human life.
e. He must pass a written examination.
f. Must have passed an actual road test.
The professional driver’s license is renewable every 3 years. The
identifying color is red.
33 |UC-CCJE

4. Non-Professional Driver’s License

This kind of license is issued to owners of privately owned motor vehicles or
those not for hire or paid for driving.
Requirements: (Update yourselves)
a. Must be at least 17 years old.
b. A Student Driver’s Permit that has been issued not less than 1 month
from de of application.
c. A certificate from an LTO accredited doctor attesting that the
applicant: Is physically and mentally sound.
Has normal vision and hearing.
d. Must pass a written examination.
e. Must pass an actual road test.

The holder of a Non-Professional Driver’s License shall be restricted to

operate motor vehicles up to 4500 kgs gross vehicle weight (GVW) and is
also renewable every 3 years. The color of its logo is green.
5. Student Driver’s Permit
This kind of document is issued to persons who desire to learn how to
drive. A student driver cannot operate a vehicle unless accompanied by an
instructor who may either be a licensed professional or non-professional
driver.
Requirements: (Update yourselves)
a. Must be at least 16 years of age.
b. Must be physically sound and in good health with no contagious ailments.
c. Must be mentally capable.
d. Must know how to read and write in his native dialect, in Tagalog, or in
English.
e. Must apply personally at any LTO and have with him the following
documents:
Document of birth proof that he is 16 years old, either of the
following: joint affidavit by 2 not related individuals attesting to the
34 |UC-CCJE

age of the applicant, or SSS identification card, passport, and/or

Voter’s ID.
Applicants whose age is between 16 to 18 years old, an affidavit
of consent signed by the parents or by the applicant’s legal
guardian allowing the applicant to learn how to drive.
A student permit is valid for up to 12 months from the date of issue.

Driver’s Examination
1. The Written Examination
Written examinations will contain questions concerning proper driving
procedures, road rules and regulations, emergency procedures, etc. Number
of questions will be as follows:

a. Non-Professional License – 40 questions

b. Professional License – 60 questions
Examinees will have to pass the written examination with the following
marks:
a. Non-Professional License – 30 out of 40 questions
b. Professional License – 50 out of 60 questions
Before each examination, a DRIVING SKILL RATER will provide a 30 minute
lecture about traffic rules and other driver information as a “review” for the
applicants.
2. The Road Test
The actual road test will be undertaken under the auspices of a “DRIVING
SKILL RATER”. This actual road test will have to be scheduled in advance
and the applicant will have to provide the vehicle in which the road test
will be conducted. The applicant should make sure that the vehicle to be
used is in proper working condition and is currently registered.
During the road test, the applicant will be rated according to his
proficiency on the following aspects:
35 |UC-CCJE

a. That the applicant is aware of and capable of performing a check on

the primary components of the vehicle such as the engines, the tires,
the battery, lights, windshield wipers, brakers, transmission and clutch,
etc.
b. Proper use and correct positioning of the hands on the steering wheel.
c. Proper engine control and use of the gear shift lever and the foot pedals.
d. Proper speed control and observance and practice of road discipline.
e. Proper knowledge and interpretation of road sings and markings.
f. Proper turning procedures.
g. Proper backing procedures.
h. Proper parking procedures.

The applicant will be credited with a score of 100 points at the start of
the road test. Each infraction or unsatisfactory performance will be listed
down on a ROAD TEST SCORE SHEET and the corresponding deductions made
at the end of the test. Passing grade will be 70 points or a total possible
deduction of 30 points.
Mandatory Drug Test
It is mandatory to all drivers’ license applicants except for student
driver’s permit to pass a drug test conducted by duly LTO accredited drug
testing centers.
Driver’s Restriction Code
When the driver is issued a license, the driver’s restriction code is
indicated as follows:
1 - Motorcycles/Motorized Tricycles
2 - Vehicle up to 4500 kgs GVW
3 - Vehicle above 4500 kgs GVW
4 - Automatic clutch up to 4500 kgs GVW
5 - Automatic clutch up to 4500 kgs GVW
6 - Articulated vehicle 1600 kgs GVW and below
7 - Articulated vehicle 1601up to 4500 kgs GVW
8 - Articulated vehicle 4501 kgs and above GVW
36 |UC-CCJE

Driver’s Condition
The condition of the driver’s license holder while operating a motor
vehicle is indicated as follows:
A – wear eye glasses
B – drive only with special equipment for upper limbs
C – drive only with special equipment for lower limbs
D – daylight driving only
E – accompanied by a person with normal hearing

REGISTRATION OF MOTOR VEHICLES

Classification of Registered Motor Vehicles
1. Private (not for hire) – these are motor vehicles used for the personal use
of their owners.
2. Public Utility Vehicles (PUV aka for hire) – these are registered primarily for
the conveyance of passengers and other commercial goods, i.e. passenger
jeepneys, taxi cabs, etc.
3. Government – these are motor vehicles owned by government offices and
are used for official purposes only.
4. Diplomat – these are issued to foreign diplomats and consuls assigned in
the Philippines.
Plate Numbers
Upon registration, motor vehicles are assigned with plate numbers.
The letter and numerical prefixes as well as the assigned colors are based on
the date and place of registrations and purpose of the registered motor
vehicle.
1. Green with white background – issued to private or not for hire motor vehicles.
2. Black with yellow background – issued to public utility vehicles.
3. Red (maroon) with white background – issued to government-owned
motor vehicles.
4. Blue with white background – assigned for foreign diplomats, consuls and
other foreign dignitaries.
37 |UC-CCJE

5. Commemorative plates – these special plate numbers are issued for

specific purposes such as fund-raising for government projects and programs.
It refers to one piece of duly issued plate used in lieu of the regular license
plates for commemorating historical events and valid for a limited period and
installed at the front portion of the MV.

Schedule of Registration
Registration of motor vehicles should be done annually which follows the
numerical suffixes or their plate numbers.
Last Digit of the Plate Middle Digit of the Weekly Deadline
Number Plate Number (working days of
the
month only)
1 – Jan 6 – Jun 1 2 3 1 2 3 5 6 7
4
2 – Feb 7 – Jul 4 5 6 8 9 10 11 12 1 14
3
3 – Mar 8 - Aug 7 8 15 1 17 18 19 20 21
6
4 – Apr 9 – Sep 9 0 22 2 24 25 26 27 28
3
5 – May 0 – Oct 29 30 31
GEOGRAPHICAL DESIGNATIONS
• "A" - Region I (Ilocos Region) and CAR (Cordillera Administrative Region)
• "B" - Region II (Cagayan Valley Region)
• "C", "R" - Region III (Central Luzon Region), "R" are overflow series since the
"C" series has been exhausted
• "D", "V" - Regions IV-A (CALABARZON) and IV-B (MIMAROPA), "V" are
overflow series
• "E" - Region V (Bicol Region)
• "F" - Region VI (Western Visayas Region)
• "G", "Y" - Region VII (Central Visayas Region), "Y" are overflow series
• "H" - Region VIII (Eastern Visayas Region)
• "J" - Region IX (Zamboanga Peninsula) and ARMM
• "K" - Regions X and XIII (Northern Mindanao and Caraga)
• "L" - Region XI (Davao Region)
• "M" - Region XII (SOCCSKSARGEN)
38 |UC-CCJE

• "N" - National Capital Region, 1981-1982

• "P" - National Capital Region, 1982-1991
• "T" - National Capital Region, 1991-1995
• "U" - National Capital Region, 1995-1998
• "W" - National Capital Region, 1998-2001
• "X" - National Capital Region, 2001-2005
• "Z" - National Capital Region, 2005-current
Note:
 I & O are not used to avoid confusion with the numbers "1" & "0"
 Q is a special letter and is not used on regular plate circulation.
 "S" - Government
Protocol/High-ranking government plates
 1 - President
 2 - Vice President
 3 - Senate President
 4 - Speaker of the House of Representatives
 5 - Chief Justice of the Supreme Court
 6 - Cabinet Secretaries
 7 - Senators
 8 - Congressmen
 9 - Associate Justices of the Supreme Court
 10 - Presiding Justice and other Justices of the Court of Appeals
 11 - Chairman of the Commission on Elections
 12 - Cabinet Undersecretary
 13 - Solicitor General
 14 - Chief of Staff, Armed Forces of the Philippines and Chief,
Philippine National Police
 16 - Regional Trial Court Judges
Vanity License Plate
 It refers to the optional MV Plates having preferred inscriptions for
the purpose of establishing personalized identity of the motor
vehicle to the registered owner.
39 |UC-CCJE

 A single VLP is issued in conjunction with the regular plate and is

installed at the space allotted for the rear license plate of the MV by
superimposing or placing it on top of the regular license plate.
 The VLP shall be issued to the MV owner and shall belong to the
owner with an effectivity period for life unless revoked by LTO due to
violation and non-compliance to existing mandatory MV registration
laws and regulations.
 The physical service life of the VLP shall be within a period of five
(5) years. After which, the VLP owner shall request for re- issuance
of new plate bearing the same alphanumeric combination upon
payment of re-issuance fee.
Categories of Vanity Plates
1. Limited Edition
 It consists of four (4) or maximum of six (6) characters, either all
numeric or all alphas.
 Examples: 999999, AAAAAA, JJJJJJ, 888888
 It can be purchased through public auction with a floor price of
Php50, 000.00.
2. Premium Edition
 It consists of six (6) characters, a combination of numeric-alpha
(reverse of the current license plate number).
 Example: 682 XED, 850 CNR, 777 AVE
 Price is Php15, 000.00.
3. Select Edition
 It consists of minimum of three (3) or maximum of six (6) characters.
 Examples: GANDA, JUST 4 U, LUV 8
 Price is Php10, 000.00

4. Special Plate
 It consists of three (3) alpha characters and a number ranging
from 1-100.
 Examples: AVE 15, PGT 25
40 |UC-CCJE

SALIENT FEATURES OF REPUBLIC ACT NR. 4136

Exceeding Registered Capacity (Overloading)
Passengers, freight or cargo load of a motor vehicle should not be
more than its registered carrying capacity.
Conductors of public utility trucks or buses are held liable for the
overloading of vehicles under their charge.
All passengers automobiles for hire are required to have the registered
passenger capacity marked plainly and conspicuously on the sides
thereof in letters and numerals not less than 5 cm. In height.
Motor trucks for passengers or freight, private or for hire, shall have
the registered passenger or freight gross and net weight capacities
marked plainly and conspicuously on the sides thereof in letters and
numerals not less than 5 cm in height.
Cargo Carrying Devices
The construction of devices for carrying cargo at the rear or sides of
trucks may be allowed, subject to the approval of the Commissioner,
but the total net weight of the device, including cargo, must not exceed
100 kilos.
Riding on Running Board
It is strictly prohibited, except for conductors collecting passenger fare.
Riding on Top of the Motor Vehicle
Passengers shall not be allowed to ride on top of motor vehicles, but
baggage or freight may be carried on top of the truck, provided that the
weight thereof is not more than 20 kilos per square meter distributed in such
a way as not to endanger passengers or the vehicle’s stability.
Required Motor Vehicle Accessories
Tires. Motor vehicles having metallic tires are prohibited from
operating on any public highway. If the tires are solid, it should be thick
enough to present the metal rims from touching the road.
Brake. Every motor vehicle with four or more wheels shall be provided
with dual hydraulic brake system so that in case of hydraulic line failure
affecting the braking efficiency of any of the four wheels at least either the
front or rear wheels shall retain normal braking capabilities.
41 |UC-CCJE

Horns. Every motor vehicle shall be provided with a horn or signaling

device in good order. Provided, however, that no horn or signaling device
emitting exceptionally loud, startling, or disagreeable sound shall be installed
or used on any motor vehicle.
Headlight. The vehicle should have 2 headlights, one on each side,
which must be dimmed when meeting another vehicle.
Tail Light. Installed at the rear portion of the vehicle, this should be
visible at least 100 meters away.
Stop Light. Installed also at the vehicle’s rear.
Windshield Wipers. Every motor vehicle shall be equipped with a
mechanically or electrically operated device for wiping off raindrops or other
moisture from its windshield.
Use of Red Flag. Whenever the load of any vehicle extends more than
1 meter beyond the bed or body thereof, there shall be displayed at every
projecting end of such load, a red flag not less than 30 cms both in length
and width.
Mufflers. Every motor vehicle propelled by an internal combustion
engine shall be equipped with a muffler, and whenever said motor vehicle
passes through a street of any city, municipality, or thickly populated district
or barrio, the muffler shall not be cut out or disconnected. No motor vehicle
shall be operated in such a manner as to cause it to emit or make any
unnecessary or disagreeable odor, smoke or noise.
Hitching on to a Vehicle.
a. Hanging on to or riding on the outside or rear end of any vehicle.
b. Holding on to any motor vehicle whether on foot or otherwise.
c. Driver allowing any person to hang on to or ride outside of or at the
rear end of the vehicle.
Driving While Under the Influence of Liquor
Obstruction of Traffic
Obstruction of traffic by operating a motor vehicle in such a manner as
to obstruct, block, or impede the passage of another vehicle is prohibited.
This prohibition applies even when discharging or loading passengers.
 42 |UC-CCJE

GENERAL RULE OF ROAD USE AND CONDUCT

Restriction as to Speed
Any person driving a motor vehicle on a highway shall drive the same
at a careful and prudent speed, not greater nor less than is reasonable and
proper, having due regard for the traffic, the width of the highway, and of
any other condition then and there existing; and no person shall drive any
motor vehicle upon a highway at such speed as to endanger the life, limb and
property of any person, nor at a speed greater than will permit him to bring
the vehicle to a stop within the assured distance ahead.
Exception to the Speed Limit
1. A physician or his driver when the former responds to emergency calls.
2. The driver of a hospital ambulance on the way to and from the place of
accident or other emergency.
3. Any driver bringing a wounded or sick person for emergency treatment
to a hospital, clinic, or any other similar place.
4. Any driver of a motor vehicle belonging to the Armed Forces while in
use for official purposes in times of riot, insurrection or invasion.
5. The driver of a vehicle, when he or his passengers are in pursuit of a
criminal.
6. A law-enforcement officer who is trying to overtake a violator of traffic
laws.
7. The driver officially operating a motor vehicle of any fire department
provided that exemption shall not be construed to allow useless or
unnecessary fast drivers aforementioned.
Maximum Allowable Speed
Type of Roadway Passenger Cars and Motor Trucks
Motorcycles and Buses
1. On open country roads, with no blind
corners not closely bordered by 80 km 60 km
habitations.
2. On “through streets” or boulevards clear
 43 |UC-CCJE

of traffic, with no blind corners, when so 40 km 30 km

designated.
3. On city and municipal streets, with light
traffic, when not designated “through 30 km 30 km
streets”.
4. Through crowded streets,
approaching intersections at “blind
corners”, passing school zones, 20 km 20 km
passing other vehicles which are
stationary, or for similar
dangerous circumstances.

Driving on the Right Side of the Highway

All vehicles, whether motorized, animal-drawn or muscle powered,
shall use the right side of the road when meeting persons or other vehicles
coming from the same direction. (Section 37, RA 4136)

Overtaking a Vehicle
In overtaking another vehicle, a driver should pass at a safe distance
to the left of the vehicle being overtaken and shall resume driving on the right
side of the road only after passing clear of the overtaken vehicles.
Exception: On the highway with two or more lanes where traffic goes
in one direction, another vehicle may be overtaken on the right.
Giving Way to Overtaking Vehicles
The driver of a motor vehicle about to be overtaken must give way to
the overtaking vehicle and shall not increase his speed until the overtaking
vehicles has fully passed by.
Right of Way Rules
1. In case of two vehicles approaching or entering as intersection at the
same time, the driver of the vehicle on the left shall yield the right of
way; however, the driver of any vehicle travel at an unlawful speed
forfeits this right. (Section 42, a)
44 |UC-CCJE

2. In case of a vehicle approaching but has not yet entered the

intersection, its driver shall yield the right of way to vehicle already
within such intersection or turning therein to the left across the line of
travel of the first mentioned vehicle. (Section 42, b)
3. In case of a vehicle on a highway within a business or residential district,
its driver shall yield the right of way to pedestrian crossing the highway
within crosswalk, except at intersection where traffic is regulated by a
peace officer of a traffic signal. If there is not crosswalk, pedestrian shall
yield the right of way to vehicles on the highways. (Section 42, c)
4. In case of vehicle traversing a through-highway, its driver should bring it
to a full stop before crossing. However, if it is clear and no hazards
exist, the vehicle may slow down to 5 miles per hour instead of a full
stop. (Section 42, d)
Exception to the Right of Way Rules
Right of way rules do not apply in the case of a vehicle entering a
private road or drive. The right of way is in favor of all vehicles utilizing the
highway. (Section 43)
Making a Right Turn (Normal Procedures)
1. Signal your intention to turn right with your turning signal light or
hand signal at least 100 ft. before you intend to make turn.
2. Stay on the right lane of the road.
3. Never make a right turn from the left lane.
4. At an intersection with a red traffic light, make a right turn only after
coming to a full stop to make sure that no vehicles are coming from
the left.
5. If there is a sign prohibiting a right turn unless there is green, do not
turn right while the red light is on.
Making a Left Turn (Normal Procedures)
1. Signal your intention to turn left with your turning signal at least 100
ft. before you intend to make your turn.
2. Stay on the left lane of the road.
45 |UC-CCJE

3. At an intersection with a traffic light, vehicles going straight have the

right of way. Wait for them to pass first before you turn left.
4. At an intersection with a traffic light, make a left turn only when the
green light is on or when there is a left turn light.
Making a U-TURN
Recommended Procedures: (Two Lane Road)
1. Make a right turn signal at least 100 ft. before you start moving to the
right side of the road.
2. Stay as close to the right side as possible. Come to a complete stop if
necessary. Check behind you for traffic. Also check for oncoming
traffic on the other lane.
3. Once all traffic had passed you, initiate your U-turn. See to it that you
can make it on one sweep. If you have a long vehicle, look for an
intersection or a wide section of the road to make a U-turn in.
4. At this point, you should be making the U-turn if you know the turning
radius of your vehicle.
5. Do not move immediately to the middle of the road. Keep to the right
side until you have increased your speed sufficiently to move to the
middle of the lane.
Recommended Procedures: (Four Lanes Highway)
1. Check for traffic light behind you and indicate your intentions with a
left turn signal. Stay on the left lane if there are no fast moving
vehicles.
2. Clear the other side for oncoming traffic and initiate your turn as soon
as it is clear. Do not come to a complete stop.
3. Straighten out on the right lane and begin gaining speed.

TRAFFIC CONTROL DEVICES AND AIDS

Traffic Control
It is the control of vehicles at a certain point or area by mechanical
means, fixed objects or manpower.
Elementary Requirements
1. It should compel attention.
46 |UC-CCJE

2. It should convey a simple, closer meaning at a glance.

3. It should allow time for response.
4. It should command respect.
Fundamental Traits
1. Design and outward aspect of the device.
2. Position or placement with respect to the normal line of vision of the
road users.
3. Maintenance of the condition, appearance and visibility.

TRAFFIC SIGNS
A device mounted or on a portable support where a message is
conveyed by means of words or symbols, officially erected or installed for the
purpose of regulating, warning or controlling traffic.
The messages and type of responses that road signs convey to the
drivers as well as to the pedestrians alike fall under the different categories.
These are as follows:
A. Caution Signs, Warning Signs and Danger Signs
These signs convey messages that certain road conditions exist on a
certain stretch of the road or on street requiring the driver to be more
ATTENTIVE and are prepared for such road conditions.
Warn motorist of approaching hazardous road conditions.
Seek caution for approaching road hazards.
Calling for the reduction of speed.
These signs have an equilateral triangular shape with one shape
horizontal.
Red borders, black markings, white background
Examples:
1. Dangerous Bend 8. Steep Ascent
2. Turn Left or Right 9. Rail Road Crossing
3. Double Left Bends 10. Falling Rocks
4. Double Right Bend 11. Two Way Traffic
5. Animal Crossing 12. Driver or Water Way Ahead
47 |UC-CCJE

6. Pedestrian Crossing 13. One Way Traffic

7. Road Works 14. Rotunda Ahead
B. Guide Signs, Information Signs and Direction Signs
These signs are modified signs that actually give spatial or DIRECTIONAL
INSTRUCTIONS for the driver to take.
These signs are designed to provide the driver with information that
MAY OR MAY NOT use but will assist him in one-way or another.
Guide motorists along established routes.
Inform the driver of the proper routes.
Help motorist along the way in the most simple and direct method.
Round or rectangular, white markings, blue background
Division of Informative Signs:
1. Advance Sign
These are the names and distances of the principal destination
served by the intersecting road.
2. Direction Signs
Direction sign shall be placed at the right of intersections to
show the direction and destination of a route.
3. Place Identification Signs
These maybe used to show the frontier between two countries
or for the purpose of showing the beginning and or end of built-
up areas.
4. Confirmatory Signs
These are used to confirm the direction of a road. They shall
bear the name of one or more places. Where distances are
shown, the figures expressing them shall be placed after the
name of the locality.
Examples:
1. Bus Stop
2. Jeepney Stop
3. Pedestrian Crossing
4. Distance or Destination Sign
48 |UC-CCJE

C. Instruction Signs or Regulatory Signs

These signs require the driver not only to be more attentive as in
caution signs but also require the driver to ACTUALLY PERFORM OR
NOT TO PERFORM a specified act.
Intended to inform the road user of special obligations, instructions or
PROHIBITIONS which they must comply.
Round or Inverted Triangle or Octagonal, Red border, white
background, black markings
Division of Regulatory Signs:
1. Priority Signs
These are intended to regulate priority over a particular road
section of roadway intersection.
2. Prohibitory Signs
These signs can be used on specified section of the road, which
will be easily seen by motorist to indicate regulation, which is
prohibitive or restrictive in nature.
3. Mandatory Signs
These signs are intended to notify the road users of special rules
in which they must comply for the safety and convenience and
smooth flow of traffic.
Example:
1. Stop 7. No U-Turn
2. Yield 8. No Overtaking
3. No Entry 9. Speed Limit
4. No Entry for Cars 10. No Blowing of Horns
5. No Left Turn 11. No Parking
6. No Right Turn 12. Width, length, height

The color and shape symbolism of international standard signs are

based largely on the following principles:
1. Signs surrounded by a red triangle give warning of some hazards.
49 |UC-CCJE

2. Signs surrounded by a red ring sometimes also with a red diagonal

bar, normal indicate prohibition.
3. Signs on blue and green rectangular background give information.
4. Signs on blue disc give positive instruction.

PAVEMENT MARKINGS AND MARKERS

All lines, patterns, words, colors, or other gadgets except signs, set into
the surface of applied or attached to the pavement of curbing, or to
objects within or adjacent to the roadway, officially placed for the purpose
of regulating, warning, or control traffic.
1. SINGLE WHITE DOTTED LINE
On two-lane road separates traffic moving in separate directions.
On a one-way street, separates traffic moving in one direction.
Overtaking is possible when other lane is clear of oncoming
vehicle.
2. SINGLE WHITE CONTINUOUS LINE
Separates traffic moving in opposite direction.
Could be found in road sections that are
dangerous.
Passing and overtaking can be made but only after under
circumstances when there is no oncoming traffic.
3. DOUBLE YELLOW LINE WITH A DOTTED WHITE LINE IN BETWEEN
Absolutely no parking.
Overtaking is extremely dangerous.
Stay in your lane until you pass the end of the solid lines.
4. SINGLE YELLOW LINE
A yellow line with a dotted white line means that you cannot
overtake if the solid line is on your side.
If you overtake, return to your lane before the solid line.
5. YELLOW CONTINUOUS LINE ON ROAD PROVIDED WITH A PASSING LANE
These are common on mountain roads.
Slow moving vehicles such as buses and heavy trucks should
always use the outer lane.
50 |UC-CCJE

Inner lane is for vehicles to pass without having to use the other
lane for vehicles coming from the opposite direction.
Vehicles coming from the opposite direction should not use the
inner lane at the other side for overtaking.
6. CROSSWALK a.k.a. PEDESTRIAN LANE
Stop for pedestrians on an intersection with no traffic light.
Do not stop on pedestrian lane especially to load or unload
passengers.
Pedestrian should always cross a street on a crosswalk.
7. DIRECTIONAL ARROWS
Indicates directions of permitted traffic movement.
When approaching intersections where pavement arrows are
used, you should enter the lane where the arrow points in the
direction you want to go.
Some have doubled headed arrows that mean the lane is for
traffic going in the two directions indicated.
8. STOP LINES
These are painted across pavement lanes at traffic signs or
signals. Where these lines are present, you should stop behind the
stop line.
9. BARREL LINES
A new concept in reducing the seriousness of accidents.
These are engineered to act as impact cushion. Usually installed
in front of a solid obstacle or traffic island at an area of high
accident frequency.
10. CURB MARKINGS
These are markings placed on the curbs or edges of the traffic
for restriction or for parking regulation purposes.
11.OBJECT MARKINGS
These are markings placed on objects on the road or beside the
road like humps, rocks or similar hazardous objects on the side
of the road.
51 |UC-CCJE

12. REFLECTORIZED MARKINGS

These are markings or gadgets designed to reflect and become
luminous when hit by vehicles’ light.
These are placed or installed in the middle of the roadway to
supplement separation lines or on object at the side of the
roadways which are too near or within the road pavement itself.

TRAFFIC LIGHTS
It is defined as a signal operated manually, electrically by which traffic
is commanded to stop and permitted to proceed.
1. Steady RED
 Stop at designated line.
 Vehicles will be crossing from the other side.
 Expect pedestrian to cross at the pedestrian lane.
 Unless specified you can turn right after a full stop to clear
traffic coming from the left.
2. Steady GREEN
 Go
 It is the turn of the vehicles on the other side to stop.
 Pedestrians are not allowed to cross the pedestrian lane in front
of you.
 Unless specified, you can move up to the middle of the
intersection and make a left turn when clear.
 Vehicles going straight have the right of way.
 Do not anticipate a green light.
3. Steady GREEN ARROW
 Go
 Vehicles turning left can do so.
 On coming straight traffic is still on red to give way for vehicles
turning left.
 Do not anticipate a green arrow.
4. Steady YELLOW (AMBER)
52 |UC-CCJE

 Prepare to stop.
 It is the turn of the vehicles on the other side and will be given
the go signal shortly.
 Do not beat the yellow light.
5. Flashing RED
 This is the same as a stop sign.
 Stop at the designated line.
 Vehicles will be crossing from the other side.
 Expect pedestrian to cross at the pedestrian lane.
 Proceed when clear.
6. Flashing YELLOW OR AMBER
 This is the same as the yield sign.
 Proceed through the intersection with caution.
 You have the right of way over a flashing red light.
 Vehicles on the other side will proceed after coming to a full stop.
7. Steady GREEN and steady LEFT OR RIGHT ARROW
 Vehicles can go straight or vehicles on the left lane can make a
left turn.
 Vehicles can go straight or vehicles on the right lane can make
right turn.
 The right green signal might or might not have a road
sign disallowing a right turn while the red light is on.

TRAFFIC ISLANDS
These are areas within the roadway constructed in a manner to establish
physical channels through which vehicular traffic is guided.
Functions of Traffic Islands
1. Segregate pedestrians and vehicles.
2. Control streams of traffic in order to minimize conflict, expedite traffic
flow or increase safety.
Classification of Traffic Islands
1. Pedestrian island (Pedestrian Barriers)
53 |UC-CCJE

 These are constructed between the pedestrian sidewalk and the

road pavement to prevent pedestrian from using the roadway in
passing and to prevent motor vehicles from using the sidewalk
for parking and passing purposes.
2. Traffic islands
 These are raised portion in the middle of the traffic way
constructed to separate the streams of motor vehicles
traversing on opposite directions and at the same time
preventing motorists from using the opposite lane for
overtaking.
a. Division islands - constructed primarily to divide the streams
of the motor vehicles.
b. Channeling islands – these are constructed to channel or
direct the flow of traffic.
c. Rotary islands – these are constructed primarily along
intersections or “rotundas” for purposes of turning-around.
Their functions are: prohibit pedestrians from crossing major
thoroughfares at points where such crossing are
exceptionally hazardous, minimize imprudence and delays to
vehicular traffic, and channel and control pedestrians.

Road Check
This is another enforcement activity where it involves the conduct of
actual inspection of vehicles, and motorists on the road.

Objectives of Road Check

The objective of road check is to detect and inspect the following:
1. faulty vehicle equipment
2. registration and licensing violations
3. intoxicated drivers
4. the load or cargo of commercial transportation vehicle for load weight
Considerations to be taken
1. minimum delay to motorist
54 |UC-CCJE

2. thorough checking procedure

3. protection or safety of both motorist and officers
4. timing, location and frequency
In case thorough checking of vehicles will be conducted, take note of
the legalities of searches or the instances that validates the search, i.e.
search incidental to lawful arrest, consented search, search of moving vessel,
and search by “tips”.

TRAFFIC PATROL
It refers to the observation of road conditions, the behavior of the drivers
and other users of vehicles for the purpose of traffic supervision and law
enforcement and providing authorized traffic-connected services to the public.
Types of Traffic Patrol
1. Line Patrol
 It involves observation either in moving or stationary observation
at a certain route or point of a major street in a city.
 This is usually done by foot patrol officers.
2. Area Patrol
 This involves the conduct of observation either by moving patrol
or observation of a certain area which included a number of
streets, road or sections of a highway.
 This is usually the job of mobile police officers as well as those
motorcycle cops.
Types of Stationary observation
1. Conspicuous observation
 Observer remains in full view of traffic conditions.
 The traffic patrol officer is situated in any place where he could
be seen by all traffic users.
2. Visible observation
 Observer is in full view but so located.
3. Concealed observation
55 |UC-CCJE

 Observer is not visible to persons using ordinary power of

observation from the roadway being observed.

Purposes of Traffic Patrol

1. deterrent to violations and dangerous driving
2. detecting and apprehending violators
3. observing and reporting traffic conditions
4. observing and reporting road conditions including view obstruction
which needs attention
5. providing certain services to the public
6. handling emergencies as they arise and keeping traffic flow smoothly

REFERENCE
Bragado, F.A. (1998). Trafficology: the science of traffic.
Delizo, D.B. (2004). Traffic management and accident investigation: an
instructional handbook.
Lichauco, R.C. (1998). The Philippine road rules and regulations handbook.
Green Ads Group
Traffic Management Group. Traffic management group handbook.
Land Transportation Office (2008). http://www.lto.gov.ph
56 |UC-CCJE

UNIT III
TRAFFIC ACCIDENT INVESTIGATION
Traffic Accident Investigation
Generally, to know what question to ask and what to look for, you
must have some fundamental bearing on accidents and their causes. When
you speak of traffic accident, everybody knows what you mean – SOMETHING
WENT WRONG on the highway, either a wrecked car, somebody is injured or
possibly killed.
What Traffic Accident Investigation Determines?
It aims to know the 5 “Ws” and 1 H of the incident: what happened,
who and what was involved, where did it happen, why did it happen, when
did it happen and how did it happen?
Purposes of Traffic Accident Investigation
1. Everyone involved is curious about the causes and circumstances of the
accident.
2. For the police – to find out whether there is enough evidence of law
violation in the accident.
3. Claims attorneys and adjusters want to determine negligence on the part
of the drivers involved in the accident so that damage claims can be
properly adjusted.
4. Officials and others want specific information about accidents to know how
to prevent future accidents.
Basic Concepts
Accident
It is that occurrence in a sequence of events which usually produces
unintended injury, death, or property damage.
Traffic Accident
It is an accident involving travel transportation on a traffic way.
Motor Vehicle Accident
These are events resulting in unintended injury or property damage
attributable directly or indirectly to the action of a motor vehicle or its loads.
Included are:
57 |UC-CCJE

a. Accidental injury from inhalation of exhaust gas

b. Fires
c. Explosion
d. Discharge of firearm within the motor vehicle while in motion
e. Collision between a motor vehicle and a railroad train or street car
on stationary rails or tracks
f. Failure on any part of the motor vehicle while the vehicle is in
motion. Excluded are:
a. Collision of a motor vehicle with an aircraft or watercraft in motion
b. Injury or damage due to cataclysms (floor or sudden physical
change of the earth surface
c. Injury or damage while the motor vehicle is not under its power is
being loaded on or unloaded from another conveyance.
Key Event
It is an event on the road which characterizes the manner of
occurrence of a motor vehicle traffic accident.
Debris
These are scattered broken parts of vehicles, rubbish, dust and other
materials left at the scene of the accident caused by a collision.
Skid Marks
These are marks left on the roadway by tires which are not free to
rotate, usually because brakes are applied strong and the wheels locked.
Impact
It is the striking of one body against another or a collision of a motor
vehicle with another motor vehicle.
Contact Damage
It is the damage to a vehicle resulting from direct pressure of some
foreign object in a collision or roll over. It is usually indicated by striations,
rub-off of material or puncture.

Kinds of Traffic Accidents

1. Non-Motor Vehicle Accident
58 |UC-CCJE

It refers to any accident occurring on a traffic way involving persons

using the traffic way or travel or transportation, but not involving a motor
vehicle in motion. Example: pedestrian and cyclists in a traffic way.
2. Motor Vehicle Non-Traffic Accident
It refers to any motor vehicle accident which occurs entirely in any
place other than a traffic way. Example: accident on a private driveway.
3. Motor Vehicle Traffic Accident
It refers to any motor vehicle accident occurring on a traffic way.
Example: collision between automobiles on a highway.

Classification of Motor Vehicle Traffic Accident

According to Key Event

1. Running off road
This is usually characterized by a motor vehicle falling on the roadside
or on a cliff along mountainous roads.
2. Non-collision on road
This does not involve any collision an example of which is overturning.
3. Collision on road
This type of accident includes all forms of accident as long as there is a
collision. Examples of these are motor vehicles colliding with:

a. Pedestrian – may be walking, running or standing on a roadway.

b. Other motor vehicle in traffic – may be head on, head and rear, sides
opposite direction, sides the same direction, head and side collision,
etc.
c. Parked motor vehicle
d. Railroad Train
e. Bicycle
f. Fixed objects
g. Other objects
59 |UC-CCJE

Classification of Accidents According to Severity

1. Property Damage Accident. There is no fatal or injury to any person but
only damage to the motor vehicle or to other property including injury to
animals.
2. Slight. It includes only slight damages to properties.
3. Non-Fatal Injury Accident. This results in injuries other tan fatal to one or
more persons.
4. Less Serious. It involves only less serious injuries to persons.
5. Serious. This causes serious injuries to persons.
6. Fatal. This results in death to one or more persons.

Causes of Motor Vehicle Traffic Accident

1. Simultaneous Factors
a. Road conditions
b. Driver’s attribute or behavior
c. Weather condition
2. Sequential Factors
a. Speed is greater or less than safe.
b. Defective vehicle (vehicle malfunction)
3. Operational Factors
a. Road hazards
b. Driver’s non-compliance to traffic laws, rules and regulations
4. Perceptual Factors
a. Driver’s inability to react promptly to a situation.
b. Driver’s faulty action to escape collision course.

Chain of Events in a Vehicular Accident

1. Perception of Hazard
It is seeing, feeling, or hearing and understanding the usual or
unexpected movement or condition that could be taken as sign of the
accident about to happen.
2. Start of Evasive Action
60 |UC-CCJE

It is the first action taken by a traffic unit to escape from a collision

course or otherwise avoid a hazard.
3. Initial Contact
The first accidental touching of an object collision course or otherwise
avoids a hazard.
4. Maximum Engagement
It is the greatest collapse or overlap in a collision. The force between
the traffic unit and the object collided with are greatest at maximum
engagement.
5. Disengagement
It is the separation of a traffic unit in motion from an object with which
it has collided. The force between the object ceases at this time.
6. Stopping
This is when the traffic unit/s involved come to rest. It usually stabilizes
the accident situation.
7. Injury
It is receiving bodily harm. This event does not necessary occur after
the accident but within any of the chain of events. It may also happen
right after the evasive action taken by the drivers involved or during the
initial contact.
Point of Possible Perception
It is the place and time of which the hazard could have been perceived
by a normal person. It precedes actual perception and is the beginning of
perception delay.
Point of No Escape
It is that place and time after or beyond which the accident cannot be
prevented by the traffic unit under consideration.
Perception Delay
It is the time form the point of possible perception to actual perception.
Final Position
It is the place and time when objects involved in an accident finally
come to rest without application of power.
61 |UC-CCJE

Five Levels of Activity in Accident Investigation

1. Reporting
This stage involves basic data collection to identify and classify a motor
vehicle, traffic and persons, property and planned movements involved.
2. At-Scene Investigation
This level involves all action taken by the investigator at the scene of the
crime or accident.
3. Technical Preparation
This involves delayed traffic accident data collection and organization
for study and interpretation.
4. Professional Reconstruction
This involves efforts to determine from whatever information is available,
how the accident happened.
5. Cause Analysis
This final level usually involves final analysis on the causes of accident
which are bases for the prevention of another accident.

STEPS TAKEN BY THE POLICE DURING TRAFFIC ACCIDENT INVESTIGATION

Step 1: Upon Learning of the Accident

1. Ask first: When did the accident happened? Exactly where was it?; How
bad was it?; Did you see the accident happened?; and Where can you be
reached?
2. Decide whether to go to scene: Will scene have been cleared by the time
of arrival?; Is it in investigator’s area?; and Should headquarters be
informed or consulted?
3. Then find out, if necessary: Is traffic blocked?; Has ambulance been
called?; Has wrencher been called?; and Was fire apparatus called?

Step 2: Start for the Scene

1. Choose Best Approach.
62 |UC-CCJE

2. Drive safely. Get there safely; if you get involved in accident yourself,
then other units must be used.
3. Be alert for cars leaving the scene.
4. Get equipment ready for use.
5. Look for conditions confronting a driver approaching scene.
6. Note hazards to approaching traffic

Step 3: Upon Arrival at the Accident Scene

1. Select parking place carefully.
2. Care for injured.
3. Look over bystanders and others.
4. Have emergencies under control.
5. Locate drivers.
6. Measure location of short lived evidences.
7. Arrange for clearing roadway.
8. Delay removal of vehicles except to aid injured.

Step 4: When Emergency is Under Control

1. Preliminary questioning of drivers.
2. Gather clues for identifying hit and run cars.
3. Examine drivers’ conditions.
4. Question drivers carefully.
5. Note the position and condition of vehicles.
6. Form preliminary opinion as to how accident occurs.
7. Photograph skid mark and location of vehicles; and mark skid mark
location for later measurement.
8. Record place to which injured persons or damage vehicles were or will be
taken.

Step 5: After Getting Short-Lived Evidences

1. Get additional evidence.
63 |UC-CCJE

2. Provide suggestion to drivers, if necessary on how similar accidents can

be avoided in the future.
3. Approach the scene by path of each traffic unit involved.
4. Complete examination of vehicles.
5. Locate key event of accident.
6. Make additional photographs of vehicle damage; view obstruction;
pavement conditions; and control devices, and general view, etc.
7. Establish exact location of accident and record it.
8. Measure for scale diagram if location is hard to reach.
9. Review notes of evidence or testimony. Get additional facts at scene; and
identify all notes with places and time.
10.Clean up location or arrange to have it done.
11.Report to headquarters by radio or telephone.

Step 6: After Leaving the Scene

1. Get medical report on injured persons from doctor or hospital.
2. Question drivers or witnesses if additional statements are needed.
3. Notify relatives of dead or injured person/s.
4. Have specimens analyzed if were taken for chemical or laboratory test.
5. Have photograph developed; get prints if needed for report.
6. Complete the report of the accident.
7. Decided whether analysis of accident is warranted by the time available
for making it.
8. Reconstruction of the accident.
9. Present case summary to a lawyer.
10.Complete report or investigation.
11.Submit to superior for approval.
12. Inform other agencies or departments of any conditions at the scene
which needs attention for safety.

Step 7: If Case Goes to Court

1. Find out what the prosecutor wants further to develop evidence.
64 |UC-CCJE

2. Return to the scene if necessary.

3. Locate also, if necessary relatives and friends who confirm activities
before the accident; technicians who developed pictures, made chemical
tests, etc and expert who can help.
4. Have enlargement made of any photo needed in court.
5. Enlarge scale diagram made for court use.
6. Pre-Trial conference with prosecution witnesses to review testimony.
7. Insure that subpoenas are issued.
8. Testify in court.
9. Organize papers and file permanently, if necessary, for future reference.
10. Insure that the disposition of cases is recorded in drivers’ record and
other reports.

HIT-AND-RUN INVESTIGATION
Hit-and-Run Cases defined
Evading responsibility is a term commonly applied to a traffic accident in
which a driver fails to comply with any of the duties required by Section 55 of
Republic Act 4136.
It states that no driver of a motor vehicle concerned in a vehicle
accident shall leave the scene of the accident without aiding the victim,
except under any of the following circumstances:
o If the driver is in imminent danger of being seriously harmed by any
person or persons by reason of the accident.
o If the driver reports the accident to the nearest officers of the law.
o If the driver has to summon a physician or nurse to aid the victim.

Reasons for Apprehending and Prosecuting Hit-and-Run Drivers

1. Injury might have been lessened or death prevented if the driver
had promptly sought help instead of leaving the accident scene.
2. Street would not be safe if motorists could flee accident scenes
without accepting responsibility. Unless the negligent is found,
accident victims cannot get compensation for injuries and property
damage.
65 |UC-CCJE

3. Public knowledge that the police usually apprehend and convict hit-
and- run drivers deters other drivers who might otherwise be inclined to
evade responsibility by committing this serious offense.
4. Since leaving the scene of the accident is not socially acceptable,
the police secure increased public support for the entire traffic
control program by prompt apprehension and successful prosecution
of these offenders.
Two Important Considerations in Hit-and-Run Investigation
1. If the driver who flees the scene of an accident is not necessarily the
driver responsible for the accident. His reasons for flight are often more
important than the simple evasion of responsibility. He may be wanted
for another crime, or intoxicated, or without a valid license.
2. The hit-and-run driver often will report the damage to his own vehicle
as having been the result of another hit-and-run accident in which
some
“other mysterious driver” fled without identifying himself. Similarly, it is not
unusual for the hit-and-run driver to abandon his vehicle and then report it
stolen as a means of covering up his involvement in the accident.

Elements of Hit-and-Run
1. You must prove suspect was driving the vehicle at the time of
the accident. Even if you have witnesses to prove this, get
evidence to disprove his alibi.
2. Suspect was involved in death, personal injury or damage to property.
3. Suspect failed to stop, give aid or information as to his identity to
other person/s involved, to police or to anyone at the accident scene;
or failed to take reasonable steps to notify the owner of damaged
property other than a vehicle. Do not overlook the possibility of a
simulated second accident to explain damage caused by the first
accident.
4. Suspect ahs knowledge of the accident.
a. Physical evidence may prove the vehicle figured in the accident.
b. Extent of damage to vehicle. Extensive damages to vehicle
would preclude allegation of lack of knowledge. If suspect
refrained from
66 |UC-CCJE

using his vehicle for several days since the accident, this would also
indicate the guilt.
c. Guard against claims that the vehicle was stolen to
evade responsibility.

Three Categories of Hit-and-Run Operator

1. Apprehensive-panic driver – fearful driver, intoxicated drivers, without
license, without insurance, his companion in the car is not his or her
mate, stolen car, stolen goods in car, leaving scene of another crime,
and fleeing crime scene or wanted for crime.
2. Projectionist project guilt driver – a type of driver, who sits as judge
and jury, tries the case himself, finds the other driver at fault, refuses
to be a party to the accident and rives off as the offended person.
3. Sneak Operator – it involves minor property-damage-only-accidents
like one that smashes a fender and smashes grillwork in his daily
occupational activities and chalks up his action as the calculated risk
shared by all vehicle owners who place their vehicles on the roadway.

Classes of Hit-and-Run Drivers

1. drunk drivers
2. criminals fleeing from the scene of the crime
3. improperly licensed driver/s with no license or with revoked or
expired license
4. drivers who fear publicity and prosecution
5. ignorance of the accident
6. drivers who flee in panic
7. drug addicts
8. insurance or financial reasons
9. juveniles
Preliminary Steps in Hit-and-Run Investigation
1. Refer to the checklist on accident investigation
2. Obtain the best possible descriptions of the car and the driver.
67 |UC-CCJE

a. A good description may be obtained from partial

descriptions given by witnesses.
b. Get the license plate and any unusual features of the vehicle.
c. Concentrate on the car’s description first.
d. Dispatch initial description and all subsequent information to
the Headquarters and to police agencies that may assist in
spotting and stopping the suspect vehicle.
e. Broadcast descriptions of the suspected car and driver to all
police units and offices.
f. Try to determine the damage to the fleeing car.
3. Appeal for information through local newspapers, radio, TV, etc.
4. Carefully search the hit-and-run scene for physical evidence.
a. These may include broken glasses and fragments, hubcaps,
paint scrapping from hit-and-run car, other evidence such as
dirt from subject car, radiator, ornament, etc.
b. Carefully preserve and label all evidence found at the scene.
c. Request laboratory study of evidence.
d. Watch out for the possible return of the hit-and-run driver to
the scene of the accident. This has been known to happen.
5. The Victim
a. Check his clothing, other parts of his body, tire marks, grease,
paint chips, fragments and such thins that might have been left
on him by the suspected car.
b. If the victim is killed, get samples of uncontaminated blood
from him at the morgue and samples of hair, skin, etc.
c. Collect and preserve for laboratory examination, the clothes,
shoes, and other items he was wearing at the time of the
accident.
Follow-up Investigation
1. Interview persons living along the route taken by the hit-and-run
driver; also operators of filling stations and garages.
2. Canvass parking lots and other filling stations and garages.
68 |UC-CCJE

3. Return to the accident scene at the same time on subsequent days and
on the same of the following weeks to obtain additional witnesses such
as delivery men operating on scheduled routes.
4. Follow-up phone calls to garages and dealers of auto parts.
5. Continue appealing for information through the press, radio and TV.
Search for Suspect Car
1. Look for physical evidence such as latent fingerprints, pieces of
clothing marks, damaged parts, hair, blood, etc. which will identify the
car as that involved in the hit-and-run accident.
2. Search for the undercarriage of the suspect car. Determine also if there
is indication of disturbance in the grease or dirt adhering to it.
3. Make a careful investigation for replaced parts.
Interview of Suspect
1. Obtain a signed statement if you can.
2. Get a full account of suspect’s whereabouts and write it down just in
case he refutes in later.
3. Approach and apprehend the driver of the suspect car as soon as his
identity and whereabouts are ascertained.
4. Place the driver in a defensive position by properly directed questions
upon approach.

SKIDMARKS AS A TOOL IN TRAFFIC ACCIDENT INVESTIGATION

Skid marks
The sudden application of brakes which results in the locked wheel
condition places great pressure between the brake shoe and the brake drum
that the frictional force at this point becomes greater than the frictional force
between the tire and the road surface. When this condition exists, the wheels
skid.

Skid marks as a Tools in Traffic Accident Investigation

1. Measurement of skid marks gives an idea on how fast the car which left
these marks was going prior to the accident.
69 |UC-CCJE

2. Estimates of speed based on skid marks may lead to convictions or

knowing how to estimate speed correctly may help to keep an innocent
person from being convicted.

Centrifugal skid mark

A marking on the roadway left by a rotating tire and wheel of a
speeding vehicle on a curve when the speed of the vehicle is above the
critical speed of the curve and the centrifugal force entirely or partially
overcomes the friction between the mass of the vehicle and its tires and the
surface of the roadway.

Impending skid marks

Marks caused by the forward rotation of the wheels being slower than
the forward movement of the vehicle. The shadowy beginning of a skid mark
along the approach path of the vehicle is the impending skid mark (a.k.a. as
tire shadow marks), while the darker markings are the skid marks which begins
in the impending skid mark and ends at the point of collision or final rest.

Yawn mark
A scuffmark made while a vehicle is yawning the mark made on the
road by a rotating tire which is slipping in a direction parallel to the axle of the
wheel.

Skip mark
A braking skid mark interrupted at frequent regular intervals. Skid
mark made by a bouncing wheel on which brakes keep the wheel from
turning.
Compare with gap skid.

Scuff mark (Side Skid Mark)

It is a roadway marking left by the tire and wheel of a vehicle sliding
sideways as a result of force other than centrifugal force.
70 |UC-CCJE

Gap skid
A braking skid mark which is interrupted by release and reapplication of
brakes or which terminates by release of brakes before collision.

Other Marks and Impressions Left by a Motor Vehicle

(Either on the road surface or on the other motor vehicle)

1. Ruts – a sunken track worn by a wheel, as in road, hence, a groove

forming a path for anything.
2. Gouge – a groove made by a hard part of a motor vehicle to another car
after side sweeping each other or it may be left on a road surface by a
motor vehicle which overturned then slid on the road surface.
3. Paint strips – when a vehicle collided with other object, it sometimes
transfers its paint to other object.

Skid marks as Evidence in Accident Cases

1. Aid in determining the speed prior to the accident or collision.
2. Show if the vehicle was traveling in the wrong side of the road.
3. Indicate if the driver failed to observe the right of way.
4. Show if the driver did not obey a traffic signal.
Note:
Skid marks never show all of the speed of a car before the accident
happened. They show only how far the car would have to slide to stop in the
distance shown by skid marks.

Evidence of Additional Speed

1. Sliding with one or more wheels before any skid marks begin to
appear. Dark clear skid marks do not appear until the tires have slid
far enough to get hot enough to smear rubber or scar. This is less true
on such materials as gravel and dirt.
71 |UC-CCJE

2. Braking without skidding. Cases that motor vehicle does not skid
particularly before sliding begins, during gaps, and after marks and
before the car comes rest.
3. Dragging the car as it hits some object.
4. Damaging other cars or objects.
5. Sliding other cars or objects along the way.
6. Vaulting or bouncing up into the air.

Things that Determine Skidding Distance

1. Speed itself is by far the most important.
2. Slipperiness of the pavement
3. Grade or slop of the road whether road up or down
4. Brake pedal pressure
5. Weight of the car
6. Tire thread
7. Air pressure
8. Tire material
9. Road surface
10.Direction of slides
11.Temperature of the air and the road surface
12. Against head winds
REFERENCE
Bragado, F.A. (1998). Trafficology: the science of traffic.
Delizo, D.B. (2004). Traffic management and accident investigation: an
instructional handbook.
Lichauco, R.C. (1998). The Philippine road rules and regulations handbook.
Green Ads Group
Traffic Management Group. Traffic management group handbook.
Land Transportation Office (2008). http://www.lto.gov.ph