Traffic Management

Module on Traffic Management and Accident Investigation with Driving
CRIM PROF 317

1. Title of the Module
Chapter 1. Historical Background of Land Transportation
2. Introduction:
This Chapter presents the historical development of land transportation used by
man. It is imperative for future traffic officers and traffic managers to familiarize themselves
to the various inventions and innovations related to land transportation to enable them to
understand the present-day traffic problems.
This chapter is divided into:
Lesson 1. Manpower, animal Power, and Wind Power

Lesson 2. Wheeled Vehicles and Road History
Lesson 3. Evolution of Motor Vehicles
3. Learning Outcome:
At the end of the course, the students should be able to:

1. trace the historical development of land transportation used by man.
2. Elaborate the inventions and innovations of wheeled vehicles and important events
that lead to modern land transportation.
3. Trace the historical development of motorized transportation.
4. Learning Content
Lesson 1.1 – Manpower, Animal Power, and Wind Power
Transportation is the movement or conveying of persons and goods from one

location to another.
Tracing the historical development of human’s methods of transporting goods and

people would take voluminous book to record all the innovations made by man from ancient
time to the present-day age. Man’s need to travel dates back as early as the creation of
human beings. Biblical passages alleged that when Adam and Eve ate the fruit of the
forbidden tree, they were sent out by God from Paradise of Eden.
Since then, the human race expanded and our ancestors constantly move from one
place to another to enable them to survive and others for various reasons. Other biblical
passages mentioned that Moses was chosen by God to speak to the Pharaoh, King of
Egypt to let His children out of Egypt. So, the children of Israel were gloriously brought out
from Egypt to serve God.
Soon, others became nomadic. They constantly migrate from one place to another
according to their own detailed knowledge of exploitable resources.
The term nomad, from the Greek, “to pasture,” was originally used to refer to
pastoralists-groups that migrate in an established pattern to find pasture lands for their
domestic livestock. However, the term has since been generalized to include all non-settled
populations, of which there are three types.
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1. The first type comprises foraging populations who wander in search of their food.
It is estimated that 99% of all humanity once lived in this way.
2. The second type, the most significant numerically and historically, comprises the
pastoral nomads who move with their families, belongings, and herds of cattle,
camel, sheep, or goats through an annual cycle of pastures whose availability is
determined by the alteration of hot and cold or wet and dry seasons. and
3. The third type comprises of gypsies, tinkers, and similar itinerants in urban and
complex societies.
What worth noting is; how man traveled during the ancient period. It is believed that
early human being traveled to places by foot, carrying their loads on their backs or on their
heads, while others pulled crude sleds. They used every means to make their
transportation with the least time and effort.
Various Ancient Modes of transportation:
A. Manpower.
Early man, who had no domesticated animals, carried his own burdens. More so today,
manpower is important in transportation in many parts of the world.
1. Walking (travelling by foot) – man first used the power of his own feet in travelling
while a load is either carried or dragged. Coincidentally, the English word
“pedestrian” was coined from the Latin word “pedester” which means to travel by
foot.
2. Carrying pole – in China and other parts of the Far East, the carrying pole,
balanced on one shoulder is a popular carrying device. On islands of the Pacific, the
ends of the pole are supported by two men, with goods suspended from the pole in
between.
3. Back load and tumpline – in Subtemala, pots are carried on a wooden framework
supported by a tumpline across the forehead. In Andes, the load is held on the back
by a strap passing over the chest.
4. Sledge on rollers – the moving of heavy burdens was to place them on sledge
which rested on a series of rollers.
5. Sledge on runners – a simple sledge, probably man-drawn was in use at the end of
the Old Stone age in northern Europe, as evidenced by fragments of wooden
runners which survived.
6. Travois – this travois, as the pole arrangement called, serves as a platform on which
the burdens are placed. The platform or cross-beam poles are then dragged by
humans or animals.
B. Animal Power.
The domestication of animals greatly increased the potential power available for
transportation. Pack animals were introduced as conveyances mainly to save labor. A man
can tend several pack animals moving together, each of which (except dogs) ca carry more
than he usually can.
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Some of the common animals used by human beings since the ancient time:
1. Ox – cattle, which were first domesticated in Mesopotamia, were used as draft
animals to draw war chariots. In some parts of Africa, they are used as pack animals
and for riding.
2. Reindeer – these were first domesticated in Siberia in the beginning of the Christian
era. In the Altai Mountains, they were ridden with saddles. Elsewhere, they draw
sledges somewhat like the dog sledges of the Far North.
3. Dog – the first animal domesticated, is too slight to carry heavy load. The plain
Indians sometimes packed light loads on dogs’ backs, and piled goods on a travois
which the dogs dragged. In the Far North, the dogs team drawing sledges are the
chief means of transportation; and in parts of Europe, the dogs are used to draw
small carts.
4. Donkey – the first domesticated in the Middle East. Donkey caravans carry goods
between the cities of Southwest Asia and Egypt and the donkey is still the chief
beast of burden among the farmers of the near East, the Mediterranean Area and
Mexico, where it was introduced from Spain.
5. Llama – in Pre-Columbian America, the Llama was the only new world animal other
than the dog capable of domestication for use in transport.
6. Elephant – the Carthaginians used African elephant in their war against Rome. In
India, elephants were formerly use in war and are still employed to some extent for
ceremonial processions and big game hunting. In Burma and Thailand, these huge
animals are widely used in the lumber industry.
7. Horse – around 2,000 B.C., horse drawn chariots appeared in southwest Asia and
1,000 years later, the Persians arrived with cavalry which gave mobility and power to
the German tribes who invaded Europe and to the Central Asian conqueror Genghis
Khan.
8. Camel – there are two kinds of camel, the two-humped Bactrian camel of Central
Asia and the one-humped dromedary of Arabia have long been used for transport.
The Bactrian camel has plodded along the caravan routes between China and Iran
for at least 2,000 years. The dromedary, which has less endurance but it, is fleeter
and special fast-paced riding camel, is bred by the Arab nomads.
9. Yak – a long-haired type of cattle that lives at high altitudes on the Tibetan plateau
and is ridden and used as a pack animal at heights were horses and ordinary animal
could not survive.
C. Wind Power.
Man realized the energy from the mass of moving air and learned to utilized such
powers to lift rather than to drag. This paved way to invention of air lifted transportation
vessels.
1. Ancient Chinese Kite – kites have flown as a popular past time in the Far East
since the beginning of the history. Based on a Korean tradition, the kite was first
used for transport when a Korean general employed one in bridge building. By
means of a kite, a cord was conveyed across the river where heavier ropes were
fastened and finally the bridge cable.
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2. Da Vinci’s Ornithopter – the great renaissance artist, scientist and engineer,

Leonardo da Vinci, made a study of the flight of the birds and his notebooks
sketched a number of ornithopter (a.k.a. orthopter) which derives its principal support
and propelling from flapping wings like those of a bird.
3. Montgolfier Balloon – the Montgolfier brothers of France Joseph Michel and
Jacques Entienne have successfully released several balloons when they proposed
to use two condemned prisoners for the first ascent with passengers. Pilatre de
Rozier, a natural historian protested this and claimed the honor himself. In 1783, he
and Marquis d’ arlanoes became the first men to make a free balloon ascent. The
balloon constructed of linen and inflated with hot air traveled 9,000 yards and
remained in the air for 20 minutes.
4. Siemens’ Rocket Plane – Ernst Werner Von Siemens who later achieved fame as
an electric industrialist, in 1847 designed rocket plane which was to be propelled by
the explosive force of gunpowder.
5. Lilienthal glider – Otto Lilienthal, a German inventor who also made a study of the
flight of birds and experimented with ornithopters, going so far as to build a model
ornithopter. In 1891, he made the first of a number of a glider flights which were to
exert a profound influence on the development of aviation.
6. Santos Dumont’s Airship – one of the pioneers of lighter-than-air craft was
Alberto Santos Dumont, a Brazilian who experimented with the steam-powered
balloons in Paris. He made his first balloon ascent in 1897 and in 1898 completed
the construction of his first airship. In 1901, he made a 30-minute round trip flight
between St. Louis and the Eiffel Tower.
7. Wright Brothers’ Flying Machine – Orville and Wilbur Wright began studying the
problems of heavier-than-air flight. They built biplane kite. They flew successfully at
Kitty Hawk, North Carolina on December 17, 1903. By 1909, airplanes became
sufficiently accepted to justify beginning commercial manufacture of the machine.
8. Lindbergh’s Spirit of St. Louis – following the initial flight of the Wright brothers’
airplane, the development of aviation was rapid. The first airmail was delivered in
1911 and World War I gave an impetus to plane design and the training of pilots.
During the 1920’s, many new records were set. A feat which particularly captured
popular imagination was the first solo flight from New York to Paris, made by Capt.
Charles A. Lindbergh in May 1927 in a plane especially built for the flight, the Spirit
of St. Louis.
Air transportation offers travelling in lesser time but the cost is beyond reach of most
common people. Notwithstanding the inaccessibility of most places if travelling is done
through the air even by water transportation. With no choice left, man is left conceiving and
inventing land transportation facilities.
Lesson 1.2 – Wheeled Vehicles and Road History
A. Wheel was invented probably in Western Asia. Such invention was a milestone and a
great step forward in transportation. However, pieces of evidence were found by
archaeologists that wheel could have been simultaneously invented in Southwest Asia and
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Mesopotamia. As wheel was perfected, crude parts and wagons began to appear in Tigris-
Euphrates valley about 3500 B.C., and later in Crete, Egypt, and China. The wheel was one
of man’s great inventions. It enabled him to transport burdens beyond the power of man or
animals to carry, drag, and permitted much greater facility of movements than the simple
sledge on rollers which had to be continually picked up and moved by hands as sledge is
advanced.
Ljubljana Marshes Wooden Wheel – the oldest wheel ever found in Europe or
anywhere in the world. This was discovered by two Slovene archaeologists in April 2002 in
the Ljubljana Marshes in Slovenia. When carbon-dated, the remains are estimated to be
5,200 years old.
Some of the earliest types of wheeled carts:

1. Solid wheels on fixed axle – this ancient cart represent an early step in the
evolution of wheeled vehicles. Its solid wheels, which were made of a single piece of
wood, rotated on single axle.
2. Sumerian chariot with flank wheels - this chariot of about 2400 B.C. had solid
wheels built up of three pieces and so was more durable than the one-piece wheel.
3. Greek quadrica with spoke wheels – drawn by four horses, was a light and elegant
vehicle for gentleman about 250 B.C. It had a spoke wheels and axles of irons or
bronze, handles for aid in mounting, and seat formed by a board placed across the
handles.
4. Italian cocchio (1288) – a travelling wagon in which the passengers were protected
by a covering of leather or cloth fixed over a wooden framework.
B. Ancient Rome – the following are the ancient wheeled vehicles in Ancient Rome:
1. Arcera – it had four wheels, a cover and was generally drawn by two or more
horses. The outside consisted of unhewn boards covered by loose drapery. This
vehicle was especially used to convey the sick and infirm and was of sufficient size
to allow occupants to recline.
2. Arcima – it was a small conveyance that is large enough for only one person.
3. Basterna – it was commonly used by women when travelling and was borne by two
mules, one before and one behind each hitched to a separate pair of shafts.
4. Benna – this four wheeled conveyance is made of wicker work and was of Gallic
origin. It can accommodate several persons when travelling.
5. Carpentum – used by early Romans in as early as 500 B.C. and as late as 5 th
century of the Christian era. It was a covered carriage with two wheels, had seats for
two or three and was usually drawn by two mules, horses or even oxen.
6. Carruca – this vehicle had four wheels, with the front ones smaller than the two
behind. This had a cover and was drawn by two to four horses or mules. It was often
ornamented by carvings in bronze and ivory and by chasings in silver and gold.
Members of the imperial families were fond of travelling using this kind of coach.
7. Carrus – a cart with two wheels and boarded sides, it was drawn by oxen or bullocks
and was mainly used by the Roman armies for the transportation of their baggage
and supplies.
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8. Cisium – a light open vehicle of Gallic origin, had two wheels and room for two
persons. It also has a box or case beneath the seat, where small baggage can be
carried in. two or three horses or mules were used to draw this and because of the
lightness of this carriage this is especially suitable for rapid travels.
9. Pilentum – used chiefly by women of the upper classes. It was furnished with
cushions, had a covered top but open sides. This was also used on state occasions
by Roman matrons, priests and vestal virgins. In this, they carried sacred vessels
and rode in processions and public games.
10. Four-wheeled plaustrum – usually employed for heavy burdens but were also used
for travelling.
11. Raeda – was common among Romans during the last century of the republic. A
commodious vehicle of Gallic origin and had four wheels, this was used by a man
when he traveled with his family because this has sufficient room for several persons
together with their luggage.
12. Sarracum - used by ancient Roman farmers as a travelling vehicle for themselves
and their families.
13. Tensa – a sacred vehicle elaborately ornamented with ivory and silver; had either
two or four wheels and was drawn by four horses. This carriage was used during
Circensian games, to carry the images of deities.
C. Wheeled Vehicles and Carriages could not use the narrow paths and trails used by
pack animals, and early roads were soon built to accommodate the larger transportation
vehicles.
D. The Romans were the major road builders in the ancient world. The Romans road
network reached a total of about 50,000 miles (80,000 kms.) with feeder roads branching
out from the main highways. It was costly because its deep foundation, formed by layer
after heavy stones, was necessary to make roads that would carry heavy traffic for many
years.
The Roman empire's major highway was the Via Salaria (Salt Road), on which salt
was carried from the salt pans of Ostia to Rome.
The Appian Way is one of ancient Rome's most famous roads. It extends for ten
miles within the city limits of Rome beginning at the Colosseum and heads southeast.
Begun in 312 B.C. under orders of the Republican magistrate Appius Clauduius, it once
extended 370 miles Brindisi and was the major transport route to Greece and the eastern
Mediterranean.
E. John L. Macadam did not abandon the theory of feeder road building and perfected the
macadamized road in England about 1815.
F. After the Fall of the Romans in the 5th century land haulage generally declined because
highways suffered from inadequate maintenance. Such improvements however, as the
horse collars (10th century), the addition of springs coaches, new methods of road
construction, and the introduction of toll roads (18 th century) all continued to ease and
speed land travel.
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The invention of larger carriages and vehicles pulled either by human beings or
animals could be considered the basis of modern highway construction.
Lesson 1.3 – Evolution of Motor Vehicles
A. Steam Engine was perfected in the 1760’s by James Watt. The invention provided
power for many industries and factories in England.
B. By the end of 18 th century, French, Scottish, and American inventors attempted to

apply the steam engine in water navigation.
1. Jacques Perier – built an steamboat in 1775.

2. Robert Fulton – launched the steamboat Clermont on the Hudson River in 1807.
3. The steamer Savannah crossed the Atlantic in 1819 and by the 19 th century, steam
navigation replaced the sailing vessels.
C. Railroads – Horse-drawn wagons with wooden wheels and rails had been used in
English and European mines during the 17 th century.
1. Richard Travithick - adapted the primitive steam locomotives to the mine railway
between 1797 and 1813.
2. George Stephenson – built and equipped the 32 km. Stockton and Darlington
railway, the first public railway in the world powered by steam locomotive which
eventually began railroad building in England.
3. United States, although railroad began in England, it was in the US where
tremendous growth in rail transport system occurred that by 1840 more than 4,800
kms (3,000 mi) railroads were already operating in the eastern states.
D. Significant improvement of Road Vehicle began with the adaptation of Coach

Spring about 1650.
E. In the Mid-18th century, English roads were so bad that the coaches could average only
about 4 mph (6.4 km/hr) and the mail was usually carried by boys on horses.
F. John Palmer introduced his first fast mail coach in March 1785 and by 1800, the
English coach system was in full swing.
G. The invention of Bicycle in the early 19 th century served as a nursery of automobile

builders. One of the ancestors of modern bicycle was the HOBBY HORSE, or dan horse.
The wheels were made of wood, with tires of iron, and the riders pushed themselves along
with their feet on the ground.
1. The German Baron Karl Von Drais in 1817 introduced a steerable wheel, creating
the “draisienne,” or “dandy horse.”
2. In 1838, Kirkpatrick macmillan, a Scottish blacksmith, made the first machine with
pedals, which were attached to and drove the rear wheel by means of crank.
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H. Motor Vehicle – the first mode of transportation to challenge the railroads.
Some of the notable events leading to the invention of motorized vehicles for
road traffic:
1. Ferdinand Verbiest – a Jesuit Missionary in China, built the first steam-powered
vehicle around 1672 as a toy for the Chinese Emperor (Wikipedia).
2. Nicolas Joseph Cugnot (1870-71) – demonstrated his fardier a vapeur (steam
dray), an experimental steam-driven artillery tractor.
3. William Murdoch (1784) – had built a working model of a steam carriage in
Redruth.
4. Richard Trevithick (1801) – ran a full-sized vehicle on the road in Camborne.
5. Oliver Evans (1789) – he was granted the first automobile patent in the United
States.
6. Francoiz Isaac de Rivaz (1806) – a Swiss engineer who built and engine powered
by internal combustion of a hydrogen and oxygen mixture.
7. Josef Bozek (1815) – a Professor at Prague Polytechnic, built an oil-fired steam car.
8. Samuel Brown (1826) – an Englishman who tested his hydrogen-fueled internal
combustion engine by using it to propel a vehicle up Shooter’s hill in South-East
London.
9. Walter Hancock (1838) – built and operated steam buses in London.
10. Christian Friedrich Schontein (1838) – discovered in principle the hydrogen fuel
cell (diesel), one of the technologies hailed as a replacement for gasoline as an
energy source for cars.
11. Charles Goodyear (1844) – invented the vulcanized rubber for tires.
12. Robert William Thompson (around 1845-46) – a Scottish who invented the first
vulcanized rubber tire. His invention worked well but was costly to produce.
13. Jean Joseph Etienne Lenoir (1858) – also known as Jean J. Lenoir, a Belgian
engineer who developed the internal combustion engine. It was Lenoir’s invention
which is considered to be the first commercially successful of its kind.
14. Gaston Plante (1859) – invented the lead-acid battery and Anyos Jedlik invented
the electric motor in 1828 – both inventions were contributory to the invention of
electric-powered cars.
15. Lenoir’s Hippomobile (1860) – with a hydrogen-gas fueled one-cylindered internal
combustion engine made a test drive from Paris to Joinville-le-Pont, covering some
nine kilometers in about three hours.
16. Henry Seth Taylor (1867) – a Canadian who demonstrated hi 4-wheeled “steam
buggy” at the Stanstead Fair in Standstead, Quebec. The basis of the buggy, which
he began building in 1865, was a high-wheeled carriage with bracing to support a
two-cylinder steam engine mounted on the floor.
17. Siegfried Marcus (1870) – an Austrian inventor who put a liquid-fueled internal
combustion engine on a simple handcart which made him the first man to propel a
vehicle by means of gasoline – known as the “first Marcus car”.
18. Dr. J.W. Carhatrt (1871) – invented the first steam powered carriage-sized
automobile suitable for use on existing wagon roads in the United States.
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19. Amedee Bollee (1873) – a French who produced the first “real” automobile-self
propelled steam road vehicles to transport groups of passengers.
20. George B. Selden (May 8, 1879) – an American who filed for a patent which
included not only the engine but its use in a 4-wheeled car. He was finally granted on
November 5, 1895.
21. Enrico Bernardi (1882) – patented a 0.024 horsepower 122 cc one-cylinder petrol
motor, fitting it into his son’s tricycle, making it at least a candidate for the first
automobile, and first motorcycle; in 1892, he enlarged the tricycle to carry two adults.
22. Marcus (1883) – secured a German patent for a low-voltage ignition system of the
magneto type; this was his only automotive patent.
23. Edouard Delamare-Deboutteville (1884) – vehicle was patented and trialled.
24. Karl Benz (1885) – built his first automobile in Mannheim and he was granted a
patent for his automobile on January 29, 1886. He began the first production of
automobiles in 1888, after Bertha Benz, his wife, had proved with the first long-
distance trip in August 1888, from Mannheim to Pforzheim and back.
25. Daimler (1885) – built the first high speed internal combustion engine.
26. John Boyd Dunlop (1887 – late 19th century) – developed the first practical
pneumatic tire (inflated with air) for bicycle and was granted patent in 1888.
27. In 1888, marked the first production of automobiles in Germany by Karl Benz, and in
France by Emile Roger.
28. Gottlieb Daimler and Wilhelm Maybach (1889) – designed a vehicle from scratch
to be an automobile, rather than a horse-drawn carriage fitted with an engine. They
are also credited for the first motorcycle in 1866.
29. Panhard et Lavassor of France (1889) – was the first company formed exclusively
to build automobiles, which also introduced the first four-cylinder engine.
30. In 1890’s, the first horseless-carriage appeared in the U.S.
31. Charles and Frank Duryea (1893) – founded the Duryea Motor Wagon Company,
becoming the first American automobile manufacturing company.
32. Rudolf Diesel (1893) – a German inventor who developed the diesel engine also
known as a compression-ignition engine is an internal combustion engine that uses
the heat compression to initiate ignition to burn the fuel.
33. Andrea Michelin (1895) – was the first person to use pneumatic tires on automobile
tires but not successfully.
34. Nesselsdorfer Wagenbau (Tatra) 1897 – a Czech company who produced the first
motor car in central Europe and one of the first factory-made cars in the world, the
Prasident automobile.
35. Henry Ford (1908) – introduced the Model-T, which was proved so popular that by
1914, ford had adopted mass production methods to meet the demand.
36. Philip Strauss (1911) – invented the first successful automobile tire with an air-filled
inner tube (interior).
37. Felix Wankel (1956) – a German mathematician, developed an advanced-type of
engine, named after him, that operates very differently from gas and diesel engines.
To date, man continuously manufacture large cargo trucks and buses for mass
transportation. Presently, the introduction of the Light Trail Transit (LRT), the Metro Rail
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Transit (MRT), flyovers, pedestrian and vehicle culverts, rock sheds and other modern
traffic ways contributed to the expeditious movement of traffic users.
5. Teaching and Learning Activities
Activity:
1. Trace the historical development of human’s methods of transporting goods
and people, and the historical development of motorized transportation.
2. Identify the different modes of transportation that we are using. What are
advantages and disadvantages of the identified modes of transportation (use
google.com).
6. Recommended learning materials and resources for supplementary reading.
https://youtu.be/3K6llTsZLSE
https://youtu.be/GEHGoSvGVVs
7. Flexible Teaching Learning Modality (FTLM) adopted
Online (synchronous)
//google meet, google classroom, schoology, moodle, Edmodo etc..
Remote (asynchronous)
//module, case study, exercises, etc..
8. Assessment Task
Quiz
Recitation
9. References
 Delizo, Darlito Bernard G. (2020). Traffic Management and Accident

Investigation with Practical Driving. Third Edition. Wiseman’s Book Trading,
Inc. Quezon City.
 Transportation in the Roman Empire: Roads, Vehicles and Water Travel.
Retrieved on June 20, 2020 from:
http://factsanddetails.com/world/cat56/sub408/item2052.html
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1. Title of the Module:
Chapter 2. Traffic Management
2. Introduction:
This chapter presents the various endeavors of the government for a systematic
traffic management. Further, it discusses the different areas of traffic management as well
as the roles of government and non-government agencies responsible for traffic
management.

Lesson 1. Fundamentals of Traffic Management
Lesson 2. The Pillars of Traffic
Lesson 3. Traffic Safety Education
Learning Outcomes:
At the end of the course, the students should be able to:

1. Understand the words and terminologies used in traffic management.
2. Discuss the different areas of traffic management as well as the roles of government
and non-government agencies responsible in traffic management.
3. Discuss the traffic safety education particularly in the reduction and prevention of
road accidents.
Learning Content:
Lesson 2.1 – Fundamentals of Traffic Management
Traffic Management is best understood by understanding the following commonly

used words and terminologies. Some of these are defined according to their “operational
definitions” and some are defined based on their general definitions.
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Arterial Highways/Roads – these are high capacity urban roads that direct traffic
from collector roads to expressway or freeways. It also refers to a highway that is used
primarily by through traffic.
Articulated Vehicle – it means a combination of vehicles comprising a motor vehicle

and a semi-trailer coupled to the motor vehicle.
Built-up Area – it refers to an area with entries and exits especially sign posted as
such or otherwise defined in domestic legislation.
Carriageway – it means the part of the road normally used by vehicular traffic. It
also known as ROADWAY.
Collector Highway – it is also known as collector road or distributor road which

connects lo-to-moderate highways or roads to arterial highways such as those entering
residential properties. It also refers to a highway that serves primarily to funnel traffic from
one local highway to another or between arterials and local highways.
Combination of Vehicles – it means coupled vehicles which travel on the road as a

unit
Cycle – it means any vehicle which has at least two wheels and is propelled solely
by the muscular energy of the persons on that vehicle, in particular by means of pedals or
hand-cranks.
Direction of Traffic and Appropriate to the Direction of Traffic. These mean the
right-hand side if, under domestic legislation, the driver of a vehicle must allow an oncoming
vehicle to pass on his left; otherwise these expressions mean the left-hand side.
Domestic Legislation. It is the entire body of national or local laws and regulations
enforce in the territory (country).
Driver. It means any person who drives a motor vehicle or other vehicle (including a
cycle), or who guides cattle, singly or in herds, or flocks, or draught, pack or saddle animals
on a road
Give Way. It means that a driver must not continue or resume his advance or
maneuver if by so doing he might compel the drivers of other vehicles to change the
direction or speed of their vehicles abruptly.
Highway. It means the entire width between the boundary lines of every way
dedicated to a public authority when any part of the way is open to the use of the public for
purposes of vehicular traffic, whether or not the public authority is maintaining the way. Or,
highway refers to any roads, streets, boulevards, or avenues used as public thoroughfare.
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Intersection. It means any level crossroad, junction or fork, including the open areas
formed by such crossroads, junctions or forks.
Laden Weight. It means the actual weight of the vehicle as loaded, with the crew
and passengers on board.
Lane. It means one of the longitudinal strips from which the carriageway can be
divided, whether or not defined by longitudinal road marking.
Level-crossing. It means any level intersection between a road and railway or

tramway track with its own track formation.
Light Trailer. This means any trailer of a permissible maximum weight not
exceeding 750 kg.
Management. It refers to the skillful use of means to accomplish a purpose.
Moped. It means any two-wheeled or three-wheeled vehicle which is fitted with an

internal combustion engine having a cylinder capacity not exceeding 50 cc and maximum
design speed not exceeding 50 km per hour.
Motor Cycle. It means any two-wheeled vehicle, with or without a side-car, which is
equipped with a propelling engine.
Motor Vehicle. It means any power-driven vehicle which is normally used for
carrying persons or goods by road or for drawing, on the road, vehicles used for the
carriage of persons or goods. This term embraces trolley-buses, that is to say, vehicles
connected to an electric conductor and not rail-borne. It does not cover vehicles, such as
agricultural tractors, which are only incidentally used for carrying persons of goods by road
or for drawing, on the road, vehicles used for the carriage of persons or goods.
Motorway. It means a road specially designed and built for motor traffic, which does
not serve properties bordering on it and which:
(i) is provided, except at special points or temporarily, with separate

carriageways for the two directions of traffic, separated from each other by a
dividing strip not intended for traffic or, exceptionally, by other means;
(ii) does not cross at level with any road, railway or tramway track, or footpath;
and
(iii) is specially sign-posted as a motorway.
Operation. Pertains to a course or series of acts to effect a certain purpose; manner

of action; or a vital or natural process of activity.
Parked. A vehicle is said to be parked if it is stationary for the period during which
the vehicle is not limited to the time needed to pick up or set down persons or goods.
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Permissible maximum weight. It means the maximum weight of the laden vehicle
declared permissible by the competent authority of the State in which the vehicle is
registered.
Power-driven vehicle. It means any self-propelled road vehicle, other than a moped
in the territories of Contracting Parties which do not treat mopeds as motor cycles, and
other than a rail-borne vehicle.
Road. It refers to the entire surface of any street open to public traffic. It also
includes shoulders and sidewalk (DPWH, 2012). Hence, to DPWH, the term “road” is
synonymous to traffic way.
For purposes of construction, repair, and/or maintenance, roads are classified as:
1. national roads – these are roads/streets interconnecting provinces and/or cities.
2. Provincial roads – these are roads/streets interconnecting municipalities and/or
cities within the province.
3. City roads – these are roads/streets interconnecting barangay within a city.
4. Municipal roads – these are roads/streets interconnecting barangays within a
municipality.
5. Barangay roads – these are roads/streets located within a barangay which
connect sitios or places within a barangay.
Road users. It shall mean any persons using the road including drivers, pedestrians,
cyclists, and commuters.
Roadway. It refers to that part of the trafficway (road0 over which vehicles pass.
Rural roads. These are roads where speed limit is over 60kph. Although there are
high-speed roads in the urban area, for the purpose of the line marking, they are defined as
rural roads.
Semi-trailer. It means any trailer designed to be coupled to a motor vehicle in such

a way that part of it rests on the motor vehicle and that a substantial part of its weight and of
the weight of its load is borne by the motor vehicle.
Shoulder. It refers to either side of the roadway, especially along highways.
Sidewalk. It refers to the paved walkway along the side of a street. It also means the
area determined as follows:
1. On the side of a highway which has a shoulder, a sidewalk is that portion of the
highway between the outside lateral line of the shoulder and the adjacent
property line capable of being used by a pedestrian.
2. On the side of a highway which has no shoulder, a sidewalk is that portion of the
highway between the lateral line of the roadway and the adjacent property line
capable of being used by a pedestrian.
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Standing. A vehicle is said to be standing if it is stationary for the time needed to

pick up or set down persons or to load or unload goods.
Through Highway. It means every highway or portion thereof on which vehicular

traffic is given the right-of-way, and at the entrances to which vehicular traffic from
intersecting highways is required by law to yield right-of-way to vehicles on such through
highway in obedience to either an authorized stop sign or yield sign, or other official traffic-
control device.
Thruway or Throughway. It is a highway that has limited entrances and exits such
as the expressways, freeways, or motorways. It is known as autobahn in german speaking
countries and autostrada in Italian-speaking countries. (thefreedictionary.com)
Traffic. It refers to the movement of persons, goods, or vehicles, either powered by

combustion system or animal drawn, from one place to another for the purpose of travel.
(early 16th century. Via obsolete French trafique from Old Italian traffic, from trafficare ‘to
carry on trade’, of uncertain origin).
Traffic way. Refers to the entire width between boundary lines of every way or place
of which any part is open to the use of the public for purposes of vehicular traffic as a
matter of right or custom. It is also synonymous to public way and road.
Trailer. It means any vehicle designed to be drawn by a power-driven vehicle and

includes semi-trailers.
Unladen weight. It means the weight of the vehicle without crew, passengers or
load, but with a full supply of fuel and with the tools which the vehicle normally carries.
Urban Roads. These are roads where speed limit is 60kph or less.
The Intersection
It is defined as the area embraced within the prolongation or connection of the lateral
curb lines, or, if none, then the lateral boundary lines of the roadways of two highways
which join one another at, or approximately at, right angles, or the area within vehicles
traveling upon different highways joining at any other angle may come in conflict. It is
synonymous to crossroads, junctions, or crossings. It also refers to the area of roadway
created when two or more roadways join together at any angle as described in one of the
following;
1. If the roadways have curbs, the intersection is the area embraced within the
prolongation or connection of the lateral curb lines.
2. If the roadways do not have curbs, the intersection is the area embraced within
the prolongation or connection of the lateral boundary lines of the roadways.
Classifications of Intersections according to the number of Intersecting Roads:

1. 3-way intersection – it is commonly known as the T or crossroad which links three
roads.
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2. 4-way intersection – the most common type which involved crossings of two
roadways. It is either regular intersection when the two roads cross perpendicularly
and it is called skewed intersection when the two roads cross at different angles.
3. 5-way intersection – it involves the crossing of five roads. This type is the least
common.
4. 6-way intersection – it involves the crossing of three streets most often two
perpendicular roads and one diagonal road. This type is very rare.
5. Staggered intersection – it involves two successive T crossroads.
Classifications of Intersections According to Traffic Control:

1. Controlled Intersection – it is controlled by any traffic control devices.
a. Yield-controlled Intersection – it is usually controlled by a Yield sign or Give Way
sign.
b. Stop-controlled Intersection – a STOP sign is usually installed. Most common are
the two-way stops and most countries use the four-way stops or the first-to-stop
first-to-go rule.
c. Traffic Circle – traffic flow here is directed by a circle rotary island, or a runabout
sign.
2. Uncontrolled Intersection – this intersection has no traffic signals or traffic signs.

Crossing is by observing the right-of-way rule.
3. Box Junction – this type generally prohibits entry unless the exit is clear.
4. Cloverleaf – a highway interchange at which two highways, one crossing over the
other, have a series of entrance and exit ramps resembling the outline of a four-leaf
clover and enabling vehicles to proceed in either direction on either highway.
What is Traffic Management?

Traffic Management is the application of the processes and skills in planning,
organizing, staffing, directing, coordinating, and budgeting to traffic affairs. Traffic
management also refers to the activities undertaken by a highway transportation agency to
improve roadway system safety, efficiency, and effectiveness for both providers and
consumers of transportation services. It also refers to the stationary and moving traffic,
including pedestrians, bicyclists, and all types of vehicles.
Types of traffic management. The two distinct types of traffic management are
the used or utilization of:
1. Traditional traffic engineering tools or devices, to regulate or control traffic, such as
traffic lights, traffic signs, or pavement markings, traffic islands, and other devices
that could control or direct the flow of traffic.
2. Advanced technology like the Intelligent Transportation System (ITS) such as the
installation of road sensors for emergency cars, global positioning devices mon
motor vehicles, and road sensors attached to traffic signal lights.
Why Traffic Management is necessary?

In every traffic management, three elements are necessary to be considered. These
are the road (trafficway) system, road users, and the enforcement (and/or control)
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procedures. Failure to coordinate these elements in a particular highway and/or intersection

may cause traffic-related problems.
With the advent of science and technology, new and modernized traffic facilities are
introduced. However, despite of these modernizations, traffic congestions persist to exist.
The only way to at least cope up with the prevailing traffic related problems is a coordinated
traffic management. Traffic management is therefore designed to make the traffic way safer
for travelers, expedite the movement of traffic, and to provide convenience to the traffic
facilities’ users. In short, traffic management aims to attain efficiency in the utilization of the
traffic way.
A. Major Causes of Traffic Congestion. Based on studies conducted by authorities.
1. Physical Inadequacy
2. Poor Control Measures
3. Human Errors
4. Poor Maintenance
B. Specific Traffic Problems – Traffic Managers and traffic control officers commonly
encounter the following traffic-related problems:
1. Traffic Build-up
2. Traffic congestions
3. Traffic jams (snarl-up)
4. Bottlenecks
5. Gridlocks
6. Accidents
7. Collisions
C. Scope of Traffic Management. In connection with the above stated causes of

congestion, authorities conceived that a systematic and effective traffic management is
needed which includes but not limited to the following:
1. All public surface facilities traversing and parking and all types of conveyances for
the movement of persons and things. This includes the provisions on the controlling
traffic flow as well as provisions for the allotments of parking lots or parking places.
2. All agencies having responsibilities for ascertaining traffic flow requirements,
planning, approving, funding, construction and/or maintaining these public facilities
for such movements. This area includes traffic planning committees, those involved
in traffic engineering, and the legislative bodies in the appropriations of funds.
3. All agencies responsible for licensing, approving, restricting, stopping, prohibiting or
controlling the use of these facilities. The agencies involved in this area are the Land
Transportation Office (LTO) and other traffic enforcement agencies.
D. Agencies involved in Traffic Management

1. Department of Transportation (DOTr, formerly DOTC).
2. City or Municipal Engineers Office
3. Department of Public Works and Highways (DPWH)
4. Legislative (Congress/City or Municipal)
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5. Philippine National Police (PNP)

6. Traffic Management Bureaus (TMBs)
7. Academic Institutions
8. Courts
9. Public Information Offices
10. Barangay Peacekeeping Action Team (BPAT)
11. Citizen Support Groups
12. Tri-Media (including the internet)
Lesson 2.2 – The Pillars of Traffic
A. Pillars of Traffic.
These are the main areas of traffic managements which are also known as the “Es” of
Traffic. For a clearer understanding to the various areas of traffic management, the
following pillars are conceived.
Traffic Engineering.
It is the science of measuring traffic and travel the study of the basic laws relative to
the traffic law and generation; application of this knowledge to the professional practice of
planning, deciding, and operating traffic system to achieve safe and efficient transportation
of persons and goods.
Functions of Traffic Engineering:
1) Fact-finding, surveys and recommendations of traffic rules and regulations;
2) Supervisions and maintenance to the application of traffic control device; and
3) Planning of traffic regulations.
Agencies and/or offices under Traffic Engineering:

1) DPWH
2) Provincial governments
3) Municipal governments
4) Chartered cities
Objectives of traffic Engineering:

1) To achieve efficient, free and rapid flow of traffic.
2) To prevent traffic accident.
3) To simplify police enforcement actions and performance.
4) To show that good police actions and performance makes engineering plans
effective.
5) To present the close relationship of the pillars of traffic in the improvement of traffic
problems.
When and where the Objectives of Traffic Engineering are applied?

1) Habitually congested commercial areas.
2) Heavily traveled thoroughfares.
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3) Congested local areas and intersections.

4) During special occasions and events.
5) During disasters or emergencies.
6) At school crossings.
Methods in achieving the Objectives of Traffic Engineering:
1) Planning and Geometric Design-Factor employed in Planning.

a) Composition of traffic stream
b) Traffic volumes for capacity
c) Origin and destination
2) Factors Influencing Design

a) Composition of traffic
b) Volume of traffic
c) Speed of vehicles
d) The starting, turning and stopping abilities of traffic units.
e) Performance values of road users
3) Regulation and Control-Traffic Regulation

a) Based and confined within the boundaries of safety, public welfare and
convenience.
b) Limitations imposed on road users and their load.
c) Basic general rule of road use and conduct.
d) Prohibition and Restriction.
Traffic Education.
It refers to any act or process of imparting or acquiring general knowledge on traffic or
any matters relating to the use of the traffic way or roadways. Traffic safety education is the
primary concern of traffic education in the area of accident and prevention.
The following are the agencies and offices responsible for traffic education:
a) Schools (Public and Private). Traffic education can be carried out by imparting
knowledge concerning traffic safety, training and practice in the actual application of
traffic safety, and developing traffic safety morality.
1) Elementary. In this level, traffic education is focused on safety and guides
stressing traffic safety, classroom discussion of accidents, incidents and safety
rules, organizing safety patrols.
2) Secondary. Traffic education for high school students is geared towards school
safety organizations.
3) Higher education. Some colleges and universities offer and conduct courses
regarding traffic safety subjects.
b) Public Information Programs. The public should be informed on all activities
affecting the citizens and the community relating to traffic (dissemination of
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information). This can be done through the public information agency, newspapers,
radio and television broadcasting networks, and other forms of media.
c) Citizen Support Groups. These are mostly composed by voluntary non-government
organizations (NGOs), radio communication groups, rotary organizations and other
voluntary clubs. These organizations usually develop citizens’ responsibilities,
conduct organized educational campaign, instill awareness of the traffic problems,
and provide information regarding major traffic requirements and needs.
Traffic Enforcement.
This field deals mostly on the implementation and enforcement of traffic laws and rules
and regulations.
The following are the various agencies/offices that are involved in enforcement of
traffic laws:
a) Land Transportation Office (LTO). This office responsible for the following:
1) Vehicle registration
2) Vehicle inspection
3) Drivers licensing (examinations, suspensions, and revocations)
4) Public to police on stolen or wanted vehicles.
b) Legislative Bodies. Included are the Senate, Congress, Provincial Boards, and City
or Municipal Councils. They are responsible for the passing and/or amending of laws
and/or ordinances.
c) Police Traffic Enforcement. This pillar is not limited to the PNP-HPG (formerly
TMG) but it includes all government personnel who are duly authorized for the direct
enforcement of traffic laws such as:
1) The Metropolitan Manila Development Authority (MMDA) for the National Capital
Region.
2) Police Traffic Auxiliaries
3) LTO Law Enforcement Services/Flying Squad
Traffic Ecology or Traffic Environment.

This pillar is very recent which includes the study of potentially disastrous population
explosion, changes in urban environment due to the scale and density of new urban
concentration and new activities carried out, air population, water pollution and crowding,
especially transport congestion which result therein.
a) What are the environmental effects of the urbanization of transportation?

1) Noise. It is known that continued exposure to noise level beyond 80dBA (decibel
annually) causes loss of hearing.
Average background noise:

(i) Typical home – 40 to 50 dBA
(ii) Heavy trucks – 90 at 15m/ft
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(iii) Freight trains – 75 dBA at 15m/ft.

(iv) Air conditioning -60 dBA at 6m/ft.
2) Vibration
3) Air pollution
4) Dirt
5) Visual intrusion
6) Loss of Privacy
7) Changes in amount of light
8) Neighborhood Severance, both physical and psychological
9) Relocation
10)Distraction during planning and construction
11)Accident Experiences
12)Pedestrian Journey
13)Congestion and other Benefits to Vehicles.
b) External factors that influence the existing and future behavior of population.
Below are the incidents that may affect the behavior of trafficway users or road
users:
1. Rapidly increasing population growth.
2. Rapidly increasing urbanization.
3. Rapidly increasing motorization.
4. Industrialization and technical modernization.
5. Improvement of the transportation network that the street network and the public
transportation facilities.
c) Alternatives. A more pleasant environment can be achieved without negative

implication for economy and trade, so that any reasonable step in this direction by
decision-makers deserves support.
The following are some of the proposed activities that may reduce the adverse
effect of traffic development to our ecology:
(i) Towns are better with less traffic, so long as adequate provision is made for the
mobility of workers and residents and the distribution of goods. It is of urgent
necessity the National Government develop efforts to reduce the adverse effects of
motor traffic in urban areas.
(ii) Where and when traffic congestion and its cost are serve and frequent, assures to
reduce the use of private cars and goods, vehicles and to improve alternative forms
of transport should be introduce.
(iii) To limit traffic and to improve the efficiency and quality of service of buses and
transport.
(iv) Pedestrian scheme should be introduced whenever possible to improve the
environment and safety for pedestrians.
(v) The use of non-carbon emitting vehicles should be encourage like bicycle whenever
practical.
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(vi) Motor vehicle reduction scheme should also be introduced.
d) Laws and Statutes concerning Traffic Ecology
(i) PD 1181. Providing for the prevention, control and abatement of Air Pollution
from motor vehicles and for other purposes.
“Sec. 1 – The purpose is to prevent, control, and abate the emission of air
pollutants from motor vehicles in order to protect the health and welfare of the
people and to prevent or minimize damage to property and hazards to land
transportation.
(ii) Letter of Instruction No. 552. Directing the law enforcement agencies to
implement the pollution control program.
(iii) R.A. No. 8749 otherwise known as the Clean Air Act. An Act providing for the
regulation of motor vehicles emitting toxic gases like the use of the diesel and
leaded gasoline.
Traffic Economy.
This is the most recent of the pillars of traffic which deals with the benefits and
adverse effects of traffic to our economy. Primarily, traffic operation is designed to expedite
the movement of traffic. However, with the prevailing traffic congestion during rush hours in
any given locality, traffic adversely affects the economic status of the commuting public.
One aspect affecting our economy is the unending increase of oil prices in the world
market. Somehow, programs must be instituted in order to minimize the ill effect of rising
prices of basic commodities. Delays resulting from traffic congestion affect not only the time
of travel but the productivity of an individual as well.
Lesson 2.3 – Traffic Safety Education
What is Traffic Education? It is the process training roads users in the avoidance
and prevention of traffic-related accidents.
It is already identified that one if not the major causes of traffic accidents is human
factors which includes but not limited to ignorance, lack of skills, and/or erratic attitude and
behaviors of drivers, pedestrians, and passengers. this can be corrected traffic safety
education.
Road Safety.
It refers to reduced risk of accident or injury on the roads, achieved through
multidisciplinary approaches involving road engineering and traffic management, education
and training of road users, and vehicle design.
A. Factors Contributing to Accidents. Research studies in the United Kingdom have

shown that human factors contribute to 95% of accidents, road factors to about one quarter
of a percent, and vehicle factors to fewer than five percent.
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1) Human errors include:

a. Going too fast or excessive speed;
b. Failing to give at junctions;
c. Following too closely;
d. Overtaking improperly;
e. Misperceiving or misjudging the road situation ahead;
f. Intoxication of alcohol or drug; and
g. Lack of skill
2) Road deficiencies that are main contributory factors are:

a. Poor design of layout and control at junctions;
b. Inadequate signing, road marking, and lighting;
c. Slippery roads; and
d. Obstruction on the road such as parked vehicle, on going road construction, etc.
3) Main vehicle factors are:

a. Defects in tires, brakes, and lights;
b. Absence or non-using of seat belts; and
c. Poorly maintained motor vehicles.
B. The three (3) principles that have been emphasized as effective in the prevention
of traffic accidents are known, as the three (3) “Es” or pillars of traffic. Recently, however,
traffic environment and traffic economy were added to compete the five (5) pillars of traffic.
1. Engineering (traffic engineering). Effective construction and maintenance of traffic

facilities which does not only expedite the movement of traffic but also prevents the
occurrence of traffic accidents. Successful treatments have included:
a. Changes in layout at junctions to define priorities more clearly (use of
roundabouts, or traffic circles);
b. More wide use of road markings to delineate traffic lanes and waiting areas for
turning vehicles;
c. Improvements in skidding resistance of wet roads;
d. More uniform street lighting; and
e. More highly visible and legible direction, information, and warning signs.
2. Education (in traffic safety). When road users are informed of the traffic laws, rules
and regulations, accidents are likely prevented. Further, there are strong suggestions
of benefits from pre-school schemes involving parents, and from road safety
education in schools where it is an integral part of the school curriculum. Included
are:
a. New approach to training and educating young drivers;
b. Training in hazards perception; and
c. Changing of attitudes.
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3. Enforcement (of traffic rules). One of the causes accidents is the blatant non-
compliance of motorists and pedestrians to traffic laws, rules and regulations. To
minimize the occurrence of accidents due to non-compliance of road users,
enforcement must be conducted. The following are highly recommended in areas of
traffic enforcement:
a. Strengthening and simplifying the application of the law;
b. New technology to aid enforcement;
c. Enhance publicity;
d. Education of teenagers in schools; and
e. The development of rehabilitation course like seminars for apprehended traffic
violators.
4. Ecology/Environment. People should be educated regarding the adverse effect of

traffic to our environment that directly or indirectly affects the population’s health.
5. Economy. People should learn also to develop schemes and/or devices and
programs that do not only lessen expenses but also accident free.
C. Levels of Traffic Safety Education:

1. Imparting knowledge concerning traffic safety.
2. Training and practice in the actual application of traffic safety knowledge; and
3. Developing traffic safety morality.
D. Traffic Safety for Children.

This is highly unsystematic and is usually carried out in the home through parental
education and in Kindergarten and nurseries. This is now necessary to make systematic to
lessen the number of children fatalities and injuries.
1. Elementary. Pupils are usually educated by stressing traffic safety and guides, and
classroom discussions of accidents, incidents and other traffic safety rules.
2. Secondary. This level initiates driver education program because students have
reached the age to drive, hence, proper driving habits should be stressed. It also
includes the establishment of school safety organizations.
3. Higher Education. Some universities and colleges offer and conduct courses to
private and public agencies regarding safety subjects.
E. Traffic Safety Education for Adults.

Safety education for elder pedestrians and drivers is relatively easier compared to the
education designed for younger children since the former group is in a better position to
understand what is being taught to them.
1. It is the general belief that by being a better driver, it follows that one becomes a
better pedestrian. By knowing the limitations of the driver and the vehicle as a driving
student, one learns to watch out for dangerous cues such as pedestrians. This is the
basic reason why traffic safety education for adults usually deals only with the
foundations or basics of driving.
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2. Driver education is carried out in secondary schools and in private and government
sponsored driving school in a number of countries where people are expected to
know how to drive when they reach legal age. The basic purpose of this education
are:
a. To develop good traffic citizens who are equipped to live in a motorized society
and achieving traffic safety.
b. To develop citizens who are legally eligible to get a driver’s license.
F. Driver’s Education.
In general, driver instruction aims primarily to teach the rudiments of driving. Secondary
aims are as follows:
1. to instill awareness of one’s legal and moral responsibilities in traffic, and

2. to teach the abilities required for one to be eligible for a driver’s license.
G. Four (4) basic types of Instruction Methods used in Driver’s education programs.
1. Comprehensive. This method places the student into real life of driving situations
from the beginning.
2. Traditional Instruction. This type of instruction depends on instructor-student
communication.
3. Commentary Driving Method. The student-driver accompanied by an instructor. As
the student-driver drives, the instructor has to give a commentary on his driving-what
he sees, what he does, why he does, what he proposes to do, what others are likely
to do, etc.
4. Simulated Conditions. On and Off the Road Training. The premise of simulated
conditions training is that the relatively analogous to normal behavior. Simulator is a
static machine with all the important features of a car used in driving method or
driving training.
Two methods of simulation presently adopted:

a) Partial Simulation Method. This method has the specific aim of training for the
“subtask” of the driving task.
b) Global Simulation. It may be classified into two (2) specific groups which are:
training, simulated in traffic situations and conditions, with the use of simulations.
Simulators are most commonly used for the following types of training:
1) Training in basic car-control skills.
2) Perceptual training.
3) Emergency training.
c) Classification of films as shown by the simulators:
1) The analytical film which provides an “objective” analysis of the driving situation
presented to the student.
2) The didactic film which aims to show good driving behavior.
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3) The simulation film which offers “visual realism” to driving situations and therefore
a good aid in actual practice.
H. Essential Component of Driving Tasks. Drivers’ education includes:
1. Collection of information which includes:

a. Perceptual scanning
b. identification
2. Processing of information which includes:
a. Predicting
b. Decision making
3. Action which is focused on:
a. Motor skills and control of vehicles
b. Knowledge and subjective interpretation
I. Biorhythm.
Is the theory which asserts that man exhibits a constant variation of life energy and
mood states. Man’s theorized cycles and interpretations rhythm is peculiar characteristics of
most natural phenomena like:
1. The diurnal exchange of light and darkness.
2. The four seasons.
3. Our wet and dry season.
4. The waxing and waning of the moon.
The observation of the rhythm mentioned and their possible correlation with the habits of
man has led to a host of different theories that tried to explain this correlation in term of
physical, psychological, etc.
The following are the most controversial theory of biorhythm:
1. 23-day cycle a.k.a. our cycle of strength, endurance and courage (the male
component of a person).
2. 28-day emotional cycle equivalent to a female’s 28 day menstrual cycle is a.k.a. our
cycle of sensitivity, love and intuition (the female component of a person).
3. 33-day intellectual cycle.
All these cycles are present at the time we are born. When the curve is above the
center line, the biorhythm value is said to be “HIGH” or a person has more energy to
spare, i,e.:
1. Physical High – we tend to be energetic, strong, full of vitality.

2. Emotional High – we tend to be creative, artistic, cheerful, and happy.
3. Intellectual high – we are able to think quickly and logically.
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When the curve is below the center line, the biorhythm is said to be “LOW” or in a
rechargeable period, i,e.:
1. Physical low – we tend to tire quickly and to succumb to illness easily.
2. Emotionally low – we feel moody, irritable, or depressed.
3. Intellectual low – concentrating or remembering is difficult or we are likely to use
poor judgment when any of the curves crossed the center line. This is called a critical
day wherein our systems seem to be in a state of transition. During critical day,
people tend to get sick easily, seem to lack coordination and tend to be accident
prone.
J. Importance of biorhythm in the field of study.

It should be borne in mind that biorhythm does not predict what actually will happen. All
it does is to give us a hint on how we will tend to feel in a certain day.
1. The theory asserts that people are accident prone if their biorhythm crosses the
centerline on a certain day or is totally below the line.
2. Theoretically, if we know our biorhythm for a certain day, we can psychologically
cope up with any situation. If we usually overcome any ill effect by awareness and
will power.
K. Safety Campaign.
This is a mass publicity aimed to make road users behave more safely. These
basically focus on public information attitudes, and particular or specific behaviors, or
combinations of these.
SAFETY CAMPAIGN is also known as road propaganda which may be intended

simply to inform or it may be felt that the public is already aware of the recommended
behavior by need to be persuaded into adopting it.
1. Safety campaign classifications:

a. According to purpose- may be categorized as informational, attitudinal and
behavioral;
b. According to kind of appeal – used to reason by simply feeding the public with
authenticated factual data.
2. Safety campaign design:
a. Initial campaign planning
b. Final campaign design
c. Campaign evaluation
3. Private and Government entities responsible for Safety Campaign:
a. Newspapers
b. Radio broadcasting Networks
c. Television Broadcasting Networks
d. Public Information Agencies.
L. FIVE PILLARS OF ROAD SAFETY (Road Safety Action Plan-LTO)
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` Consistent with international and local road safety policies, framework and
standards, the LTO developed its own road safety framework based on its mandate:
A. Qualified Drivers - Individuals with sufficient driving skills, and knowledge on road
safety and proper road courtesy, whose eligibility is determined by passing the LTO-
conducted theoretical and practical examinations. Developing qualified drivers is an
important pillar in the LTO road safety advocacy since human factor is the major
cause of road crashes;
B. Roadworthy Vehicles - Motor vehicles and its relevant parts are compliant with
national standards and international vehicle safety conventions. Ensuring
roadworthiness of vehicles decreases the likelihood of failure in vehicle functioning,
thus reduces the risk of a road crash;
C. Traffic Discipline - It is the conformity/ compliance to road traffic laws, rules,
regulations and/ or a code of behavior. Traffic discipline paves the way for order,
organization and the unhampered traffic flow;
D. Community Relations - Mutually beneficial relationship with communities in which
an organization operates. Road crashes do not discriminate the victims. Thus, road
safety is every body's responsibility. To ensure safety, the LTO must solicit the
support of everyone in the community; and
E. Legislative Initiative - The right of competent persons and institutions to introduce
for the consideration of a legislative body, or propose to enact a new law, an
amendment to or a repeal of existing legislation. While there are many land transport
and traffic laws, rules, and regulations, much is to yet to be desired on specific
enabling laws that directly address road safety. Further, with the changing times,
obsolete or laws that are no longer responsive and relevant must either be amended
or completely repealed.
Activity:
1) Discuss the environmental effects of the urbanization of transportation.

2) Identify the Pillars of Traffic. Discuss its functions in Traffic Management.
3) In your own insight. Why Traffic Management is necessary?
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5FaGfj9iYxE
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8. Assessment Task
Quiz
Recitation
Preliminary Exam
9. References
 Delizo, Darlito Bernard G. (2020). Traffic Management and Accident Investigation

with Practical Driving. Third Edition. Wiseman’s Book Trading, Inc. Quezon City.
 Highway Safety Design Standards Manuals: Part 1- Road Safety Design Manual and
Part 2- Road Signs and Pavement Markings Manual.
https://www.dpwh.gov.ph/dpwh/references/guidelines_manuals/highway_safety_desi
gn_standards_manual
 Road Safety Action Plan – LTO. Retrieved on June 20, 2020 from:
https://www.lto.gov.ph/images/Advisory/LTO-ROAD-SAFETY-ACTION-PLAN.pdf
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Chapter 3. Traffic Laws, Rules and Regulations and Other Related Statues
2. Introduction:
This chapter presents the various traffic laws, rules and regulations and other
statutes governing traffic. It is imperative for the learners to know the pertinent laws relative
to the work of a traffic law enforcer. Further this chapter comprehensively discusses the
general rule of road use and conduct and the general traffic prohibitions and restrictions.

Lesson 1. Traffic Laws, Rules and Regulations.
Lesson 2. Important Provisions of R.A. 4136.
Lesson 3. Registration of Motor Vehicles.
Lesson 4. Provisions on Driver’s Licenses.
Lesson 5. Basic General Rules of Road Use and Conduct.
At the end of this chapter, the students should be able to:

1) recognize the various traffic laws, rules, and regulations and other statutes
governing traffic.
2) understand the important provisions of R.A. 4136
3) elaborate the proper procedure on motor vehicle registration.
4) Distinguish the different types of licenses and elaborate the provisions in
procuring Driver’s license.
5) Discuss the basic general rules of road use and conduct and the general
prohibitions and restrictions
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4. Learning Content
Lesson 3.1: Traffic Laws, Rules and Regulations
The standards of regulating movements on roads, streets and highways are found in
traffic laws, rules and regulations.
In the Philippines, the mass of traffic laws, rules and regulations have their source in
laws, Presidential Decrees, Executive Orders, Letter of Instructions, Administrative Orders
and Implementing memoranda and other Special Laws relative to traffic operation and
traffic law enforcement. As a traffic enforcer, it is essential that you should be familiar with
these rules and regulations.
In addition, traffic signs, pavement markings, and other control devices are traffic law
themselves. Violations of such constitute misdemeanor or infraction in the country.
A. Sources.
The following are the basis for the traffic regulations and prohibitions in the
country.
1. Republic Acts (R.A.s)
a) R.A. 4136 (June 20, 1964). This is the basic law regulating land transportation in
the Philippines. It has repealed Act No. 3992 (The Revised Motor Vehicle Law).
b) R.A. No. 6539. The Anti-Carnapping Act of 1972. The Act preventing and
penalizing carnapping.
c) R.A. No. 5448. An Act imposing a tax on privately owned passenger
automobiles, motorcycles and scooters, and a science stamp tax, to constitute a
special science fund defining the programs, projects and activities of science
agencies to be financed therefrom and for other purposes.
d) R.A. 8749. Also known as the “Clean Air Act” which regulates emission of toxic
gases of both gasoline and diesel engines and bans the use of leaded gas for
gasoline engines.
e) R.A. 8750. It provides for the attachment of seatbelts for all types of motor
vehicles and imposes penalty for the non-compliance thereof.
f) R.A. 7924. An Act creating the Metropolitan Manila Development Authority,
defining its powers and functions, providing funds therefore and for other
purposes.
g) R.A. 8794. An Act imposing a motor vehicle user’s charge on owners of all types
of motor vehicles and for other purposes. It also imposes penalties on overloaded
motor vehicles.
h) R.A. 10054. An Act mandating all motorcycle riders to wear standard protective
motorcycle helmets while driving and providing penalties therefor. It is also known
as “Motorcycle Helmet Act of 2009.”
i) R.A. 10586. An Act that penalizes persons driving under the influence of alcohol,
dangerous drugs, and similar substances, and for other purposes. It also
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CRIM PROF 317
repealed the mandatory drug testing of driver’s license applicants. This Act is
Known as the “Anti-Drunk and Drugged Driving Act of 2013.”
j) R.A. 10666. The law providing the safety of children riding on motorcycles
particularly boarding two-wheeled vehicles running faster than 60 kph on public
road. It is also known as the “Children’s Safety on Motorcycles Act of 2015.”
k) R.A. 10913. An Act defining and penalizing distracted driving. This Act is known
as the “Anti-Distracted Driving Act of 2016.”
l) R.A. 10916. An Act requiring the mandatory installation of speed limiter in public
utility and certain types of motor vehicles. This law is known as the “Road Speed
Limiter Act of 2016.”
m) R.A. 10930. An Act rationalizing and strengthening the policy regarding driver’s
license by extending the validity period of drivers’ licenses, and penalizing acts in
violation of its issuance and application amending for those purposes section 23
of Republic Act No. 4136, as amended by Batas Pambansa Blg. 398 and
Executive Order No. 1011, otherwise known as the land transportation and traffic
code.
2. Presidential Decrees (P.D.s)

a) P.D. 96. Regulating the use of sirens, bells, horns, etc., by prohibiting the
attachment of any siren, horn bell, etc. on motor vehicles which produce unusual
or startling sounds as well as blinkers and other similar devices unless the
vehicle belongs to the AFP, NBI, LTO,PNP, BJMP, Hospitals and Fire
Departments and are specially intended for use in emergencies.
b) P.D. 101. Expediting the methods of prescribing, redefining or modifying the lines
and modes of operations of public utility motor vehicles in the Philippines.
c) P.D. 207. Declaring as part of the Laws of the Philippines the Vienna Convention
on Road Traffic, Signs and Signals.
d) P.D. 612. Requiring compulsory insurance for all types of motor vehicles against
third party liability as an additional pre-requisite for registration by the LTO.
e) P.D. 1686. Imposing a tax on every motor vehicle equipped with air conditioner.
f) P.D. 1181. Providing for the abatement of air pollution from motor vehicles and
for other purposes.
g) P.D. 1605. Granting the Metropolitan Manila Commission certain powers related
to traffic management and control in Metropolitan manila providing penalties, and
for other purposes.
h) P.D. 98. Regulating the issuance of license plates of all motor vehicles.
i) P.D. 109. Modifying P.D. 98.
j) P.D. 1729. Authorizing the Bureau of Land Transportation to dispose of
impounded motor vehicles unclaimed by owners for a certain period of time.
k) P.D. 1730. Declaring the syndicated printing, manufacture, distribution,
possession or use of fake official Bureau of Land Transportation forms,
documents, plates and stickers as offenses involving economic sabotage.
3. Letters of Instruction (L.O.I.s)
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a) L.O.I No. 43. Providing for the removal of impediments on roads, streets and
highways such as constructions, stalled or parked vehicles and other movable
property that obstruct free passage. This LOI abrogated city or municipal
ordinances governing the disposition of traffic on duty and municipal streets
throughout the country.
b) L.O.I. No. 112. Prohibiting freight and cargo trucks from using roads, highways
and bridges whose load capacities are in excess of specific allowable limits.
c) L.O.I. No. 229. Requiring all motor vehicle owners, users, or drivers to have in
their possession at all times while driving at least one (1) pair of early warning
device (EWD) for use when the vehicle is disabled on roads, streets and
highways or other emergencies compelling vehicle to be on stop position.
d) L.O.I. No. 716. Every motor vehicle to equip at least a pair of early warning
device.
e) L.O.I. No. 551. Directing the law enforcement agencies to implement the
Pollution Control Program.
f) L.O.I. No. 853. Calling for the National Tripartite Conference to consider the
establishment of viable labor-management relations based upon the “boundary”
system in land transportation.
g) L.O.I. No. 1009. All owners of private motor vehicles who desire to stop operating
or using their number plates and registration certificates to surrender to BLT.
h) L.O.I. No. 1071. Owners and/or operators of motor vehicles are authorized to pay
the annual premiums for the insurance of their motor annual premiums for the
insurance of their motor vehicles on quarterly basis.
4. Department Orders (D.O.s)
a) DOTC D.O 88-305. Rules of pleadings, practice and procedure for appeals on
franchising, fare rates charges and other related matters pertinent to Land
Transportation Public Utilities.
b) D.O. 93-693. Revised Schedule of Administrative Fees and charges of the Land
Transportation Office.
5. Administrative and Special Orders
a) Administrative Order No. VIII, S-1968, LTC. Requiring the towing and
impounding of stalled motor vehicles on public highways and the imposition of
corresponding fees thereof.
b) Administrative Order No. 1, S-1973, LTC. Prescribing guidelines and
procedures in the implementation of PD N0. 96
c) Administrative Order No. 1, S-1975, LTC. Laying down specific rules of action
in the imposition of uniform fines and penalties for violation of the provisions of
R.A. No. 4136.
d) Special Order No. 101-IRM, LTC. Enumerating and identifying various city
streets where parking is prohibited.
6. Memorandum circulars
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a) LTC Memorandum to All Patrol Officers, Deputies and Agents dtd 09

August 1975. Directing the motor vehicles whose loads are rice, cereals,
fertilizers and other prime commodities are not to be apprehended and stopped
on roads and highways except only in cases of serious violations.
b) LTC Memorandum Circular No. 33, dated 12 September 1972. Providing
guidelines in the apprehension of illegally parked motor vehicles.
c) LTC Circular No. 15, dated 19 January 1972. Regulating and laying instruction
in the use of Special Commemorative Motor Vehicle Plates.
d) M.C. 94-199. Aide-memoir regarding retention and authority by LTO to register
motorized tricycles under R.A. 4136, and guidelines to implement devolution of
LTFRB’s Franchising Authority over TC’s per R.A. 7160 issued by DOTC.
e) M.C. 94-188. Issuance of driver’s license to disabled persons.
f) M.C. 92-146. Re-implementation of LOI 229, as amended by LOI 479 directing
the installation of early warning devices of motor vehicles.
g) M.C. 94-192. Diesel smoke emission test for motor vehicles.
h) M.C. 90-020. Directing all public land transportation service operators and drivers
to display in any conspicuous place their vehicles the authorized fare matrix for
the specific route granted them to avoid conflict.
i) M.C. 93-011. Enjoining all public utility operators to use garage instead of public
places or side streets in parking their vehicles.
j) M.C. 94-002. Sanctions on operators arising from the violations of their drivers.
k) M.C. 94-209. Clarificatory guidelines for the registration/operation of new private
vehicles particularly in the use of conduction sticker.
7. Executive Orders (E.O.s)
a) E.O. 125. Reorganizing the DOTC, defining its power and functions and for other
purposes.
b) E.O.266. Providing for two service units in the Office of the Asst. Sec. for Land
Transportation in the DOTC (Law Enforcement Service-LES and Traffic
Adjudication Service-TAS), defining the powers and functions thereof and for
other purposes.
c) E.O. 202. Creating the Land Transportation Franchising and Regulatory Board
(LTFRB).
d) E.O. 248. Empowering the Land Transportation Commission to control and
supervise the operations of motor vehicle driving schools.
8. Other Special Laws, Statutes, etc.
a) Batas Pambansa Blg. 344 (B.P. 344). Act to enhance the mobility of disabled
persons by requiring certain buildings, institutions, establishments and public
utilities to install facilities and other devices.
“Sec. 1, Par. 2. In the case of the parking place of any of the above
institutions, buildings, or establishments, or public utilities, the owner or operator
shall reserve sufficient and suitable space for the use of disabled persons.”
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“Sec. 2. In case of public conveyance, devices such as the prominent display

of posters, stickers shall be used to generate public awareness of the rights of
the disabled and posters understanding of their special needs. Discriminating
against disabled persons in the carriage or transportation of passengers is
hereby declared unlawful.”
b) Memorandum Unnumbered dated July 13, 1992. Early Warning Device (EWD)
not a requirement for registration.
c) SC Bars Lawmen from Removing Car Plates (187 SCRA 432).
Lesson 3.2 – Important provisions of R.A. 4136
In the Philippines, Traffic Law Enforcement is governed by R.A. 4136. All other
ordinances by local government units are based on this law or act and/or these ordinances
should not contradict any provisions of said law/act.
A. Words and Phrases Used in R.A. 4136. As used in this Act, the following words and
phrases are defined for better and common understanding:
1. Motor Vehicle. Shall mean any vehicle propelled by any power other than muscular
power using the public highways, but excepting road rollers, trolley cars, street-
sweepers, sprinklers, lawn mowers, bulldozers, graders, fork-lifts, amphibian trucks,
and cranes if not used in public highways, vehicles which run only on rails or tracks,
and tractors, trailers and traction engines of all kinds used exclusively for agricultural
purposes.
Trailers having any number of wheels, when propelled or intended to be
propelled by attachment to a motor vehicle shall be classified as separate motor
vehicle with no power rating.
2. Passenger Automobiles. Shall mean all pneumatic tire vehicles of types similar to
those usually known under the following terms: touring car, command car, speedster,
sports car, roadster, jeep, cycle car (except motor wheel and similar small outfits
which are classified with motorcycles), coupe, landaulet, closed car, limousine,
cabriolet, and sedan.
The distinction between “passenger truck” and “passenger automobile” shall
be that of common usage: Provided that a motor vehicle registered for more than
nine (9) passengers shall be classified as “trucks”. Provided further, that a truck with
seating compartment at the back not used for hire shall be registered under special
“S” classification. In case of dispute, the Commissioner of LTO shall determine the
classification to which any special type of motor vehicle belongs.
3. Articulated Vehicle. Shall mean any motor vehicle with a trailer having no front axle
and so attached that part of the trailer rests upon the motor vehicle and a substantial
part of the weight of the trailer and of its load is borne by the motor vehicle. Such
trailer shall be called as “semi-trailer”.
4. Driver. Shall mean every and any licensed operator of a motor vehicle.
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5. Professional driver. Every and any driver hired for driving or operating a motor
vehicle, whether for private use or for hire to the public. Any driver driving his own
motor vehicle for hire is a professional driver.
6. Owner. The actual legal owner of a motor vehicle, in whose name such vehicle is
duly registered with the LTO.
The owner of a government-owned motor vehicle is the head of the office or
the chief of the Bureau to which the said motor vehicle belongs.
7. Dealer. Every person, association, partnership, corporation making, manufacturing,
constructing, assembling, remodeling, or setting up motor vehicles; and every such
entity acting as agent for the sale of one or more makes, styles, or kinds of motor
vehicles, dealing in motor vehicles, keeping the same in stock or selling same or
handling with a view to trading the same.
8. Garage. Any building in which two or more motor vehicles, either with or without
drivers, are kept ready for hire to the public, but shall not include street stands, public
service stations, or other public places designated by proper authority as parking
spaces for motor vehicles for hire while awaiting or soliciting business.
9. Gross weight. The measured weight of a motor vehicle plus the maximum allowable
carrying capacity in merchandise, freight and/or passengers, as determined by the
Commissioner of the LTO.
10. Highways. Every public thoroughfare, public boulevard, driveway, avenue, park,
alley and Callejon, but shall not include roadway upon grounds owned by private
persons, colleges, universities, or other similar institutions.
11. Parking or parked. Shall mean that a motor vehicle is parked or parking if it has
been brought to a stop on the shoulder or proper edge of a highway, and remains
inactive in that place or close thereto for an appreciable period of time.
A motor vehicle which properly stops merely to discharge a passenger or to
take in a waiting passenger, or to load or unload a small quantity of freight with
reasonable dispatch shall not be considered as parked, if the motor vehicle again
moves away without delay.
12. Tourist. A foreigner who travels from one place to place for pleasure or culture.
B. Selected Provisions of R.A. 4136.
The following provisions of R.A. 4136 are the most common rules and regulations
violated by road users.
1. Exceeding registered capacity (overloading). Passengers, freight or cargo load of

a motor vehicle should not be more than its registered carrying capacity. Conductors
of public utility trucks or buses are held liable for the overloading of vehicles under
their charge.
All passenger automobiles for hire are required to have the registered passenger
capacity marked plainly and conspicuously on the sides thereof in letters and
numerals not less than 5 cms. in height. Motor trucks for passenger or freight, private
of for hire, shall have the registered passenger or freight gross and net weight
capacities marked plainly and conspicuously on the sides thereof in letters and
numerals not less than 5 cms in height (Sec. 33)
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2. Cargo carrying devices. The construction of devices for carrying cargo at the rear
or sides of trucks may be allowed, subject to the approval of the Commissioner, but
the total net weight of the device, including cargo, must not exceed 100kls (Sec. 32,
a)
3. Riding on Running Board. It is strictly prohibited, except for conductors collecting
passenger fare (Sec. 32,c)
4. Riding on Top of the Motor Vehicle. Passengers shall not be allowed to ride on top
of motor vehicles, but baggage or freight may be carried on top of the truck, provided
that the weight thereof is not more than 20 kilos per square meter distributed in such
a way as not to endanger passengers or the vehicle’s stability (Sec. 32,b)
5. Required Motor Vehicle Accessories. Every motor vehicle when operated on a
traffic way should have the following specified accessories (see Art. IV, Sec. 34, par
a-I of RA 4136 as appended for the specifications of these accessories);
a. Tires of MVs
b. Brakes
c. Horns
d. Headlights
e. Taillights
f. Stop lights
g. Motorcycle and other vehicle lights
h. Lights when parked or disabled
i. Windshield wiper
j. Use of red flag
k. Mufflers
6. Hitching on to a Vehicle. The following practices are prohibited:

a. Hanging on to or riding on the outside or rear end of any vehicle.
b. Holding on to any moving vehicle whether on foot or otherwise.
c. Driver allowing any person to hang on to or ride outside of or the rear end of the
vehicle (Sec. 51).
7. Driving while under the influence of liquor or other prohibited drugs (Sec. 53)
8. Obstruction of traffic. Obstruction of traffic by operating a motor vehicle in such a
manner as to obstruct, block, or impede the passage of another vehicle is prohibited.
This prohibition applies even when discharging or loading passengers (Sec. 54)
9. Duties od driver in case of accident. In the event that any accident should occur
as a result of the operation of a motor vehicle upon a highway, the driver shall
observe the following:
a. Stop immediately.
b. Show his driver’s license to inspecting traffic law enforcer.
c. Give his true name and address, including that of the owner of the vehicle.
d. Assist injured persons.
e. Take measures to protect belongings of passengers.
f. Report the accident (Sec. 55)
10. When could a driver leave the area of accident without being held for Hit-and-
Run?
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a. His life is in imminent danger of being harmed by other person/s by reason of the
accident;
b. He surrenders to proper authority;
c. He summons the assistance of a physician or nurse to aid the victim.
Lesson 3.3 – Registration of Motor Vehicles
R.A. 4136, mandates that all motor vehicles shall be registered by its owner before
the designated District Offices of the Land Transportation Office. Law enforcement officers
should keep themselves abreast with the proper procedures of registering motor vehicles
for them to easily identify unregistered motor vehicles or motor vehicles having expired
registrations. On the other hand, motor vehicle owners as well as drivers should be aware
of the provisions on motor vehicle registration to avoid unnecessary delays and penalties
whenever registration-related apprehensions occur.
A. Classification of Registered Motor Vehicles
1. Private (not for hire). These are motor vehicles used for the personal use of their
owners.
2. Public Utility Vehicles (PUV a.k.a. for hire). These are registered primarily for the
conveyance of passengers and other commercial goods, i.e., passenger jeepneys,
taxi cabs, etc.
3. Government. These are motor vehicles owned by government offices and are used
for official purposes only.
4. Diplomat. These are issued to foreign diplomats and consuls assigned in the
Philippines.
B. Plate Numbers.
Upon registration, motor vehicles are assigned with plate numbers. The letter and
numeral prefixes as well as the assigned colors are based on the date and place of
registrations and purpose of the registered motor vehicle.
1. Private or not for hire MVs – Green with white background, on newer vehicles, the
first letter usually indicates the region where the vehicle is registered. For example,
beginning with “N”, the vehicle is registered in the National Capital Region (NCR).
For the new series (2014 to present), black symbols on white background with
holograms and bar codes.
2. Public Utility Vehicles or for-hire MVs – Black with yellow background usually
begin with either the letter “N” or “P” or “T” or “U” in NCR. Since 1995, they always
have either “V” “W” “X” or “Y” in the middle of the letter block. Older license plates
starting with “N” and “P” may have other letters in the middle of the block, although
the “V” “W” “X” “Y” letters are also present (from late 70s NVA-101 to early 1995
NYZ-999). For the new series (2014 to present), black symbols on yellow
background with holograms and bar codes.
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3. Government MVs – Red (maroon) with white background – usually starts with letter
“S.” For the new series (2014 to present), red symbols on white background with
holograms and bar codes and the agency/office indicated.
4. Diplomatic or other exempted MVs – Blue characters on a white background

plates reserved for diplomats, embassy and consulate officials, country
ambassadors and some expatriates such as scientists and researchers at the
International Rice Research Institute (IRRI), in the form of five or six digits. For the
new series (2014 to present), blue symbols on white background with holograms and
bar codes.
a. Ambassadors’ plates are always “1000” and have the country they represent
at the bottom of the plate. These plates have a small decal on the bottom left part
with a “CM.”
b. 1001-9999; a small decal on the bottom left part displayed as “DC” for “diplomatic
corps”
10000-25999; embassy vehicles – a small decal on the bottom left part displayed
as “OEV” for “other exempted vehicle”. For the new series symbols on a light blue
background with holograms and bar codes.
5. Trailers – these have yellow or green plates that mostly have either “U” (private) or
“Z” (for hire) in the middle of the letter block.
6. Electric Vehicles – orange plates are used (white symbols on orange background).
7. Motorcycles – private motorcycles have green characters on a white background
with the letters “MC” stamped on the upper left-hand corner next to the registration
sticker. Usually in the format AA 1111, but with the rise in the number of motorcycles
on the road, the 1111 AA format has also come into use.
8. Tricycles – private has green characters on a white background with the letters
“MC” stamped on the upper left-hand corner next to the registration sticker. This is
very rare since tricycles are usually bought for for-hire. For the public utility “TC”
stamped on the upper right-hand corner next to the registration sticker.
9. Department of Tourism (DOT) accredited vehicles – these are usually tour buses
and airport taxis which are issued with plates that look similar to those of private
vehicles, but have yellow highlights mixed with green color and share the same first
letter of current PUVs plates. A must special sticker indicating that they are DOT-
accredited is placed on the rear windows.
10. Optional Motor Vehicle Special Plates (OMVSP) – a project of the LTO since
2004, in the form of 3-letter-number. e.g. DGD 24
11. Personalized (Vanity) Plates – anyone desiring to have his own personalized must
consider the following:
a. Uniqueness – the plate does not have a registered duplicate anywhere else in the
Philippines.
b. It should not have the same format as government vehicles.
c. Price –
1) Premium edition (ex. 111 ABC) – Php 15,000.00
2) Select Edition (ex. JOEDET) – Php 10,000.00
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12. Commemorative plate – These special plate numbers are issued for specific
purposes such as fund-raising for government projects and programs.
C. Dimensions and Medium
1. Tagalog: plaka which measures 390x140 mm

2. Characters are stamped on an aluminum plate which is then applied with
reflectorized paint.
3. Previously, numerous watermarks of the Land Transportation Office (LTO) logo as
well as a small logo of the plate manufacturer were stamped on the plate which was
replaced in 2003 with reflectorized, printed color sticker of the statue of Jose Rizal.
4. In 2008, all plates are produced by a sole, privately funded manufacturer in Manila.
5. Slogan on the bottom plate usually reflects the goals campaign of the incumbent
President which was began under President Fidel V. Ramos.
a. Fidel V. Ramos – “Philippines 2000”
b. Gloria Macapagal Arroyo – “Matatag na Republika” (Strong Republic)
6. Until 2004, plates also bore the word “Pilipinas” at the bottom.
7. Common Inscription
a. PILIPINAS (the most common inscription; 1981-1995, 2001, 2002-2003, 2004-
present)
b. PHILIPPINES 2000 (1995-2000)
c. ANGAT PINOY 2004 (“Raise Pinoy 2004”, 2000-2001)
d. PERLAS NG SILANGAN (“Pearl of the Orient”; 2001-2002)
e. MATATAG NA REPUBLIKA (2003-2013)
8. Typeface. Numerous typefaces are used but the current typeface was first
implemented in 1981 which is loosely based on the Australian license plate system
with some slight variations on the font design since then.
9. 2014 series plate numbers. It consists of three-letter and four numeric plate with the
region of registration inscribed below.
ABI 1234
Region 1
10. 2018 series plate numbers. It retains the three-letter and four-numeric plate and the
removal of the region of registration.
NAV 2832
D. Geographical designations of Plate Numbers.
Geographical designations of registered motor vehicles can be determined by the

beginning letter.
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“A” – Region I (Ilocos Region) and COR (Cordillera Region)

“B” – Region II (Cagayan Valley Region)
“C” – Region III (Central Luzon Region), Superseded by “R” in 2003
“D” – Regions IV-A (CALABARZON) and IV-B (MIMAROPA), superseded by “V” in 2000.
“E” – Region V (Bicol Region)
“F” – Region VI (Western Visayas Region)
“G” – Region VII (Central Visayas Region), superseded by “Y” in 2004
“H” – Region VIII (Eastern Visayas Region)
“J” – Region IX (Zamboanga Peninsula) and ARMM
“K” – Region X and XIII (Northern Mindanao and CARAGA)
“L” – Region XI (Davao Region)
“M” – Region XII (SOCCSKSARGEN)
“N” – NCR, 1981-1982, 2009-2010 (with increments of “I”, “O”, and “Q”)
“P” – National Capital Region, 1982-1991, 2010-2011 (with increments of “I”, “O”, and “Q”
“R” – Region III (Central Luzon Region), overflow series for private since 2003.
“S” – Government owned (Red Plate) vehicles.
“T” – National Capital Region, 1991-1995, 2011-2012 (with increments of “I”, “O”, and “Q”)
“U” – National Capital Region, 1995-1997, 2012 to present (with increments of “I”, “O”, and
“Q”)
“V” – Regions IV-A (CALABARZON) and IV-B (MIMAROPA), overflow Series for private
since 2000.
“W” – National Capital Region, 1997-2001.
“X” – National Capital Region, 2001-2005.
“Y” – Region VII (Central Visayas Region), overflow series for private since 2004.
“Z” – National Capital Region, 2005-2009.
E. Approximate Year of Issuance
1. National Capital Region
1981 – NA, NB, NC, ND, NE, NF, NG, NH, NJ, NK, NL, NM, NN, NP, NR, NS
1982 – NT, PA
1983 – PB, PPC, PD
1984 – PD, PE, PF
1985 – PF, PG
1986 – PH
1987 – PJ
1988 – PK, PL
1989 – PM, PN, PP
1990 – PR, PPS, PT
1991 – TA, TB, TC
1992 – TD, TE, TF
1993 – TG, TH, TJ, TK, TL
1994 – TM, TN, TP, TR, TT
1995 – UA(A-B), TS, UA(C-onwards), UB, UC, UD, UE
1996 – UF, UG, UH, UJ, UK, UL, UM, UN
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CRIM PROF 317
1997 – UP, UR, US, UT, UU, WA, WB

1998 – WC, WD, WE, WF
1999 - WG, WH, WJ, WK, WL
2000 – WM, WN, WP, WR
2001 – WS, WT, XA, XB
2002 – XC, XD, XE, XF, XG
2003 – XH, XJ, XK, XL, XM
2004 – XN, XP, XR, XS
2005 – XT, ZA, ZB, ZC
2006 – ZD, ZE, ZF, ZG
2007 – ZH, ZJ, ZK, ZL
2008 – ZM, ZN, ZP, ZR, ZS
2009 – ZT, N-(I), N-(O), N-(Q), NI
2010 – NO, NQ, P-(I), P-(O), P-(Q), PI
2011 – PO, PQ, T-(I), T-(O), T-(Q), TI
2012 – TO, TQ, UI, U-(I)
2013 – UO
NOTE: I,O and Q are previously not used to avoid confusion with the numbers “1”
and “0”. But with the exhaustion of the “Z” series in 2009, they are already used by reverting
to the old “N” series. A new serial scheme is implemented using these characters, instead
of the third letter coming into series (e.g. after ZZZ-999 has been reached, ZAB-101) the
middle letter is the one being replaced (e.g. after NAI-999 series has been exhausted, NBI-
101 will follow). After all possible combinations with I, O and Q as third letter for the same
starting letter have been used, I, O and Q are used as middle letters and the third letter is
being replaced (e.g. after NZQ-999 has been used, NIA-101 will follow), if the reverted letter
is exhausted (e.g. after PQZ-999 has been used, TAI-101 will follow).
2. Provincial Plate Numbers
“1980’s”
REGION I/CAR – AA, AB, AC (A-N)

REGION II - BA, BB (A-N)
REGION III - CA, CB, CC, CD, CE, CF, CG, CH, CJ (A-E)
REGION IV - DA, DB, DC, DD, DE. DF, DG (A-V)
REGION V - EA (A-U)
REGION VI - FA, FB, FC, (A-S)
REGION VII - GA, GB, GC, GD (A-D)
REGION VIII - HA (A-M)
REGION IX /ARMM - JA
REGION X/XIII - KA, KB
REGION XI - LA, LB, LC (A-E)
REGION XII - MA (A-W)
“1990S”
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CRIM PROF 317
REGION 1/CAR - AC (P-onwards), AD, AE

REGION II - BB (P-onwards), BC
REGION III - CJ (F-onwards), CK, CL, CM, CN, CP, CR (A-E)
REGION IV - DG (W-Z), DH, DJ, DK, DL, DM, DN, DP, DR, DS, DT
REGION V - EA (V-Z), EB, EC
REGION VI - FC (T-onwards), FD, FE
REGION VII - GD (E-onwards), GE, GF, GG, GH, GJ, GK
REGION VIII - HA (P-onwards), HB
REGION IX/ARMM - JA (W-Z), JB
REGION X/XIII - KB (M-onwards), KC
REGION XI - LC (F-onwards), LD
REGION XII - MA (X-Z), MB
“2000S”
REGION I/CAR - AE, AF (A-D)
REGION II - BC, BD, BE
REGION III - CR (F-onwards), CS, CT, RA, RB, RC, RD, RE, RF, RG, RH, RJ
REGION IV - VA, VB, VC, VD, VE (A-E)
REGION V - EC, ED
REGION VI - FE, FF, FG (A-M)
REGION VII - GL, GM, GP, GR, GS, GT, YA, YB, YC, YD, YE, YF, YG, YH
REGION VIII - HB, HC
REGION IX/ARMM - JB, JC, JD
REGION X/XIII - KC, KD, KE
REGION XI - LD, LE, LF, LG, LH
REGION XII - MB, MC, MD, ME
“2010-2013”
REGION 1/CAR - AF (E-onwards)
REGION II - BE
REGION III - RK, RL, RM
REGION IV - VE (F-onwards), VF
REGION V - ED
REGION VI - FG (N-onwards), FH
REGION VII - YH, YJ, YK
REGION VIII - HC, HD
REGION IX/ARMM - JD, JE
REGION X/XIII - KE, KF
REGION XI - LH
REGION XII - ME, MF
F. Schedule of Registration.
Registration of motor vehicles should be done annually which follows the numerical
suffixes of their plate numbers.
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CRIM PROF 317
Last Digit of Plate Middle Digit Weekly Deadline

Number of Plate Number (working days of the month
only)
1 – Jan 6 – Jun 1 2 3 1 2 3 4 5 6
2 - Feb 7 – Jul 4 5 6 7
3 – Mar 8 – Aug 7 8 8 9 10 11 12 13
4 – Apr 9 – Sep 9 0 14
5 – May 0 - Oct 15 16 17 18 19 20
21
22 23 24 25 26 27
28
29 30
31
Note: Vehicles may be registered one month in advance of weekly deadline. For
motorcycles, use the 3rd digit.
1. Old designed license plates: sample plate number – TNG 984

The above motor vehicle shall be registered in April every year because the last digit
is “4” and the day of registration falls in April 15-21 since the middle digit is “8”.
2. New designed license plates: Sample plate number – NAV 2832.

The above motor vehicle shall be registered in February every year because the last
digit is “2” and the day of registration falls in February 1-7 since the second to the last digit
is “3”.
3. two-wheeled vehicles (old): Sample plate number – DD 2425.

The above motor vehicle shall be registered in May every year because the last digit
is “5” and the day of registration falls in May 1-7 since the middle digit is “2”.
4. two-wheeled vehicles (new): Sample plate number – VD 72468.

The above motor vehicle shall be registered in August every year because the last
digit is “8” and the day of registration falls in May 8-14 since the middle digit is “6”.
5. Optional Motor Vehicle Special Plate (3 alpha characters and 2 numeric characters):
Sample plate number – IAN 86.
The above motor vehicle shall be registered in June every year because the last digit
is “6” and the day of registration falls in June 15-21 since the middle digit is “8”.
G. Letter of Prefixes on Plate Numbers. The letter prefixes indicate:
1. Place of initial registration of the motor vehicle;

2. Year of initial registration and the possible year model of the registered motor vehicle
could be determined from the order of the letter prefixes, i.e., the higher the letters
the later the year of registration and year model of the motor vehicle.
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CRIM PROF 317
Example: Vehicle 1 - PLT 255 Vehicle 2 - TNU 636
Between the above motor vehicles, Vehicle 1 was registered earlier than Vehicle 2
and possibly, Vehicle 2’s model is later than Vehicle 1.
H. Protocol Plate Numbers. These are special plate numbers for high-ranking government
officials as manifestation of courtesy towards them or their respective positions or offices.
These plates are blue D or DD plates reserved for the top government officials of the
Republic of the Philippines.
1 - President
2 - Vice President
3 - Senate President
4 - Speaker of the House of Representatives
5 - Chief Justice of the Supreme Court
6 - Cabinet Secretaries
7 - Senators
8 - Representatives (Congressmen)
9 - Associate Justices of the Supreme court
10 - Presiding Justice and other Justices of the Court of Appeals, Solicitor-General
(OSG formerly 13)
11 - Chairman of the Commission on Elections
12 - Cabinet Undersecretary
13 - None currently
14 - Chief of Staff of the Armed Forces of the Philippines and Chief of the
Philippine National Police
16 - Regional Trial Court Judges
17 - First Level Courts (Metropolitan Trial Court, Municipal Trial Court, Municipal
Trial Court in Cities and Shari’ah Circuit Courts), added by Memorandum Order No.
297 signed by President Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo on March 2, 2009.
Lesson 3.4 – Provisions on Driver’s Licenses
Driving a motor vehicle in the Philippines as in other countries is NOT a right but a
privilege granted by the Philippine Government through the LTO based on Republic Act
4136 and Batas Pambansa Blg. 398. Further, it is a privilege which may be suspended or
revoked.
Driver’s License. A document issued to a qualified driver who possesses the

statutory qualification as provided therefore. It is also a public document which has the legal
presumption of genuineness (CCC Insurance Corp. vs. Court of appeals, 31 SCRA 264).
A. Duty to Procure License.
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CRIM PROF 317
Sec. 19 of R.A. 4136 states that no person shall operate any motor vehicle without
first procuring a license to drive for the current year. To be effective in the hands of its
holder, it must not be delinquent, invalid, suspended or revoked and should be carried at all
times and shall be authorized by R.A. 4136 to inspect the same.
B. Confiscation of Driver’s License.

Sec. 29 of R.A. 4136 mandates that a driver’s license may be confiscated for
violations of R.A. 4136, the rules and regulations issued by the Commissioner and of local
traffic rules and regulations.
When a driver’s license is confiscated for any reason, the traffic enforcer must,
however, issue a receipt (Temporary Operator’s Permit -TOP) which is good for 72 hours
within which the driver may continue to operate his vehicle. Failure to settle the case within
15 days will cause suspension or revocation of the license.
C. Types of Licenses, Procedures and Requirements.
A driver is licensed by the LTO as proof of proficiency in driving his knowledge of road
rules and regulations while operating a motor vehicle. Upon proving hi proficiency and
knowledge, he will be issued a document in the form of the following licenses:
1. International Driver’s License. Bonafide tourists and transients who are duly licensed
to operate motor vehicles in their respective countries may be allowed to operate
motor vehicles during their stay but not beyond 90 days of their sojourn in the
Philippines. After ninety days, any tourist or transient desiring to operate motor
vehicles shall pay fees and obtain and carry a license as hereinafter provided (Sec.
21, R.A. 4136)
2. Military Driver’s License. Enlisted personnel of the AFP operating motor vehicles
owned by the government shall be licensed in accordance with R.A. 4136 but no
license or delinquency fees shall be collected thereof.
All licenses so issued shall bear the words “FOR GOVERNMENT VEHICLES
ONLY” plainly marked or stamped in red inks across the face thereof. A
Military Driver’s License does not authorize the holder to operate a privately-
owned motor vehicle (Sec. 20, R.A. 4136).
3. Professional Driver’s License. This license is issued to a driver or paid for driving or
operating a motor vehicle whether private use or for hire to the public. Any person
driving his own motor vehicle for hire is a professional driver (Sec. 3, e, R.A. 4136).
To easily distinguished, the word “professional” on the license is red-highlighted.
4. Non-Professional Driver’s License. This kind of license is issued to owners of
privately-owned motor vehicles or those not for hire or paid for driving (Effect of Sec.
3e, RA 4136). To easily distinguish this license from professional license, the word
“Non-professional” is green-highlighted.
5. Student Driver’s Permit. This kind of document is issued to persons who desire to
learn how to drive. A student driver cannot operate a vehicle unless accompanied by
an instructor who may either be a licensed professional or non-professional driver
(Sec. 30, R.A. 4136)
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CRIM PROF 317
D. Validity or Expiration of License.
1. Student driver’s permit – 12 months or 1 year.

2. Non-professional and Professional Driver’s Licenses and Conductors’ License – 5
years as per R.A. 10930 and LTO Administrative Order 2016-034.
3. International Driver’s License for Tourists – 90 days but can be renewed.
E. Conductors’ License. Conductors of public utility vehicles are also mandated to procure
their licenses from the LTO.
F. Qualifications and Requirements.
A. Qualifications (Student Permit)
1. Must be at least seventeen (17) years old;

2. Must be physically and mentally fit to operate a motor vehicle;
3. Must be able to read and write Filipino, English or the applicable local dialect; and
4. In addition, for foreigners, the applicant must be eighteen (18) years old and must
have been in the Philippines for at least one (1) month with proof that he/she will stay
in the country for at least one (1) year from date of application.
B. Documentary Requirements:
1. Duly accompllshed Application for Driver's License (AOL);

2. Original and photocopy of birth certificate duly authenticated by National Statistics
Office (NSO);
3. If below eighteen (18) years of age, original copy of parental/guardian's consent with
original and photocopy of one (1) valid government issued Identification Card
containing the signature of the consenting parent/guardian.
4. Medical Certificate issued· by any licensed practicing physician stating that the
applicant is physically and mentally fit to operate a motor vehicle or otherwise stating
his/her impairment; and
5. In addition, for foreigners, original and photocopy of passport with entry date of at
least one (1) month and visa duration of at least one (1) year from date of
application, or if born in the Philippines, present original and photocopy of birth
certificate duly authenticated by the NSO.
A. Qualifications: (Non-Professional)
1. Must be at least eighteen (18) years old;

2. Must be physically and mentally fit to operate a motor vehicle;
3. Must be able to read and write Filipino, English or the applicable local dialect;
4. Must be a holder of a valid SP issued at least thirty (30) days prior to the application;
and
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CRIM PROF 317
5. In addition, for foreigners. the applicant must have been in the Philippines for at least
one {1) month with proof that he/she will stay in the country for at least one {1) year
from date of application.
B. Documentary Requirements for the Issuance of a New NPDL/Conversion:
1. Duly accomplished Application for Driver's License (AOL);

2. Valid SP issued at least thirty (30) days from date of application;
3. Medical Certificate issued by any licensed practicing physician stating that the
applicant is physically and mentally fit to operate a motor vehicle or otherwise stating
his/her impairment; and
4. In addition, for foreigners, original and photocopy of passport with entry of at least
one {1) month and visa duration of at least one (1) year from date of application, or if
born in the Philippines, present original and photocopy of birth certificate duly
authenticated by the NSO. In the event that the applicant is a holder of a valid
Foreign Driver's License, the applicant may present the original and photocopy of
Foreign Driver's License, if not in English language, original and photocopy of official
English translation from the local Embassy issuing country, instead of an SP.
A. Qualifications: (Professional Driver’s License)
1. Must be at least eighteen (18) years old;

2. Must be physically and mentally fit to operate a motor vehicle (or work, in the case
of applications for Conductor's License);
3. Must be able to read and write Filipino, English or the applicable local dialect;
4. For RC 1, 2, 4 and 6 -Must be a holder of a valid SP issued at leas.t six (6) months
prior to the application For RC 3, 5, 7 and 8 -Must be a holder of a valid NPDL
issued at least one (1) year prior to the application or POL holder with RC 1,2 ,4 and
6 for a period of at least six (6) months prior to the application;
5. Must not have been cited for two (2) or more counts of reckless driving during the
period of validity of his/her existing license; and
6. In addition, for foreigner, the applicant must have been in the Philippines for at least
one (1) month with proof that he/she will stay in the country for at least one (1) year
from date of application and is allowed to work herein.
B. Documentary Requirements for the Issuance of a New PDL or Conductor's

License/Change Classification from NPDL to PDL:
1. Duly accomplished Application for Driver's License (AOL);

2. For RC 1, 2, 4 and 6 -Must be a holder of a valid SP issued at least six (6) months
prior to the application For RC 3, 5, 7 and 8-Must be a holder of a valid NPDL issued
at least one (1) year prior to the application or POL holder with RC 1,2,4 and 6 for a
period of at least six (6) months prior to the application;
3. Medical Certificate issued by any licensed practicing physician stating that the
applicant is physically and mentally fit to operate a motor vehicle (or work, in the
case of applications for Conductor's License);
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CRIM PROF 317
4. Clearance that the applicant has not been convicted of any offense involving moral
turpitude or reckless imprudence resulting from reckless driving from all the
following: a. National Bureau of Investigation (NBI}; and b. Philippine National Police
(PNP);
5. In addition, for foreigners, original and photocopy of passport with entry of at least
one (1) month and working visa duration of at least one (1) year from date of
application, or if born in the Philippines, present original and photocopy of birth
certificate duly authenticated by the NSO.
G. Drivers’ Examination. All drivers’ license applicants must obtain the passing score as
follows:
1. The written examination. All written examinations will contain questions concerning
proper driving procedures, road rules and regulations, emergency procedures, etc.
number of questions will be as follows:
a. Non-professional license – 40 questions
b. Professional license – 60 questions
Examinees will have to pass the written examination with the following marks:
a. Non-professional – 30 out of 40 questions
b. Professional – 45 out of 60 questions
Before each examination, a DRIVING SKILL RATER will provide a 30 minute lecture
about traffic rules and other driver information as a “review” for the applicants.
2. The Road Test. The actual road test will be undertaken under the auspices of a
DRIVING SKILL RATER.
During the road test, the applicant will be rated according to his proficiency on the
following aspects:
a. That the applicant is aware of and capable of performing a check on the primary
components of the vehicle such as the engine, the tires, the battery, lights,
windshield wipers, brakes, transmission and clutch, etc..
b. Proper use and correct positioning of the hands on the steering wheel.
c. Proper engine control and use of the gear shift lever and the foot pedals.
d. Proper speed control and observance and practice of road discipline.
e. Proper knowledge and interpretation of road signs and markings.
f. Proper turning procedures.
g. Proper backing procedures.
h. Proper parking procedures.
The applicant will be credited with a score of 100 points at the start of the road test.
Each infraction or unsatisfactory performance will be listed down on a ROAD TEST SCORE
SHEET and the corresponding deductions made at the end of the test. Passing grade will
be 70 points or a total possible deduction of 30 points.
H. Mandatory Drug Test.

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CRIM PROF 317
It is mandatory to all drivers’ license applicants except for student drivers’ permit to
pass a drug test conducted by duly LTO accredited drug testing centers. (Repealed by R.A.
10586)
I. Drivers’ Restriction Code. When the driver is issued a license the driver’s restriction
code is indicated as follows:
1. Motorcycles/Motorized tricycles
2. Vehicle up to 4500 kgs Gross Vehicle Weight (GVW).
3. Vehicle above 4500 kgs GVW
4. Automatic clutch up to 4500 kgs GVW
5. Automatic clutch above 4500 kgs GVW
6. Articulated vehicle 1600 kgs GVW and below
7. Articulated vehicle 1601 up to 4500 kgs GVW
8. Articulated vehicle 4501 kgs & above GVW
9. Disabled (Old) – no longer existing because disabled individuals are now called
differently-abled persons.
J. Drivers’ Condition. The condition for driver’s license holder while operating a motor
vehicle are indicated as follows:
1. A – wear eye glasses

2. B – drive only with special equipment for upper limbs
3. C – drive only with special equipment for lower limbs
4. D – daylight driving only
5. E – accompanied by a person with normal hearing
Lesson 3.5 – Basic General Rules of Road Use and Conduct
The traffic rules in the Philippines are based entirely on the general rules of road use
and conduct which also include the general prohibitions and restrictions. Chapter IV,
Articles I to V of the R.A. 4136 comprehensively discuss the traffic rules observed in the
Philippines.
A. Speed Limit and Other Rules on Speed.

Any person driving a motor vehicle on a highway shall drive the same at a careful and
prudent speed, not greater nor less than is reasonable and proper, having due regard for
the traffic, the width of the highway, and of any other condition then and there existing; and
no person shall drive any motor vehicle upon a highway at such speed as to endanger the
life, limb and property of any person, nor at a speed greater than will permit him to bring the
vehicle to a stop within the assured clear distance ahead.
1. Maximum allowable speeds. The maximum allowable speed shall be in accordance

with the preceding paragraph and for the specific speed limits on specifics sections
of highways, see Chapter IV, Sec. 35, par b of RA 4136.
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Passengers Motor trucks

MAXIMUM ALLOWABLE SPEEDS
Cars and Motorcycle and buses
1. On open country roads, with no "blinds corners" 80 km. per hour 50 km. per
not closely bordered by habitations. hour
2. On "through streets" or boulevards, clear of traffic, 40 km. per hour 30 km. per
with no " blind corners," when so designated. hour
3. On city and municipal streets, with light traffic, 30 km. per hour 30 km. per
when not designated "through streets". hour
4. Through crowded streets, approaching 20 km. per hour 20 km. per

intersections at "blind corners," passing school hour
zones, passing other vehicles which are stationery,
or for similar dangerous circumstances.
2. Exception to the speed limit. The rates of speed hereinabove prescribed shall not
apply to the following:
a. A physician or his driver when the former responds to emergency calls.
b. The driver of a hospital ambulance on the way to and from the place of accident
or other emergency.
c. Any driver bringing a wounded or sick person for emergency treatment to a
hospital, clinic, or any other similar place.
d. The driver of a motor vehicle belonging to the Armed Forces while in use for
official purposes in times of riot, insurrection or invasion.
e. The driver of a vehicle, when he or his passengers are in pursuit of a criminal.
f. A law enforcement officer who is trying to overtake a violator of traffic laws.
g. The driver officially operating a motor vehicle of any fire department, provided
that exemption shall not be construed to allow useless or unnecessary fast
driving of drivers aforementioned.
3. Uniform Speed Limits throughout the Philippines. No provincial, city or municipal
authority shall enact or enforce any ordinance or resolution specifying maximum
allowable speeds other than those provided by RA 4136.
B. Lateral Placement.
Lateral placement means the proper positioning of the motor vehicle while traversing
on a traffic way or while on parked.
In the Philippines, unless a different course of action is required in the interest of the
safety and the security of life, person or property, or because of unreasonable difficulty of
operation in compliance herewith, every person operating a motor vehicle or an animal-
drawn vehicle on a highway shall pass to the right when meeting persons or vehicles
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CRIM PROF 317
going the same direction, and when turning to the left in going from one highway to another,
every motor vehicle shall be conducted to the right of the center of the intersection of the
highway.
For the pedestrians, they should walk on side streets to the left facing the oncoming
traffic. On the other hand, motor vehicles should be parked only on designated areas and
so properly parked without encroaching the parking stall or space of another vehicle.
Proper positioning while traversing.
Parallel Parking
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Proper placement while parked diagonally
C. Overtaking and Passing.
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In overtaking another vehicle, a driver should pass at a safe distance to the left of the
vehicle being overtaken and shall resume driving on the right side of the road only after
passing clear of the overtaken vehicle.
1. Exception. On the highways with two or more lanes where traffic goes in one
direction, another vehicle may be overtaken on the right (Sec. 39, R.A. 4136)
2. Driver to give way to overtaking vehicle. The driver of a motor vehicle about to be
overtaken must give way to the overtaking vehicle and shall not increase his speed
until the overtaking vehicle has fully passed by (Sec. 40, R.A. 4136)
3. Restrictions on overtaking and passing. To avoid accident or any unusual incidents,
overtaking and passing on the following places are restricted (Sec. 41, R.A. 4136)
a. To the left side of the center line of a highway in overtaking another vehicle
proceeding in the same direction, unless such left side is clearly visible, and is
free of oncoming traffic for a sufficient distance ahead to permit safety overtaking.
b. When approaching the crest of a grade, nor upon a curve in the highway, where
the driver’s view along the highway is obstructed within the distance of five
hundred feet ahead, except on a highway having two or more lanes for
movement of vehicles in one direction.
c. At any railway grade crossing, nor at any intersection of highways, unless such
intersection or crossing is controlled by traffic signal, or a traffic officer.
d. Between any points indicated by the placing of official temporary or caution signs
indicating that men are working on the highways.
e. In any “no passing or overtaking zone.”
D. Right of Way.
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CRIM PROF 317
This principle refers to the legal or customary precedence (priority in place or time)
which allows one vehicle to cross or pass in front of another. The concept of the right of
way is important to understand since the law never really grants the right of way. The law
simply states when the right of way must be yielded. Right of way can be used when the
law permits its use by requiring that others yield the right of way to you. Failure to yield the
right of way leads to crashes in all states. There are some ways for you to reduce this
probability when you are driving however safemotorist.com).
1. Rules on Right of Way. Sections 42-44, of RA 4136 provides for the rules on giving
the right of way.
a. In case of two vehicles approaching or entering an intersection at the same time,

the driver of the vehicle on the left shall yield the right of way; however, the driver
of any vehicle traveling at an unlawful speed forfeits this right (Sec. 42).
b. In the case of a vehicle approaching but has not yet entered the intersection, its
driver shall yield the right of way to vehicles already within such intersection or
turning therein to the left across the line of travel of the first mentioned vehicle
(Sec. 42, b).
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CRIM PROF 317
c. In case of a vehicle on a highway within a business or residential district, its

driver shall yield the right of way to pedestrians crossing the highway within q
crosswalk except at intersections where traffic is regulated by a peace officer or a
traffic signal. If there is no crosswalk, pedestrians shall yield the right of way to
vehicles on the highways (Sec. 42, d).
2. Exceptions to the Right of Way Rule. Right-of-way rules do not apply in the case:
a. Of a vehicle entering from a private road or drive. The right of way is in favor of
all vehicles utilizing the highway (Sec. 43).
b. The driver of a vehicle upon a highway shall yield the right of way to police or fire
department vehicles and ambulances when such vehicles are operated on official
business and the drivers thereof sound audible signal of their approach.
c. The driver of a vehicle entering a “through highway” or a “stop intersection” shall
yield the right of way to all vehicles approaching in either direction on such
“through highway.”
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E. Starting, Stopping or Turning Rules.

The driver of any motor vehicle on a highway, before starting, stopping or turning from a
direct line, shall first see that such movement can be made safely; and if any pedestrian is
affected by such movement, he shall give a clearly audible signal by sounding the vehicle’s
horn.
1. When other motorists are affected. Whenever the operation of any other
approaching or following may be affected by such movement, the driver making the
movement shall give a signal to the other driver/s of his intention to make such
movement (Sec. 44, a).
2. Hand signal. The required signal shall be given by means of extending the hand or
arm beyond the left side of the vehicle or by an approved mechanical or electrical
signal device (Sec. 44, b).
3. Making a right turn (normal procedures). The following are the rules to be observed
in making a correct turning to the right from a four-lane street to a four-lane street.
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CRIM PROF 317
a. Signal your intention to turn right with your turning signal light or a hand signal at
least 100 ft before you intend to make your turn.
b. Stay on the right lane of the road.
c. NEVER make a right turn from left lane.
d. At an intersection with a red traffic light, make a right turn ONLY after coming to a
full stop to make sure that no vehicle is coming from the left.
e. If there is a sign prohibiting a right turn unless the light is GREEN, DO NOT turn
right while the RED LIGHT IS ON.
4. Making a Left Turn (Normal procedures). Motor vehicles intending to turn left from a
four-lane street to four-lane street should observe the following procedures:
a. Signal your intention to turn left with your turning signal or a hand signal at least
100 feet before you intend to make your turn.
b. Stay on the left lane of the road.
c. NEVER make a left turn from the right lane.
d. At an intersection with a traffic light, vehicles GOING STRAIGHT have the right of
way. Wait for them to pass first before you turn left.
e. At an intersection with a traffic light, make a left turn only when the green light is
on or when there is a left turn light.
5. Making a U-turn on a Two-lane Road (normal procedure). Following is the

recommended procedure in making a U-turn on two-lane road.
a. Make a right turn signal at least 100 ft. before you start moving to the right side of
the road.
b. Stay as close to the right side as possible. Come to a complete stop if necessary.
Check behind you for traffic. Also check for oncoming traffic on the other lane.
c. Once all traffic has passed you, initiate your U-turn. See to it that you can make it
in one “sweep”. If you have a long vehicle, look for an intersection or a wide
section of the road to make a U-turn in.
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d. At this point, you should be making the U-turn if you know the turning radius of
your vehicle.
e. Do not move immediately to the middle of the road. Keep to the right side until
you have increased your speed sufficiently to move to the middle of the lane.
6. Making a U-turn on a Four-lane highway (normal procedure). Following is the correct

procedure:
a. Check for traffic behind you and indicate your intentions with a left turn signal. If
no fast vehicles, stay on the left lane.
b. Clear the “other side” for oncoming traffic and initiate your turn as soon as it is
clear. Do not come to a complete stop. Straighten out on the right lane and begin
gaining speed.
c. As soon as you have reached a relatively safe speed, signal your intention to
move to the fast lane with a left turn signal.
d. Move to the fast lane as soon as you are fast enough to hold up traffic moving in
the same direction.
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F. Pedestrian’ Rights and Duties.

Pedestrians have the right to occupy or pass on spaces or portions of traffic way
allocated for them like crossing on pedestrian lanes and passing on the sidewalks or
catwalks. In addition, pedestrians, as part of the traffic system, their fundamental duty is to
observe and obey all traffic rules and regulations. Motorists should also know the rights of
the pedestrians so that they will not be using the portions of the traffic way allocated for the
pedestrians for parking purposes.
G. General parking rules and similar regulations.

Motor vehicles should park only on areas specifically designated for parking. All
accidents are not cause while vehicles are being driven. A parked vehicle may create an
accident, kill someone or destroy property. Before leaving your vehicle, set the brakes, put
the gear in low or reverse or park position and remove the key. This will prevent your car
from rolling down an incline and will also prevent cars from pushing your car.
1. Parking on cities. In cities and towns, unless otherwise directed by a city or municipal
ordinance, motor vehicles will be parked parallel and within 12 inches of the curb.
For additional pre-caution while parking, observe the following:
a. Downhill with or without curb - turn wheels to right.
b. Uphill curb – turn wheels from curb (to left).
c. Uphill without curb – turn wheels to curb.
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2. Parking on a highway. On rural roads, pull entirely off pavement to park. Whenever
practicable, turn on your parking lights.
3. Parking prohibited in specified places. No driver shall park a vehicle, or permit it to
stand, whether attended or unattended, upon a highway in any of the following
places and at any place where official signs have been erected prohibiting parking.
a. Within an intersection.
b. On a crosswalk.
c. Within six meters of the intersection of curb lines.
d. Within four meters of the driveway entrance to and fire station.
e. Within four meters of a fire hydrant.
f. In front of a private driveway.
g. On the roadway side of any vehicle stopped or parked at the curb or edge of the
highway.
h. At any place where official signs have been erected prohibiting parking.
Activity:
1. What is the importance of the Right of Way Rule in Traffic Management?

2. Make a narrative report on the “Awareness of Road Users on R.A. 4136.”
(interview at least 3 tricycle driver in your barangay).
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 https://www.lto.gov.ph/issuances/administrative-order/file/47-memorandum-circular-
no-avt-2015-029-revised-rules-and-regulations-governing-the-issuance-of-
professional-driver-s-licenses-and-conductor-s-licenses.html
no-avt-2015-030-revised-rules-and-regulatlons-governing-the-issuance-of-student-
driver-s-permit.html
no-avt-2015-031-revised-rules-and-regulations-governing-the-issuance-of-non-
professional-driver-s-licenses.html#
8. Assessment Task
Quiz
Recitation
Midterm exam.
9. References
 Administrative Order no.avt-2015-029. Revised Rules and Regulations governing the

Issuance of Professional Driver's Licenses and Conductor's Licenses. Retrieved on
June 20, 2020 from: https://www.lto.gov.ph/issuances/administrative-order/file/47-
memorandum-circular-no-avt-2015-029-revised-rules-and-regulations-governing-the-
issuance-of-professional-driver-s-licenses-and-conductor-s-licenses.html

Issuance of Student Driver's License. Retrieved on June 20, 2020 from:
https://www.lto.gov.ph/issuances/administrative-order/file/48-memorandum-circular-
no-avt-2015-030-revised-rules-and-regulatlons-governing-the-issuance-of-student-
driver-s-permit.html

Issuance of Non-Professional Driver's Licenses. Retrieved on June 20, 2020 from:
https://www.lto.gov.ph/issuances/administrative-order/file/49-memorandum-circular-
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no-avt-2015-031-revised-rules-and-regulations-governing-the-issuance-of-non-
professional-driver-s-licenses.html#

Part 2- Road Signs and Pavement Markings Manual. Retrieved of June 20, 2020
from:
gn_standards_manual
 Republic Act No. 4136. Retrieved on June 20,2020 from:

https://www.lawphil.net/statutes/repacts/ra1964/ra_4136_1964.html#:~:text=No
%20owner%20of%20a%20motor,a%20duly%20licensed%20professional%20driver.
 Who Has The Right Of Way?. Retrieved on June 20, 2020 from :
https://www.safemotorist.com/Articles/Right_of_Way/
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Chapter 4. Traffic Control
2. Introduction:
This module discusses the principles of traffic control which involves traffic control
devices and aids used in controlling of traffic flows. It is imperative for the learner
particularly the future traffic enforcers to have a vast knowledge on how traffic is being
controlled.

Lesson 4.1. Fundamental of Traffic Control
Lesson 4.2. Traffic Signs
Lesson 4.3. Traffic Signal Lights
Lesson 4.4. Pavement Markings and Markers
Lesson 4.5. Traffic Islands.
Lesson 4.6. Other Traffic Control Devices and Aids

1) discuss the principles of traffic control for the safe travel of road users and
efficient flow of traffic.
2) Elaborate the use, functions, and purpose of traffic signs installed in the
Highways.
3) Explain the standard traffic signal lights for the purpose of efficient flow of traffic.
4) Interpret the different pavement markings and road markers in highways.
5) Explain the use of traffic islands constructed in roadways and various traffic
control devices and aids used in the controlling of traffic flows
4. Learning Content
LESSON 4.1: FUNDAMENTALS OF TRAFFIC CONTROL
Traffic Control. Generally, it refers to procedures, devices, and communication systems

that help vehicles and vessels safely share the same roads, rails, waterways, or air space.
Traffic control establishes a set of rules and instructions that drivers, pilots, train engineers,
and ship captains rely on to avoid collisions and other hazards. Safe travel for pedestrians
is an additional goal in highway traffic control.
A. As Applied to Land Transportation. A system of traffic engineering, employing

prescribed traffic rules and regulations and devices such as signals, and markings, to
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relieve vehicular congestion and air pollution, and to promote safety and pedestrian
mobility, usually in heavily populated urban areas.
B. Control Techniques. Following are the comprehensive systems used:

1. access-road meters to monitor and control motorway;
2. closed-circuit television surveillance to detect quickly any deterioration in traffic flow; and
3. emergency services to provide aid in case of accident and injury.
C. Other traffic-control techniques include:

1. the use of one-way streets,
2. enforcement of traffic flow regulations,
3. channelization (building traffic islands, turning lanes and so on), and
4. the use of traffic signals.
D. Highway Traffic control. Motorist depend on traffic control devices to avoid collisions
and travel safely to their destinations.
1. Traffic Signs. Traffic signs are the most extensively used form of traffic control in
the United States. More than 55 million traffic signs in the nation’s roadside. They
provide information about speed limits and road conditions. They direct traffic along
certain routes and to specific destinations. By using signs, traffic control planners tell
drivers what to do, what to watch for, and where to drive.
2. Pavement Markings. Pavement markings separate opposing streams of traffic and
direct vehicles into proper positions on the roadway. For example, pavement
markings delineate turn lanes at intersection and establish no-passing zones. White
and yellow paint is customarily used for pavement markings. Reflective devices are
more visible at night and are used in some locations to mark lanes and other
significant places on the road.
3. Traffic-Signal. Traffic signals are installed to permit safe movement of vehicles and
pedestrians at busy intersections. The light signal is probably the most easily
recognized traffic control device. At a busy intersection in a large city, a traffic signal
may control the movements of more than 100,000 vehicles per day. Traffic signals
direct streams of vehicles and pedestrians when to go, stop, or proceed with caution.
The signals increase the traffic handling capacity of most intersections. They can
work independently on timers, or connect to computer-controlled system that
operates over several intersections.
4. Priority Control. In one of the oldest method of traffic control, one form of
transportation is given priority by restricting or banning other forms of
transportation. In the 1st century BC, Roman Emperor Juluis Caesar banned wheel
traffic from Rome during daytime, which allowed pedestrians and horse riders to
move freely around the city. Some modern cities ban or restrict truck travel through
certain neighborhoods.
5. Restraints. As an alternative to banning traffic, traffic control planners use devices
to discourage heavy use of route. Island built in the centers of intersections force
drivers to proceed slowly. Speed bumps discourage high-speed commuting through
residential neighborhoods. Concrete median strips prevent vehicles from making
turns except at intersections.
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Bus-lanes and high occupancy vehicles (HOV) lanes exist in many urban areas. Only
specified types of vehicles, primarily those carrying several occupants’ vehicles, primarily
those carrying several occupants, can use these lanes. By giving priority to high occupancy
vehicles, transportation planners encourage carpooling and reduce congestions.
6. Restraints. As an alternative to banning traffic, traffic control planners use devices

to discourage heavy use of a route. Island built in the centers of intersection force
drivers t proceed slowly. Speed bumps discourage high-speed commuting through
residential neighborhoods. Concrete median strips prevent vehicles from making
turns except at intersection.
LESSON 4.2. TRAFFIC SIGNS
Traffic Signs, like traffic signal lights and road markings are used to convey quickly
and accurately the wide range of information needed by road users, particularly vehicle
drivers, and to promote a safe and efficient use of the road system.
Traffic Signs refer to any device mounted on portable support whereby a message
is conveyed by means of words or symbols officially installed for the purpose of regulating,
warning, or guiding traffic. Traffic signs are installed to serve the following functions:
1) to control traffic,
2) to safeguard the flow of traffic,
3) to expedite traffic, and
4) to guide traffic and motorists.
Standardization of traffic signs shall conform to the standards set forth in the erection
and display of standard road signs and markers as prescribed by the DPWH as to shape,
color, dimension, shape, size, height, letterings or symbols.
Traffic signs shall be installed only under public authority or by the official having
jurisdiction for that purpose, and it shall not bear any commercial advertisement.
A thorough knowledge of traffic signs, signals, road and pavement markings is
necessary to all drivers. Every motorist must be able to recognize and obey them without
hesitation even with the absence of traffic police officer.
A. Historical Background. In Britain, early sign post was erected by private
individuals at their own expense. In 1648, parishes were required by law to
place guidepost at crossroads. In 1733, these and mileposts were required to
be erected and maintained by Turnpike Trusts. The Motor Car Act of 1903
made local authorities responsible for placing certain warning and prohibitory
signs.
With increased international travel after World War II, discussions took place in the United
Nations (UN) on the introduction of international traffic signs. However, it was not until 1965
that United Kingdom (UK) signs were changed to conform to the European system. In 1995,
it was estimated that there were 2, 500,000 signs and signals, 850, 000 road markings and
7,000,000 road studs on the roads in England alone. On the other hand, the United States
(US) adopted the signs in the 1970s and developed a set of national standards for sign,
color, shape, and usage.
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On June 6, 1973, the Philippines through P.D. 207 declared as part of the laws of the
Philippines the UN Vienna Convention on road traffic, signs, markings and signals. The
participating countries of this convention have agreed to accept the system of traffic, road
signs, signals and symbols and road markings described in said convention and to adopt
the same to facilitate international road traffic and to increase road safety.
B. International Traffic Signs. As explained in the Vienna convention, the
system of signs and signals which it has prescribed is based on the use of
shapes and colors, characteristics of each class of sign, and whenever
possible on the use of graphic symbols rather than inscriptions with few
exceptions one of which is the STOP sign of the United States. These basic
sign shapes are:
1. Round and red sign: regulates the movement of turning and passing traffic
regulations;
2. Round black yellow signs: a warning that you are approaching a railroad
crossing;
3. Equilateral triangle red signs: a sign at the intersection directing drivers to
yield the right-of-way to vehicles in the road being crossed;
4. Eight-sided (octagonal) red and white stop sign: the most popular and
understood sign by all tongues and colors; and
5. Triangle red and black sign: approaching a danger zone, hill, slope, winding
road, and othe
C. Classification of International Traffic Signs.
1. Danger Warning Signs. These signs are also known as “caution signs.”
These signs have an equilateral triangular shape with one side horizontal
and having red borders.
These are signs intended to:

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a. warn motorist of approaching hazardous road conditions,

b. seek caution for the approaching road hazards, and
c. call the reduction of speed.
2. Regulatory Signs. These are signs which impose legal restrictions
applicable at particular location usually enforceable in the absence of such
signs. These are intended to:
a. inform road users of certain laws and regulations, and

b. special obligations, instructions, or prohibitions which they must comply
with and violations of which constitute misdemeanor.
Regulatory signs are usually round in shape with the exception of “Stop Signs” and “Yield
Signs”. These signs are further classified into two:
a. prohibitive and restrictive signs, and
b. mandatory signs.
3. Informative Signs. These signs are also known as “guide signs”, or

“direction signs.” The rectangular shape white-colored on blue background
is used for informative signs. Green background is usually used for route
markers and destination signs. Informative signs are intended to:
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a. guide motorists along established routes,

b. inform the motorists of the proper roads, and
c. help motorists along the way in the simplest and direct method.
CLASSIFICATION OF TRAFFIC SIGNS IN THE PHILIPPINES

The following are classification of Road signs based from Department of Public
Works and Highways (DPWH) Road Safety Manual 2012 and as cited by the Land
Transportation Office in their website.
Road signs in the Philippines are regulated and standardized by the Department of

Public Works and Highways. Most of the signs reflects minor influences from American and
Australian signage, but keeps close to the Vienna Convention as an original signatory.
I. Regulatory signs
Regulatory signs indicate the application of legal or statutory requirements, for example,
obligation to give way at intersections, control of parking of vehicles, and speed limits.
These signs require driver's compliance.
A. Priority signs
B. Direction signs
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C. Restrictive signs
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D. Speed Signs
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E. Miscellaneous Signs
II. Warning signs

Warning signs are used to warn motorists of potentially hazardous conditions on or
adjacent to the road.
A. Horizontal Alignment Sign
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B. Intersection and junction Sign
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C. Road Obstacle Signs
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III. Guide or information signs

Guide or information signs inform road users about the direction and distances on the route
they are following.
A. Advance Direction Signs
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B. Intersection Direction Sign
C. Reassurance direction signs
LESSON 4.3: TRAFFIC SIGNAL LIGHTS
These refers to any power operated traffic control device by which traffic is warned
or directed to take some specific actions. Traffic light signals are used to control traffic at
junctions and also to stop traffic to provide safe crossing points for pedestrians and cyclists.
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A. Rationale. Regulating traffic flow at intersections and road crossings is just a matter of
alternating the GO and STOP signal so that every driver gets his "fair share". As a result of
this, traffic lights were invented to relieved the traffic policeman of the mechanical duties of
alternating traffic to make everybody happy.
B. Problems Concerning Traffic Lights.

1. A society that has little or no respect for traffic laws will have a hard time respecting
the advantages that a traffic light can offer specially when there are no traffic
enforcers around. Sadly, to say, Filipino society is one of those in which respect for
traffic laws needs tremendous improvements.
2. When a traffic light suddenly becomes inoperative, very seldom does order and a
sense of discipline prevail. It always ends up as a massive free for all.
3. Not only drivers are guilty of disobeying traffic lights but PEDESTRIANS have a habit
of turning DON'T WALK signs into WALK signs effectively STOPPING traffic that
should really be GOING.
4. Even if there are traffic enforcing officers present, they very seldom do anything
about pedestrians swarming around in droves, holding up traffic.
C. Classifications of Traffic Signal Lights.

1. Traffic Control Signals. These are signal lights designed primarily to control and
regulate traffic flows. Traffic control signals are devices placed along, beside, or
above a roadway to guide, warn, and regulate the flow of traffic, which includes
motor vehicles, motorcycles, bicycles, pedestrians, and other road users.
2. Special Pedestrian Signals. Pedestrian signals help pedestrians cross at
intersections with traffic lights. The signal for pedestrians to walk is a white walking
symbol. Pedestrians who have already begun to cross when the hand signal
appears, should go as quickly as possible to a safe area. While they are crossing,
pedestrians still have the right-of-way over vehicles. These signal lights provide
regulation for pedestrians like the “WALK” and “DO NOT WALK” signal lights.
3. Train Approach and Gates Signals. These are usually installed on road-rail
intersections designed to inform motorists of any approaching train on the
intersection.
4. Other Special Traffic Signals. These are installed on traffic ways where special
regulations are emphasized like “YIELD TO VEHICLES COMING FROM THE
LEFT”, and other similar regulations.
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Traffic Signal Systems.

1. The Fixed-time System. A traffic control signal by which traffic is alternately
commanded to stop and permitted to proceed in accordance with predetermined
time schedule.
2. Progressive System. These are signals at successive intersections along the
artery are timed to change from red to green at staggered intervals, permitting a
vehicle that maintains a constant speed to proceed without interruption under normal
circumstances.
3. Computerized Control of Signal Networks. Signal changes are not
predetermined, but are ordered by the demands of traffic and are directed by
computers that operate on the basis of traffic information relayed from vehicle
sensors on the streets.
D. Specific Meaning of Traffic Lights.

1. Steady Red
a) STOP at the designated line.
b) Vehicles will be crossing from the "other side".
c) Expect pedestrians to cross at the pedestrian lane.
d) Unless specified, you can TURN RIGHT after a FULL STOP to clear traffic
coming from the left.
2. Steady Green
a) It is the turn of the vehicles on the other side to STOP.
b) Pedestrians are not allowed to cross the pedestrian lane in front of you.
c) Unless specified, you can move up to the middle section of the intersection
and make a left turn when clear.
d) Vehicles GOING STRAIGHT have the right of way.
e) DO NOT ANTICIPATE A GREEN LIGHT.
3. Steady Green Arrow.

a) GO
b) Vehicles turning left can do so.
c) On coming straight traffic is still RED to give way for the vehicles turning left.
d) DO NOT ANTICIPATE A GREEN ARROW.
4. Steady Yellow.
a) PREPARE TO STOP
b) It is the turn of the vehicles on the other side and will be given the GO signal
shortly.
c) DO NOT BEAT A YELLOW LIGHT.
5. Flashing Red.
a) This is the same as a STOP SIGN.
b) STOP at the designated line.
c) Vehicles will be crossing from the "other side".
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d) Expect pedestrians to cross at the pedestrians’ lane.

e) PROCEED WHEN CLEAR.
6. Flashing yellow.
a) This is the same as a YIELD SIGN.
b) Proceed through the intersection with CAUTION.
c) You have the right of way over a flashing RED LIGHT.
d) Vehicles on the other side will proceed after coming to a FULL STOP.
7. Steady Green and Steady Left/Right Arrow.

a) Vehicles can go straight or vehicles on the left lane can make a left turn.
b) Vehicles can go straight or vehicles on the right lane can make a right turn.
c) The RIGHT GREEN signal might or might NOT have a road sign disallowing a
right turn while the RED light is ON.
TRAFFIC SIGNAL BLACKOUT—If all traffic signal lights are not working because of an
electrical power failure, you must stop at the intersection and then proceed when you know
other turning and approaching vehicles, bicycles, or pedestrians have stopped. A blacked-
out traffic signal works the same as a four-way stop intersection.
LESSON 4.4. PAVEMENT MARKINGS AND MARKERS
A. Pavement Markings. These pertain to all lines, patterns, words, colors, or other
gadgets except signs set into the surface or applied upon or attached to the pavement or
curbing or to objects within or adjacent to the roadway, officially placed for the purpose of
regulating, warning or guiding traffic.
They are in the form of lines, symbols, messages or numerals, and may be set into the
surface of, applied upon, or attached to the pavement. In some cases, pavement markings
are used as a supplement to other traffic control devices, such as traffic signals and road
signs. It guides traffic or gives advance warning or may impose restrictions supported by
traffic regulations
B. Types of Pavement Markings and Markers.
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1. Pavement Markings. These are the lines usually white and yellow or a combination of
yellow and white officially set on the roadway as separation for motor vehicles traveling in
the opposite direction or the same direction in case of two-lane one-way street, two-lane
two-way street or four-lane two-way street.
2. Curb Markings for Restrictions. These are markings placed on the curbs or edges of
the traffic for restriction or for parking regulation purposes.
3. Object Markings. These are markings placed on objects on the road or beside the road
like humps, rocks or similar hazardous objects on the side of the road.
4. Reflectorized Markings. These are markings or gadgets designed to reflect and
become luminous when hit by vehicles’ headlight. These are placed or installed in the
middle of the roadway to supplement separation lines or on object at the side of the
roadway which are too near or within the road pavement itself.
C. Specific Meaning of Pavement Markings. Pavement markings vary depending on the

traffic regulations in its location or depending on the road or traffic condition.
1. Solid white shoulder line. This denotes the edge of the roadway. Any asphalt or
concrete surface beyond this line should not be used during the normal operation of your
vehicle.
2. Diagonal white lines. An area filled with diagonal white lines and bordered by solid
white lines is not considered part of the roadway, and vehicles are expected to stay off
unless there is an emergency. These areas are often used to ease the flow of traffic where
roads diverge or intersect.
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3. Broken white center line or lane divider. This denotes the center of a two-lane road, or
marks the division between lanes on multi-lane roads. It is a reminder to stay in your lane.
Straddling the line is illegal and punishable under the law. As the line is “broken,” however,
this means it is legal to cross it when overtaking or changing lanes. Bear in mind that
vehicles continuing in a straight line within their lane automatically have right of way, so wait
your turn.
4. Solid white center line. This is often used to divide traffic on a two-way multi-lane road.
As this is a solid line, you are discouraged from overtaking over it unless the way is
absolutely clear.
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5. Solid white double center line. You are forbidden from overtaking over this line, but
you may make left turns over it, provided the way is clear. Remember, however, that
oncoming traffic still automatically has right of way.
5. Solid yellow double center line. As we noted a while back, this line indicates that it is
unsafe to overtake at any time. It is often found around blind curves or in areas where fast-
moving two-way traffic meets on an undivided road.
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6. Mixed center line/solid yellow with broken yellow or white line. This indicates that
only one side can overtake--the side with the broken line. This is often found entering
curves where the view is obstructed coming from one direction, but is clear from the
opposite side.
7. Solid white lane divider. These are often found near intersections, and are reminders to
stay in lane. As a practice, if you're turning at an intersection, it's best to get into the turning
lane 50m before the intersection, while the lane divider is still broken.
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8. Directional arrows. When combined with solid white lane dividers, they indicate which
directions you are allowed to go within a lane. If the arrow points forward only, you cannot
make a turn from that lane. If it points forward and to the side, you can either go straight or
turn. If it points only to the side, you must turn within that lane. Ignoring these arrows might
just get you a ticket, or worse, get you into an accident.
9. Broken blue lane divider. This indicates the motorbike lane along major thoroughfares.
The broken line indicates that you can move into and out of it, but the lane is preferentially
for motorbikes.
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10. Solid yellow lane divider. This indicates the bus lane on EDSA, but can also be used
to indicate bicycle lanes in some areas. Bicycle lanes may also be indicated by solid white
lines on the side of the road.
11. Broken yellow lane divider. This indicates areas where you can merge into the bus
lane in preparation for turning off EDSA.
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12. Mixed double lane divider/solid yellow with broken yellow or white line. This
indicates that traffic on the solid yellow side cannot cross lanes, while traffic on the other
side may do so if the way is clear. This is often used where smaller arteries merge into
main roads or where feeder roads merge onto the highway.
13. Rumble strips. These tightly spaced horizontal white lines not only give your car's
suspension a bit of a workout, they also indicate hazards ahead, such as dangerous curves
or merging traffic.
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14. Solid white horizontal line. This indicates where you must stop at a stoplight or stop
sign.
15. Zebra crossing. This indicates a pedestrian crossing zone. Stopping over this at a red
light is a traffic violation, so make sure to pay attention to those light timers!
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16. The yellow box. This box indicates the part of the intersection that must--by law--be
kept open at all times. Even if you have a green light, if the traffic is stopped on the other
side ahead, it's best to wait until there's enough space for you to clear the yellow box. Even
in the absence of a light, the yellow box must be kept clear.
LESSON 4.5. TRAFFIC ISLANDS
A. Traffic Islands Defined. These are areas within the roadway constructed in a manner
to establish physical channels through which vehicular traffic is guided.
Traffic Island can be a physical structure or a painted object found on roads and roadside.
The primary purpose of a traffic island is better & orderly flow of traffic. These are also
referred to as channelizes as these “channelizes” the traffic plying on the road. These may
be raised structures made up of concrete or a physical structure in form of boards,
barricades, traffic cones etc.
It can also be regarded as a physical barrier various shapes for channeling the flow
of tragic and reducing the number of conflict points. Their proper placement is of great
importance and is a must know for a town planner as it plays an important role in transport
planning.
When traffic island is much longer in length than width then they are instead called traffic
medians (a strip in the middle of a road) serving the function of divider over a much longer
distance
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Functions of Traffic Islands.
1) segregate pedestrians and vehicles; and

2) control streams of traffic in order to minimize conflict, expedite traffic flow or increase
safety.
Classifications of Traffic Islands.
1. Pedestrian Island (Pedestrian Barriers). These are constructed between the

pedestrian sidewalk and the road pavement to prevent pedestrian from using the roadway
in passing and likewise to prevent motor vehicles from using the sidewalk for parking and
passing purposes.
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3. Traffic Islands. These are the raised portion in the middle of the traffic way constructed
to separate the streams of motor vehicles traversing on opposite directions and at the same
time preventing motorists from using the opposite lane for overtaking. Traffic islands are
further sub-classified into three (3):
a. Division Islands. These are constructed primarily to divide the streams of the
motor vehicles.
b. Channelizing Island. These are constructed to channelize or direct the flow of

traffic.
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c. Rotary Islands. These are constructed along intersections or “rotundas” for

purposes of turning-around. There functions are:
1) prohibit pedestrians from crossing major thoroughfares at points where such

crossing are exceptionally hazardous,
2) minimize imprudence and delays to vehicular traffic, and
3) channelize and control pedestrians.
MODULE 4
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PROGRESS CHECK 4.1

Instruction: Answer the following questions comprehensively.
1. Discuss the importance of traffic control system. Write your answer
in the space provided. (7pts)
____________________________________________________________________
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____________________________________________________________________
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____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
__________________________
2. Enumerate and distinguish the five (5) methods of highways traffic
control? (2 pts each)
a. _________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
b. _________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
c. _________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
d. _________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
3. What are the three (3) traffic control comprehensive system.
a. _________________________________________________
b. _________________________________________________
c. _________________________________________________
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PROGRESS CHECK 4.2.

PART 1. Identify what is being referred to in the following statements.
1. It refers to any device mounted on portable support whereby a

message is conveyed by means of words or symbols officially
installed for the purpose of regulating, warning, or guiding
traffic.
2. These signs are also known as “caution signs.”
3. These signs have an equilateral triangular shape with one side
horizontal and having red borders.
4. These are signs which impose legal restrictions applicable at
particular location usually enforceable in the absence of such
signs.
5. These signs are also known as “guide signs”, or “direction
signs.”
6. The shape of “stop sign”.
7. What is the shape of the “yield sign”?
8. These are traffic signs which inform the motorists of an
impending traffic hazards.
9. These are traffic signs which call for the reductions of
speed.
10. What special decree or law which declared the
international traffic signs as part of the Philippine Traffic
Law?
PART 2. Matching type. Study carefully the traffic signs in Column A then
match it with column B. Write the letter of your answer on the space
provided.
Column A Column B
1. Load Limit Sign
2. Children Crossing
3. No turning to the right
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4. Yield
5. Speed Limit
6. Roundabout
7.
Falling rocks ahead
8. No Parking
9. No U Turn
10. Dangerous Curve
PART 3. Write A if it is a Danger Warning Sign.

Write B if is a regulatory Sign (prohibitive, mandatory,
priority)
Write C if it is an Informative Sign.
1. Directional Sign
2. Runabout Ahead
3. Slippery Road
4. Pedestrian Crossing
5. No U-turn
6. Stop Sign
7. Speed Limit
8. Yield Sign
9. Place Identification Sign
10. No blowing of horns
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Part 4. Essay.
1. Discuss the importance of traffic signs. (3 pts)
2. How effective are the traffic signs in the Philippines in the
prevention of traffic accidents? (3 pts)
3. In your own observation, what are the common problems encountered by
motorist regarding traffic signs? (3 pts)
PROGRESS CHECK 4.3.

Choose the best answer of the following statements. Encircle the letter
of your choice.
1. The chronological arrangement of the color of traffic lights from
the top is:
a. Yellow, Red & Green
b. Green, Red & Yellow
c. Red, yellow & Green
d. Green, yellow & Red
2. If present, the left and right arrow light is usually placed:
a. Beneath the red, yellow and green light.
b. Over the red, yellow and green lights
c. At the right of the red, yellow and green light
d. At the left of the red, yellow and green lights.
3. While approaching an intersection, the green traffic light is on,
however, a police officer suddenly proceeds to the center and
signals you to stop. What you should do?
a. Ignore the police officer and proceed with caution.
b. Ignore the traffic light and come to a full stop
c. Ignore both the police officer and traffic light and cross the
intersection
d. Ignore the police officer and stop only when he will signal
again to stop.
4. When approaching an intersection where he flashing yellow is on, you
should:
a. Stop and proceed with caution
b. Slow down and proceed with caution
c. Reduce your speed to 5mph and proceed slowly
d. Give way to motor vehicles coming from the opposite direction.
5. The arrangement of the traffic light form the bottom is:
a. Red, green, yellow
b. Red, yellow, green
c. Yellow, red, green
d. Green, yellow, red.
6. Traffic signal lights which are designed to regulate and control
traffic along traffic ways are refers to as:
a. Traffic control signal
b. Special pedestrian signal
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c. Train approach signal

d. Road and traffic way signal light
7. The following should be observed when you are approaching an
intersection and you are facing a flashing yellow, except:
a. This is the same as a YIELD SIGN
b. Proceed through the intersection with CAUTION
c. You have the right of way over flashing RED LIGHT
d. Slowdown in crossing the intersection
8. Which of the following is used to regulate and informs motorists on
what to do along train-road intersections?
a. Traffic control signal
b. Special pedestrian signal
c. Train approach signal
d. Road and Traffic way signal light
9. A traffic control signal by which traffic is alternately commanded
to stop and permitted to proceed in accordance with predetermined
time schedule is an example of:
a. Fixed time signal
b. Progressive system
c. Computerized traffic signal system
d. Traffic Light Signal
10. When the red light is on, motorists should observe the
following, except:
a. STOP at the designated line.
b. Vehicles will be crossing from the other side.
c. Expect pedestrians to cross at the pedestrian lane.
d. Unless specified, you can turn left after a full stop to clear
traffic coming from the left.
PROGRESS CHECK 4.4.

Choose the best answer of the following questions. Encircle the letter of
your choice.
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1. When approaching the intersection with directional arrows, you

should:
a. Ignore the traffic lights and wait for signals of traffic
officers.
b. Ignore the directional arrows and follow the instruction of
the traffic enforcer.
c. Follow the lane as directed by the directional arrow.
d. Ignore everything including the directional arrows.
2. Pedestrians when crossing on the road should use only the:
a. Pedestrian walk
b. Crosswalk
c. Sidewalk
d. All of the above
3. When traversing on a solid yellow or white line with a dotted yellow
or white line, you can overtake only when:
a. The solid line is in your lane.
b. He dotted line is in your lane.
c. Oncoming traffic from the opposite direction is free from any
hazard.
d. The oncoming traffic is visible that no vehicle or whatsoever
is coming from the opposite direction.
4. In mountainous areas with passing lane, the overtaking vehicle
should:
a. Use the outer lane in passing
b. Use the inner lane when passing
c. Use either the inner lane or the other lane for oncoming
vehicles when the latter is clear.
d. Blow its horn or give an audible signal to inform the other
vehicle its intention to overtake.
5. When traversing on a highway with double yellow line with dotted
line in between, you can:
a. Not overtake under any circumstances
b. Overtake when the direction is clear of oncoming vehicles.
c. Overtake as long as there are no traffic enforcers around.
d. Not overtake when there are oncoming vehicles on the opposite
lane.
6. On a four-lane two-way road, when there are slow and fast lanes,
never overtake by passing over the solid whit line. This statement
is:
a. True under any circumstances
b. True only when other direction is loaded with oncoming
vehicles.
c. False under all circumstances
d. False, depending on the traffic and weather condition.
7. On a four-lane two-way road, the outer lanes are:
a. For overtaking restrictions
b. Prohibitions to motorists only
c. Traffic laws for vehicles only
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d. Information for defensive driving

8. Pavement markings and markers indicate:
a. Traffic flow regulation
b. Prohibitions to motorists only.
c. Traffic laws for vehicles only.
d. Information for defensive driving
9. Lines indicating parking stalls or spaces on the edges of highways
are examples of:
a. Pavement markings
b. Curb marking for restrictions
c. Object markings
d. Reflectorized markings or markers.
10. Inner lanes of four-lane two-way roads are designed for:
a. Overtaking purposes
b. Fast moving vehicles
c. Slow moving vehicles
d. Overtaking and fast-moving vehicles.
PROGRESS CHECK 4.5

Answer the following questions comprehensively.
1. What is a traffic Islands?
2. Discuss concisely the functions of a traffic islands.
3. What is the significance of the traffic islands in managing the
traffic flow?
4. Enumerate and discuss the classification of traffic islands.
5. Take a picture of at least 5 traffic islands installed in a highway
in your place and discuss their functions.
Activity:
1. Discuss the importance of Traffic Control.
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2. List down the different Traffic or Roads Signs in the Philippines and give its
meaning.
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UkFCyzZUUIg
8. Assessment Task.
Quiz
Recitation
9. References.

Part 2- Road Signs and Pavement Markings Manual.
gn_standards_manual
Chapter 5: Traffic Supervision and Accident Investigation
2. Introduction:
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This Chapter discusses Traffic Supervision which is the keeping order on the streets
and highways within existing regulations to make their use safe and expeditious. It’s
objectives are: 1) to prevent collisions or congestion through proper allotment of time and
space; 2) to move traffic speedily and safely; 3) to use toad to the fullest extent; and 4) to
uphold that roads are primarily built to move traffic and not for carnivals.
In the attainment of the objectives of traffic supervision, three (3) police activities are
needed: 1) Traffic Law Enforcement; 2) Traffic Direction and control; and 3) Traffic Accident
Investigation.

Lesson 5.1 – Traffic Law Enforcement
Lesson 5.2 – Traffic Direction and Control
Lesson 5.3 – Traffic Patrol
Lesson 5.4 – Traffic Accident Investigation
Lesson 5.5 – Hit-and-Run Accident Investigation
Leeson 5.6 – Skidmarks: as a Tool in Traffic Accident Investigation

1) Determine the kind of action will be taken in any traffic violation.
2) Perform actual traffic direction and control along the intersections.
3) Discuss the duties and responsibilities of traffic patrol officers during the conduct
of traffic patrol.
4) Execute and follow the proper procedure in crime scene processing on traffic
accident and prepare the needed documents for court presentation.
5) Discuss the importance of skidmarks as a tool in traffic accident investigation.
4. Leaning Content:
Lesson 5.1: Traffic Law Enforcement
Traffic Law Enforcement action is part of enforcement involving the arrest, issuance
of Temporary Operator’s Permit (TOP) or Inspection Report Summons, or warning of any
person who is believed to have violated a law, ordinance, or regulation pertaining to the use
of traffic roads.
Rationale. Traffic enforcement action may prevent such violation from endangering
persons, property, or inconveniencing other users of traffic users of traffic roads, prevent
continued violation, or discourage future repetition.
As a traffic law enforcer, he must decide the kind of action he will take in case he has
knowledge of any violation. Drivers are guided more by the enforcement actions of traffic
law enforcers than by the way the law is written. It is therefore important that traffic
enforcers should know what to do and be consistent in their actions so that drivers may
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know exactly what to expect. Further, consistency of traffic enforcers in the enforcement of
traffic laws builds respect and compliance with the law.
A. Scope of traffic law enforcement. The range of action of traffic law enforcement includes
but not limited to the following:
1. The action taken by the police and the court to compel obedience to traffic laws and
ordinances regulating the movement and use of motor vehicles for the purpose of
creating a deterrent to unlawful behavior by all potential violators.
2. Enforcement of traffic legislation is an area of activity aimed at controlling road users,
let behavior by preventive persuasive and punitive methods in order to effect a safe
and efficient traffic movement; and
3. It applies to all statutes, ordinances and legally authorized regulations relating to the
use of street and highways and operation of motor vehicles.
B. Two major functions of Traffic Law Enforcement. For more effective traffic law
enforcement and more specific roles in enforcement, the function is divided into the
following:
1. Police Traffic Law Enforcement. This function includes the enforcement of traffic
laws deterrent to law violations, special assistance to prosecutors and courts and
incidental service to highway users. Usually these are the responsibilities of traffic
enforcers like members of the PNP-TMG and the LTO Law Enforcement Service
(LES).
2. Court Traffic Law Enforcement. One part of traffic law enforcement is performed by
the court through PRSOSECUTION, ADJUDICATION and PENALIZATION of cases.
These actions are usually undertaken by any of the regular courts where traffic
cases fall under their jurisdiction and the Traffic Adjudication Service (TAS) of the
LTO.
C. Three important Goals of Enforcement Activities. For more specific actions, enforcement
activities aim:
1. To increase safety level – enforcement effort should be directed towards the

reduction of accidents or minimizing their effects.
2. To increase traffic efficiency – when traffic violators are reduced particularly those
related to traffic obstruction through an effective enforcement, there will be free-flow
of traffic.
3. To insure harmonious and comfortable environment – when there is an increase
safety level and increase traffic efficiency, traveling is more comfortable and
luxurious and it may reduce chaotic situations in the traffic way.
D. Major elements of traffic enforcement system. In the pursuit of effective traffic

enforcement, three elements are involved. Removing one of the elements or any of the
elements, enforcement is not complete.
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1. Enforcement System.
2. Road Users System (Traffic Way User).
3. Road System (Traffic System).
E. Five (5) Essential Steps in the Enforcement Process.

1. Detection (of violation").
2. Apprehension.
3. Prosecution.
4. Adjudication.
5. Penalization.
F. Reasons for Violation of Traffic Laws.

1. physical disabilities or infirmities
2. ignorance of traffic
3. lack of training and experience
4. wrong attitude towards driving
5. drivers of public utility vehicles for increased compensation
6. driver's apathy towards signs, signals and markings
7. influential person violate because they feel they are exempted from punishment
G. Considerations that act as deterrents to motorist and pedestrians.

1. fear of fine or punishment
2. loss of driving privilege
3. possibility of being involved in accident
4. positive area of good citizenship doing what is right and setting an example
H. Kinds of Enforcement Action.

1. Traffic Arrest. It is an enforcement action which consists of taking a person into
custody for the purpose of holding or detaining him to answer a charge of law
violation before a court.
a) When a traffic violator can be arrested?

(1) offense committed is serious
(2) detention is necessary to avoid continued violation
(3) there is reasonable doubt that the violator will not appear in court
b) Arrest, how made? In general, arrest is made by any of the following:

(1) by an actual restraint of the person to be arrested, or
(2) by his submission to the custody of the person making the arrest.
c) Use of force in arresting. No violation or unnecessary force shall be used in making

an arrest and the person arrested shall not be subjected to any greater restraint than
is necessary for his detention.
d) Arrest in Traffic. In arresting a traffic violator, the traffic enforcer must consider the
following:
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(1) An arrest can be effected even without warrant if the offense is committed in the
presence of an arresting officer.
(2) The officer making an arrest must intend to take the violator into custody for the
purpose of bringing him before a court.
(3) Detention of the arrested person may take place.
(4) Officer making an arrest must act under legal authority when taking the arrested
person into custody.
(5) The person being arrested must understand that he is being arrested.
(6) The purpose of arrest is to bring a suspected violator before a court to answer a
charge of violation.
e) Recording the Data of Arrest.

(1) Date/time of Arrest.
(2) Place of Arrest.
(3) The common name of the offense for which the person is arrested.
(4) The full name of the arrested person, his home address, his business address
and his telephone number.
(5) Physical description of the arrestee, including his date of birth, nationality and
marital status.
(6) Name of witnesses to the arrest.
(7) Name and badge number of arresting officer.
f) When taking a person into custody. The arresting officer when taking a person into
custody must consider the following:
(1) The possibility that the person you are arresting may attempt to injure or kill you
or escape in your custody.
(2) Inform him that you are placing him under arrest.
(3) Explain to him why you are placing him under arrest.
(4) Reasonable search may be carried out in connection with lawful arrest.
g) When transporting arrested person. The arresting officer should observe the
following guidelines in transporting arrested person:
(1) If your unit is equipped with radio, request for transportation unit and maintain
custody of your prisoner until it arrives.
(2) Give instructions to the transporting officer about the place where the arrestee is
to be delivered.
(3) Have the necessary information and instructions written out so that the
transporting officer will not err in the delivery.
(4) In certain conditions, direct the arrested person to drive his own vehicle to your
headquarters and follow him with your police mobile.
(5) However, if the driver is not in good condition or the vehicle is in bad shape, let
someone drive the vehicle to the headquarters.
h) Warrantless Arrest or Citizen’s/Civilian Arrest. Oftentimes, arrest in traffic is made

right after the commission of the traffic violation. Hence, traffic enforcers should
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know the following rules to be observed in arresting a person without warrant of

arrest as stipulated by paragraphs a-c, Sec. 6, Rule 113, Rules of Court:
(1) When in the presence of the arresting officer, the person to be arrested has
committed, is actually committing, or is about to commit an offense.
(2) When an offense has in fact been committed, and the arresting officer has
personal reasons to believe that the person to be arrested has committed it.
2. Traffic Citation. This is a means of having violators appear in court without physical
arrest. To ensure that an apprehended traffic violator will appear to the court or to
the roper authority, the traffic officer should confiscate the violator’s driver’s license
and issue Traffic Citation Ticket (TCT) in some cities and municipalities, United
Ordinance Violation Receipt (UOVR) among LGUs in Metro Manila, Temporary
Operator’s Permit (TOP) in cases of RA 4136, or Traffic Violator’s Receipt (TVR) in
cases under the MMDA.
a) Apprehension.
(1) You may confiscate the driver's license or certificate of registration of the vehicle
for any violation of the RA 4136 and its rules and regulations, City and Municipal
Ordinances.
(2) Fill out the blank spaces of TOP/or TCT forms in order to provide a detailed
report of apprehension for the information, guidance and reference of all
concerned.
(3) Advise the violator to report within 72 hours, but not less than 24 hours to give
allowance for proper transmittal from receipt thereof to appropriate offices.
b) Where the violator should report?

(1) Traffic Court, if in Manila and for violation of the City's Traffic Ordinance.
(2) City/Provincial Prosecutor, if in other chartered cities or provincial capitals without
traffic courts, for violations of local traffic ordinances.
(3) Municipal Court, in its municipalities, for violation of local traffic ordinances.
(4) LTO Central Office (TAS) for Metro Manila or its counterparts [REGIONAL
TRAFFIC ADJUDICATION SERVICE (RTAS)] for violation of the Land
Transportation and Traffic Code (RA 4136), and its rules and in the provinces
regulations.
c) How to use the TOP, the TCT, and the TVR? These are official documents
designed for various purposes, namely:
(1) as a receipt for the confiscation of a vehicle or the driver's license or the CR/OR
of the vehicle.
(2) as a temporary permit to operate motor vehicles for 72 hours without extension
from the time of confiscation or apprehension (in case of TVR in Manila, 7 days).
(3) as an official for of judicial or administrative citation to facilitate action on the case
for which it is issued.
(4) record for disposing a case cited therein either administratively or judiciary.
(5) a receipt for release of the confiscated items after adjudication and termination of
the case.
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d) Preparation of the Information/Complaint. Within your tour of duty, prepare

information or complaint by filling up the TOP for processing of all traffic
apprehensions at the appropriate office.
e) Filing of Information/Complaint. Within 24 hours from the time of apprehension,

file the complaints, together with the confiscated items, with the Clerk of Court or
Provincial Prosecutor or the court having appropriate jurisdiction as previously
stated. Table below shows the summary steps followed in traffic citation.
Kinds of Place Period Where to What What will Period of

Violation of Violation of Report should the happen? Reporting
Filling- (Violator) violator? (Violator)
up
TOP/TC
T/TVR
RA 4136 NCR w/in 24 LTO-Main Pay the fine Paid fine, DL 3 - 5 days
hours TAS or plea not is returned. If
guilty not, summon
P. Ofcr
Provinces - do - LTO-RTAS - do - - do - 3 days or
outside 72 hours
NCR
Local NCR - do - Traffic Court - do - - do - 3 - 5 days
Traffic (if
Ordinanc any)/Prosecu
es tor’s Office
Chartered - do - Traffic Court - do - - do - 3 days or
cities (if 72 hours
outside any)/Prosecu
NCR tor
Municipaliti - do - Prosecutor/ - do - - do - 3 days or
es Municipal 72 hours
Court
f) Preliminary findings and disposition of License. Within 72 hours or three (3)

days from the filing of the case with the respective traffic enforcement offices, the
hearing authority shall make immediate preliminary findings on the basis of police or
complaining witnesses reports as to whether or not there is an imperative necessity
of withholding the driver's license confiscated.
(1) Should there be no such necessity, he shall promptly order the return of the
confiscated license to the owner without prejudice to re-calling said license.
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(2) Where the violator fails to appear before the court or the investigating official
concerned, his license or permit shall be forwarded to the LTO for its suspension
or revocation pursuant to Sec. 29., RA 4136.
g) Records of court proceedings.

(1) When the violator appears in Court 15 days and pleads guilty, the Clerk shows
the fine schedule and the violators pays the fine at the Treasurer’s Office, receipt
of which is shown to Clerk of Court who records the same on the TOP, and his
license, if cleared for release, is now returned to the driver.
(2) If the violator appears after 15 days, his license is forwarded to the LTO for
suspension or revocation; he shows his TOP copy to the LTO for proper
disposition of his license. Clerks of Courts, in every case, should inform the LTO
and/or the apprehending officer of the final disposition of the case.
(3) The violator appears in court and desires not to plead guilty to the charge, the
Clerk of Court sets the date of hearing and notifies the accused accordingly and
sends a corresponding subpoena to the apprehending officer for his appearance.
(4) When the accused is found not guilty after trial, his license, if in the possession of
the Court or of the LTO, shall immediately be returned to him unless there is any
other legal ground for its suspension or revocation.
3. Traffic Warning. This is an enforcement action which does not contemplate

possible assessment of penalty by the court or otherwise as a result of warning
alone. There are three types of traffic warning:
(1) Visual Warning – this is usually used when you have observed a minor violation
but are more importantly occupied at a moment.
(2) Verbal Warning – this is a form of safety education. Tell the driver/violator that he
violated a law and explain the hazards of such violations.
(3) Written Warning – this is a combination of verbal warning and citations.
I. Decision Enforcement. In determining what enforcement action to be taken, whether

you arrest, cite or warn the apprehended violator, consider the following:
1. Degree of violation;
2. Accuracy of observation;
3. Traffic and weather condition;
4. Evidence gathered;
5. Whether a new law or not; and
6. Continuous or momentary actions, a factor in some type of violations.
J. Pursuit in Traffic Enforcement. Pursuit is a part of routine enforcement activity

performed by police and is used when a violating driver is detected.
1. When to pursue? When a violator fails to stop on signal, your normal reaction is to
pursue the violator until you apprehend him. When deciding to pursue, the following
should be taken note:
a) Pursuit must be tampered with common sense and foresight of like hazards.
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b) better judgment is used in deciding to lose a traffic violator who can be

apprehended at another time than giving great risk to yourself, your vehicle and
other drivers.
c) Pursuit requiring high speed operation of police vehicle may be justified in certain
circumstances such as in the apprehension of a driver endangering the lives of
motorists, pedestrians, and others through operation which can be classified as
other than reasonable and proper which is dangerous and negligent
d) Types of serious violation is an important factor in deciding to pursue:
(1) Non-hazardous violations.
(2) Hazardous violations:
(a) Driving while under the influence of liquor;
(b) Reckless driving; and
(c) Driving on excessive speed.
e) Consider the following when pursuing hazardous violators:

(1) A violator of this nature is likely to have little concern for other drivers at
their safety.
(2) Successful flight from identification and apprehension is usually his only
concern.
(3) Be prepared for acts of this type of violator which could give him an
advantage while interfering with your pursuit and successful apprehension.
f) Consider your driving skill and experience.

(1) Manipulative skills
(2) Recognizing road and traffic conditions that may hinder your pursuit.
(3) Defensive driving
g) Resisting distraction. You should know what evasive actions will permit you to
avoid or escape unfavorable traffic conditions.
2. Pursuit Techniques. The officer should know the ff:
a) His limitations and strength in driving a patrol vehicle under normal conditions.
b) Good driving combined with effective techniques will help to minimize the
dangers involved in pursuit in high speed.
c) Normal driving skill is not automatically improved by wearing a police uniform, nor
by having a police car to operate.
3. Identification of Pursued Vehicle.

a. When alone, use a clipboard with attached paper and pencil. Anchor the clipboard
by sitting on part of it so that notes can be written without looking down.
b. Post a list of wanted persons or vehicles on a "hot sheet" within easy viewing
range while in driving position/
c. Identify the violator's vehicle for later identification, particularly when pursuit is
lengthy, interrupted or abandoned, or in case you are injured by the violators.
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d. The registration plate is very important and accurate method of establishing

identity of a vehicle is also important. Train yourself to observe complete license
plate number at a glance.
e. Record the registration number as soon as possible, and check it against your
"hot sheet.”
4. Itemized Identification Features of the Vehicle.

a. COLOR – black, red maroon
b. YEAR OF MANUFACTURE – learn to identify the year model of a vehicle, i.e.,
“2020”.
c. MAKE - Honda, Toyota, Mitsubishi, Isuzu, etc..
d. BODY TYPE - p-up, wagon, 4dr sedan, truck, etc..
e. LICENSE PLATE NUMBER
f. OUTSTANDING FEATURES AND ACCESSORIES – wide racing stripe, crumbled
fender, damaged door, etc.
g. UNUSUAL FEATURES OF THE DRIVER OR PASSENGERS – clothing, air
glasses, etc.
5. Keep Headquarters Advised. Through the dispatcher about the progress of the
pursuit operation.
a) It is your duty to apprehend violators as soon as possible. Radio contact with
HQs aids in accomplishing this objective by alerting other patrol units in the
area.
b) While in pursuit, use your radio whenever necessary and advisable. If forced
to abandon pursuit and there is no radio available, use any nearest telephone.
6. Stopping and approaching a violator. It is completed when you have stopped the
violator’s vehicle and move to the place where you will begin to talk to the driver. The
following should be observed:
a) In stopping a violator, it must be done in safety to you, the driver you stopped,
to other road users.
b) Approach the violator preferably on the left side from the rear and be alert for
the unexpected.
K. Officer-Violator Relationship. The first reminder for an officer in traffic enforcement is

to establish PLEASANT RELATIONSHIP with offending motorists or pedestrians thru:
1. The appearance of your uniform, equipment and person which will create the
violator’s impression of you. A neat, clean uniform properly worn and well-groomed
person will create a good impression.
2. While talking with the violator, observe the following:

a. Get your emotions under control.
b. Advise the nature of the alleged violation in a manner that he can fully
understand.
c. Allow the violator to talk and explain his side.
d. Be courteous and business-like.
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e. Request compliance. Use requesting words such as “May I,” "Please" and
"Kindly".
f. Avoid telling the driver what not to do.
3. Never open your conversation in a sarcastic or derogatory way. Avoid such opening
as:
a. Don't you know--?;
b. Who do you think are--?;
c. Where do you think you are going---?;
d. What's your hurry ?
4. Being alert at all times for the unexpected, approach the violator with these cases:
a. Take time to get ready to talk the violator.
b. Know what you are going to do and say.
c. Have any equipment you will need such as flashlights, clipboard, or citation pad.
d. Review the facts which led you to your stopping the violator before you begin to
talk.
e. Decide what enforcement action you are going to take before you approach the
violator.
5. In requesting for the DL or vehicle registration certificate (CR), observe the following:
a. Do not put your head or arms in the car windows.
b. While waiting for the license, ask the driver, "What is your name, Sir?".
c. Never accept anything other than the papers requested.
d. Ask the papers being requested be removed from the billfold or other container.
e. Have the driver hand the requested papers to you outside the window.
f. Establish the identity of the driver and check the entries of both the license and
the registration papers for any possible fraud, or false identities or falsifications.
g. Do not return the driver's license and CR until you are about to terminate the
interview.
6. Terminating the contact:

a. Explain to the driver what action he must take. Tell him when and where he must
appear.
b. Don't discuss probable bail or probable penalties with the violator.
c. Avoid any naughty suggestion.
d. When you are certain the driver understands what he should do, close the
interview by:
(1) Thanking the driver for his cooperation; (1) Explaining how he may avoid
further difficulty.
e. Help the driver get safely through the traffic.
f. When the violator leaves, don't follow him immediately.
L. Road Check. This is another enforcement activity where it involves the conducting of
actual inspection of vehicles, and motorists on the road.
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1. Objectives of road check.

a) faulty vehicle equipment
b) registration and licensing violations
c) intoxicated drivers
d) the load or cargo of commercial transportation vehicle for load weight
2. Considerations to be taken when conducting road check:

a) minimum delay to motorist
b) thorough checking procedure
c) protection/safety of both motorist and officers
d) timing, location and frequency
LESSON 5.2: TRAFFIC DIRECTION AND CONTROL
Intersection Defined. As applied to a street or highway means the space occupied

by two streets at the point where they cross each other.
Police Traffic Direction. It is defined as telling drivers and pedestrians when, how
and where they may or may not move or stand at a particular place, especially during
emergencies or period of congestion.
A. Who are tasked to direct and guide traffic? In the Philippines, traffic officers are
usually deputized by the Land Transportation Office who normally comes from:
1. the PNP-TMG,
2. police auxiliaries,
3. MMDA Traffic Management Section, and
4. in some places, volunteers coming from barangay security forces and other civic
organizations
B. Directing and Guiding Traffic.

1. You are expected to indicate to the road users how, when, and where they may
move.
2. To do this, use a type of sign language which shall be clearly understandable to all
persons you will be directing.
3. Traffic Direction Officers must use uniform gestures and signals.
4. When directing traffic, you first want drivers and pedestrians to recognize that you
are the officer who will tell them what to do.
5. Normally, this is in the center of the intersection. Stand as though you mean
business. Stand straight with your weigh equally distributed to each foot.
6. When you are not signaling, let your hands fall at your sides. When you authorize
vehicles to move, do not face them. Stand so that your side is toward the oncoming
vehicle.
C. Suggested Methods of Directing and Guiding Traffic.
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1. Use hand signals to designate decisions to motorists and pedestrians.

2. Supplement the arm/hand signals with a whistle:
a) one long blow to STOP.
b) two short snappy blasts for GO.
c) three blasts to be used for assistance.
3. If two or more officers are assigned in one intersection, only one makes the decision,
while the other take theirs from him.
4. To stop a moving lane, point at the car you intend to stop and give the driver the
opportunity to stop
5. The hand signal should be made with the arm extended and the palm facing the
person or vehicle to be stopped.
D. Night Control of Traffic.

1. When light is sufficient, work as in day time.
2. If light is not sufficient, use flashlight by:
a) To STOP, direct the flashlight in line of the vision and move back and forth.
b) To START, use the same motion as in daylight except with flashlight.
c) Supplement the actions with whistle.
E. Hand Signals. The signals may be modified also by the traffic direction officer as it
deemed necessary so that motorists may clearly understand the decision of the traffic
officer especially during night time. In addition to hand signals and blowing of the
whistles, flags with varying colors (usually red and green) are used to supplement the
signaling.
Fig. 1 fig. 2 fig. 3 fig. 4 fig. 5
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fig. 6 fig. 7 fig. 8 fig. 9 fig. 10
1. This is the most common traffic hand signal. It aims to stop vehicles coming from
front.
2. This traffic hand signal aims to stop vehicles approaching simultaneously from front
and behind.
3. This traffic hand signal aims to allow vehicles coming from right and and turning right
by stopping traffic approaching from the left.
4. This traffic hand signal aims to beckon the vehicles approaching from right (vehicles
from the right must go forward).
5. This traffic hand signal aims to beckon the vehicles approaching from left (vehicles
from left must go forward).
6. This traffic hand signal aims to stop vehicles approaching from left and waiting to
turn right.
7. This traffic hand signal aims to stop vehicles approaching from behind.
8. This traffic hand signal aims to stop vehicles approaching from right to allow vehicles
from the left to turn right.
9. This traffic hand signal aims to close or stop all vehicles (all directions).
10. This traffic hand signal aims to beckon vehicles from front (vehicles from front must
go forward).
LESSON 5.3: TRAFFIC PATROL
Traffic Patrol. This refers to the observation of road conditions, the behavior of the
drivers and other users of vehicles for the purpose of traffic supervision and law
enforcement and providing authorized traffic-connected services to the public.
A. Types of Traffic Patrol.

1) Line Patrol. This involves observation either in moving or stationary observation at
a certain route or point of a major street in a city. Usually, this is done by foot patrol
officers.
2) Area Patrol. This involves observation either by moving patrol or observation in a
certain area which included a number of streets, roads or sections of a highway.
Area patrolling is usually the job of mobile police officers as well as those motorcycle
cops.
B. Types of Stationary Observation.

1) Conspicuous Observation. Stationary observation in which observer remains in
full view of traffic conditions. Here, the traffic patrol officer is situated in any place
where he could be seen by all traffic users.
2) Visible Observation. Stationary observation in which the observer is in full view
but so located, for example, at side street, so as to require effort on the part of traffic
users to discover the observer.
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3) Concealed Observation. Stationary observation in which the observer is not visible

to persons using ordinary power of observation form from the roadway being
observed.
C. Deterrent to violations and dangerous driving.

1) Detecting and apprehending violators.
2) Observing and reporting traffic conditions.
3) Observing and reporting road conditions, including view obstruction which needs
attention.
4) Providing certain services to the public.
5) Handling emergencies as they arise and keeping traffic flow smoothly.
D. Deterring Drivers from Violating. The effect of traffic law enforcement on the
behavior of the motorist drivers depends upon what they think the police will do or the
reputation of the police for action.
1) Be sure you are seen by other motorists while taking enforcement actions.
2) Be in full view while simply patrolling or inspecting.
3) Leave the area and proceed to another area after you have taken enforcement
action.
4) In order to achieve a deterrent in law enforcement, apply selective enforcement.
5) Enforcement action should be taken at once among habitual violators.
E. Deter Violator for Unsafe Driving. Be alert for potentially hazardous drivers. His
action may not be illegal, but may serve as road hazards that need to be cautioned.
F. Example of Actions and Conditions which may Need Close Watching:

1) Driving extremely at low speed.
2) Slow moving vehicles in left or "high speed" lanes.
3) Racing motor sliding stops, jumping starts, and the like.
4) Excessive maneuvering such as backing up four or five times to get into a parking
space.
5) Pulling to curb lane at traffic signal.
6) Having turn signals on when not attempting to turn.
7) Waving in roadway.
8) Failing to slow for an intersection with obstructed view.
9) Passing or attempting to pass several cars in a bunch.
10)Suddenly turning off at approach of police vehicle.
11)Teen-age groups at night particularly when in two or more vehicles.
12)Damage or dressed up vehicles.
13)Faulty or obscured license plates.
14)Unlighted parked cars with motor running.
G. Detecting and Apprehending Violators. It is the main job or duties of traffic patrol
officers.
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H. Observing Traffic Conditions. As traffic patrol officer, you are the eyes and ears of
the department when on traffic patrol.
I. Road Intelligence. Unusual points of serious congestion must be noted. You may
observe an unusual amount of delay at a certain intersection each morning and when you
learn the cause, be sure to report the situation at once to your superior officer.
J. Patrol Assignment. You may be assigned to either area or line patrol, or you may have
instructions to use a combination. For example, you may patrol a certain street noted for
excessive accidents in a line at specific times. The following are some guidelines when
assigned in traffic patrol unit.
1) Be familiar with the street lay out in your area.
2) Familiarize yourself with the places where congestion is likely.
3) Apply selective enforcement if area is too large to cover.
4) You may be permitted to leave your assignment when pursing violators.
5) Sometimes you will be required to depart momentarily from an intersecting street
rather than always approaching it from the street which you are patrolling.
K. Patrol Tactics and Techniques. When multiple patrol units are used, special tactics
are possible. Examples of these are following:
1) When one unit overtakes a group of vehicles, the other unit brings up the rear of the
group. If one or more drivers in the group think that they can no longer be observed
since they have been passed by the first patrol unit, they feel free to violate. The
following patrol unit observes and apprehends the violators.
2) When an entire column of vehicles must be stopped, one unit stays at the rear while
the other overtakes the leader, thus neatly battling the entire group. If two vehicles
are racing, or if two violators separate, the paired patrol units can separate for
individual pursuit.
3) Another advantage of working together is that officers can protect each other.
Except for special purposes or occasions, patrol unit works independently so that
more areas can be covered.
L. Steps to Take in Cases of Special and Unusual Situations.
1) What to do in case of abandoned motor vehicle? Abandoned vehicles may be

classified into two categories:
a. unattended due to mechanical defects:

(1) verify and check on the ownership of the vehicle, and
(2) if possible, advise the owner to relocate the vehicle to a much safer place.
b. abandoned by carnappers or hold-up men:

(1) get the plate number and other data of the vehicle;
(2) make a report TRAFCOM or traffic police unit;
(3) make possible steps to inform the owner about his vehicle;
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(4) bring the vehicle to the TRAFCOM or traffic police impounding area and
conduct a Technical Inspection Report in the presence of the alleged owner;
(5) advise the owner to present all pertinent papers of the vehicle;
(6) if there is violation of RA 6539, note its violation and together with the
Technical Inspection Report, submit it for investigation; and
(7) finally, submit a duly accomplished spot report.
2) What to do on stalled or bogged down motor vehicles.?

Check the defect or condition of the vehicle;
a) Ensure the safety of vehicles and persons involved;
b) If practicable, push the vehicle to the road shoulder, or avail wreckers;
c) Advise owner to avail the services of repairman, and
d) Provide early warning devices (EWD) or any lantern.
3) How to handle traffic jam.

a) Determine the cause of the traffic jam;
b) If caused by vehicular accident, conduct fast, immediate but complete
investigation and remove vehicles involved at the scene of accident;
c) If caused by mechanical trouble, assist motorist to push or move the vehicle;
d) Establish yourself and conduct systematic traffic direction; and
e) Observe if the flow of traffic became smooth, if not, refer back to letter "a"
above.
4) In case of vehicle cannibalization.

a) Determine the vehicle parts that were stolen;
b) Take down the name of owner, description of the vehicle, and location of the
incident;
c) Look for clues that may establish identity of the perpetrators or their modus
operandi;
d) Interview witnesses and owner to get a general picture of the situation prior to
the incident;
e) Prepare a spot report and submit it to the nearest TRAFCOM Unit; and
f) If further investigation is necessary, the vehicle may be impounded for
safekeeping.
LESSON 5.4: TRAFFIC ACCIDENT INVESTIGATION
Traffic Accident Investigation. Generally, to know what question to ask and what
to look for, you must have some fundamental bearing on accidents and their causes. When
you speak of traffic accident, everybody knows what you mean - SOMETHING WENT
WRONG on the highway, either a wrecked car, somebody injured or possibly killed.
A. What Traffic Accident Investigation Determines.

1. WHAT happened?
2. WHO and WHAT was involved?
3. WHERE did it happen?
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4. WHY did it happen?

5. HOW did the accident occur?
6. WHEN did the accident happen?
B. Purposes of Traffic Accident Investigation.

1. Everyone involved is curious about the causes and circumstances of the
accident.
2. Police are also interested in finding out whether there is enough evidence of
law violation in the accident to take enforcement action.
3. Claims attorneys and adjusters want to determine negligence on the part
of the drivers involved in the accident so that damage claims can be
properly adjusted.
4. Officials and other want specific information about accidents to know how to
prevent future accidents.
C. Common Words and Phrases Used in Traffic Accident Investigation.

1. ACCIDENT. It is that occurrence in a sequence of events which usually
produces unintended injury, death, or property damage.
2. TRAFFIC ACCIDENT. An accident involving travel transportation on a
traffic way.
3. MOTOR VEHICLE ACCIDENT. Refers to any event that results in
unintended injury or property damage attributable directly or indirectly to the
action of a motor vehicle or its loads. Includes:
a) Accidental injury from inhalation of exhaust gas;
b) Fires;
c) Explosion;
d) Discharge of firearm within the motor vehicle while in motion;
e) Collision between a MV and a railroad train or street car on stationary
rails or tracks; and
f) Failure of any part of the motor vehicle while the vehicle is in motion.
Excluded are:
g) Collision of a motor vehicle with an aircraft or water-craft in motion;
h) Injury or damage due to cataclysms (flood or sudden physical
change on earth surface); and
i) Injury or damage while the motor vehicle is not under its power, is
being loaded on or unloaded from another conveyance.
4. Motor Vehicle. Every device which is self-propelled and every vehicle which
is propelled by electric power obtained from overhead trolley wires, but not
operated upon rails.
5. KEY EVENT. An event on the road which characterizes the manner of

occurrence of a motor vehicle traffic accident.
6. DEBRIS. Refers to the accumulation of broken parts of vehicles rubbish,

dust and other materials left at the scene of the accident by a collision.
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7. SKID MARKS. These are marks left on the roadway by tires which are not
free to rotate, usually because brakes are applied strong and the wheels
locked.
8. TRAFFIC UNIT. Any person using a traffic way for travel, parking or other
purposes as a pedestrian or driver, including any vehicle, or animal which
he is using. It applies also to:
a) Pedestrians;
b) Cyclists;
c) Street cars;
d) Horse-drawn (animal-drawn) vehicles;
e) Farm tractors; and
f) Other road users in almost any combination.
Example: A traffic accident could involve a cyclist and a pedestrian.
9. HAZARDS. This is generated when a critical space-motion relationships between a

traffic unit and another object develops due to the movement of either or both.
Example: A curve in the path is a hazard. Another traffic unit in the path is also a
hazard.
10. SAFE SPEED. The speed adjusted to the potential or possible hazards or the road
and traffic situation ahead. It is determined by the road rather than the particular driver of a
vehicle.
Example: A curve ahead is a hazard and a safe speed for it is a speed at which it can be
taken comfortably.
11. STRATEGY. It is the adjusting of speed, position on the road, and direction of motion,
giving signals of intent to turn or slow down, or any other action in situations involving
potential hazards.
12. TACTIC. It refers to any action taken by the traffic unit to avoid hazardous situations
like steering, braking, or accelerating to avoid collision or other accident.
13. IMPACT. It is the striking of one body against another or a collision of a motor vehicle
with another motor vehicle.
14. CONTACT DAMAGE. Damage to a vehicle resulting from direct pressure of some
foreign object in a collision or roll over. It is usually indicated by situations, rub-off of
material or puncture.
15. FACTOR. Any circumstance contributing to a result without which the result could not
have occurred or it is an element necessary to produce the result, but not by itself sufficient.
16. PRIMARY CAUSE. A misnomer loosely applied to the most obvious or easily
explained factor in the cause of an accident or the most easily modified condition factor.
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17. CAUSE. The combination of simultaneous and sequential factors without any one of
which result could not have occurred.
18. ATTRIBUTE. Any inherent characteristics of a road, a vehicle, or a person that affects
the probability of a traffic accident.
19. MODIFIER. A circumstance that alters an attribute permanently or temporarily.
D. Kinds of Traffic Accidents.

1. Non-Motor Vehicle Traffic Accident. Any accident occurring on a traffic way
involving persons using the traffic way or travel or transportation, but not involving a
motor vehicle in motion. Ex. Pedestrian and cyclist in a traffic way.
2. Motor Vehicle Non-Traffic Accident. Any motor vehicle accident which occurs
entirely in any place other than a traffic way. Ex. Accident on a private driveway.
3. Motor Vehicle Traffic Accident. Any motor vehicle accident occurring on a traffic
way. Ex. Collision between cars on highway.
E. Classification of Motor Vehicle Traffic Accident According to Key Event.

1. Running off road. This is usually characterized by a motor vehicle falling on the
roadside or on a cliff along mountainous roads.
2. Non-collision on road. This does not involve any collision. Ex. Overturning.
3. Collision on road.
Examples of this are motor vehicles colliding with:
a) Pedestrian;
b) Other motor vehicle;
c) Parked motor vehicle;
d) Railroad train;
e) Bicycle;
f) Fixed object; and
g) Other objects
F. Classification of Accidents According to Severity.

a) Property Damage Accident
b) Slight.
c) Non-Fatal Injury Accident.
d) Less Serious.
e) Serious.
f) Fatal.
G. Causes of Motor Vehicle Traffic Accidents.

1. Simultaneous Factors:
a) Road conditions;
b) Drivers attitude or behavior.
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c) Weather condition
2. Sequential Factors:
a) Speed is greater or less than safe; and
b) Defective vehicle.
3. Operational Factors:
a) Road hazards; and
b) Driver's non-compliance to traffic laws, rules and regulations.
4. Perception Factors:
a) Driver's inability to react promptly to a situation; and
b) Driver's faulty action to escape collision course.
When all possible causes of an accident have been grouped together by an

investigating officer and he believes the accident would not have occurred if any one of
these causes did not exist, then the investigator may have identified the combination of
factors causing the accident.
On-the-scene reconstruction of a traffic accident relates accident causation to direct

causes for summary police action and to direct, mediate and early causes for ongoing
studies of high-frequency accident locations and future research and analysis.
H. Chain of Events in a Vehicular Accident. It refers to a series of an expected events

leading to damage or injury. One event usually leads to another so that the series can be
spoken of as a "chain of events.””
1. Perception of Hazard. It is seeing, feeling, or hearing and understanding the usual
or unexpected movement or condition that could be taken as sign of the accident
about to happen
2. Start of evasive action. It is the first action taken by a traffic unit to escape from a
collision course or otherwise avoid a hazard.
3. Initial Contact. It is a first accidental touching of an object collision course or
otherwise avoid a hazard.
4. Maximum Engagement. It is greatest collapse or overlap in a collision. The force
between the traffic unit and the object collided with are greatest at maximum
engagement.
5. Disengagement. It is the separation of a traffic unit in motion from an object with
which it has collided. The force between the object ceases at this time.
6. Stopping. This is when the traffic unit/s involved come to rest. It usually stabilizes
the accident situation.
7. Injury. It is receiving bodily harm. This event does not necessary occur after the
accident but within any of the chain of events.
8. Other events that may occur during an accident.
a) Point of Possible Perception. The place and time of which the hazard
could have been perceived by a normal person. It precedes actual
perception and is the beginning of perception delay.
b) Point of no Escape. It is that place and time after or beyond which the
accident cannot be prevented by the traffic unit under consideration.
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c) Perception Delay. The time from the point of possible perception to

actual perception.
d) Final Position. It is the place and time when objects involved in an
accident finally come to rest without application of power.
I. Who conducts the traffic accident investigation? The police officers assigned in the
field or highways upon learning of an accident usually responds and conduct initial
inquiries. However, police stations normally have designated traffic accident investigators.
In major traffic accidents involving numerous victims, the local traffic investigator shall
immediately inform the nearest PNP-HPG which shall then take lead in the investigation
under Special Investigation Task Group (SITG) which shall be activated to manage the
case (PNP Field Manual on Investigation of Crimes of Violence and Other Crimes, 2011).
When the proper crime scene processing is necessary, the traffic investigators may also
ask assistance of the Scene of the Crime Operation Team.
J. Five (5) Levels of Activity in Accident Investigation.

1. Reporting. This involves basic data collection to identify and classify a motor
vehicle, traffic and persons, property and planned movements involved.
2. At-Scene Investigation. This level involves all action taken by the investigator at
the scene of the crime or accident.
3. Technical Preparation. This involves delayed traffic accident data collection and
organization for study and interpretation.
4. Professional Reconstruction. This involves efforts to determine from whatever
information is available, how the accident happened.
5. Cause Analysis. This last level usually involves final analysis on the causes of
accident which are bases for the prevention of similar accident.
K. Steps Taken by the Police During Traffic Accident Investigation.

1. Step One. Upon Learning of the Accident.
a) Ask first: (1) When did the accident happen?; (2) Exactly where was it?; (3) How
bad was it?; (4) Did you see the accident happened? (5) Where can you be
reached?
b) Decide whether to go to the scene: (1) Will scene have been cleared by the
time of arrival?; (2) Is it in investigator's area?; (3) Should headquarters be
informed or consulted?
c) Then find out, if necessary: (1) Is traffic blocked?; (2) Has ambulance been
called?; (3) Has wrencher been called?; (4) Was fire apparatus called?
2. Step Two. Start for the Scene. With two way radio, you can do two things while on
the way.
a) Choose Best Approach, Consider: (1) Time; (2) Possible traffic jams; (3)
Possible route of driver involved and (4) Probable situation at scene.
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b) Drive Safely. If you get involved in accident yourself, then other units must be
used.
c) Be Alert for Cars Leaving the Scene: (1) As possible witnesses or hit and run
drivers; & (2) Records registration numbers of any likely looking vehicles.
d) Get Equipment Ready for Use. So far as practical while on the way.
e) Look for Conditions confronting a Driver Approaching Scene: (1) Low
visibility view obstructions; & (2) Traffic control devices.
f) Note Hazards to approaching Traffic: (1) Drop helper to direct traffic if
necessary; & (2) Look for physical evidence. Have it guarded until it can be
examined, collected or located.
3. Step Three. Upon Arrival at the Accident Scene.

a) Select parking place carefully: (1) Is it safe?; (2) Will it block traffic?; (3) Can
headlight illuminate scene?
b) Care for injured:
1) Stop arterial bleeding;
2) Call for help if necessary;
3) Help injured from cars safely;
4) Protect injured from exposure;
5) Ask for emergency assistance from bystanders from anywhere.
c) Look over bystanders and others:
1) Look for drivers;
2) Look for possible witnesses;
3) Look for volunteers who will help you;
4) Get them under control.
d) Have Emergencies Under Control:
1) Have spilled gasoline guarded;
2) Look for fire and electrical hazards;
3) Look for traffic hazards;
4) Put out flares;
5) Ask helper to direct traffic;
6) Keep bystanders off roadway;
7) Request help from headquarters if needed.
e) Locate drivers:
1) Consider possibility of hit and run accident;
2) alert headquarters.
f) Measure location of short lived evidences.
g) Arrange for clearing roadway.
h) Delay removal of vehicles except to aid injured.
4. Step Four. When Emergency is Under Control.

a) Preliminary questioning of drivers:
1) Who was driving each vehicle?;
2) Note unpremeditated statement;
3) Look for signs of nervousness, confusion and intoxication.
b) Gather clues for identifying hit and run cars:
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1) Question other witnesses especially bystanders in hurry to go;

2) It needed, get signed statement at once from why who may be hard to find
later.
c) Examine drivers conditions:
1) Get specimen for chemical test; and
2) Question about trip plan for possible fatigue.
d) Question drivers carefully:
1) Check license and record data from it;
2) Verify and identify address;
3) Check registration and record data;
4) Verify ownership and correct address;
5) Get step by step account of what driver saw and did.
e) Position and condition of vehicles:
1) Lights and light switches;
2) Gear position and tires;
3) Mark position of MVs if it must be removed;
4) Unusual thing inside the vehicles.
f) Form preliminary opinion as to how accident occur.
g) Photography:
1) Photograph skid mark and location of vehicles and
2) Mark skid mark location for later measurement.
h) Record place to which injured persons or damage vehicles were or will be
taken.
5. Step Five. After Getting Short-live Evidence.

a) Get additional evidence:
1) Make test skids;
2) Decide whether proof of violation is sufficient for arrest;
3) If so, make arrest or issue citation;
4) Get additional formal statements, from witnesses remaining at the scene
and
5) Have road clear if traffic is obstructed.
b) Suggestion to drivers, if necessary:
1) How much accidents can be avoided in the future; and
2) Tell drivers what reports they must make and dismiss them.
c) Approach the scene by path of each traffic unit involved. Look for:
1) View obstructions;
2) Traffic control devices, etc.;
3) Probable points of perception and
4) Road surface conditions.
d) Complete examinations of vehicles.
e) Locate key event of accident.
f) Make additional photographs of:
1) Vehicle damage;
2) View obstruction;
3) Pavement's conditions; and
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4) Control devices, and general view, etc.

g) Establish exact location of accident and record it.
h) Measure for scale diagram if location is hard to reach.
i) Review notes of evidence or testimony:
1) Get additional facts at scene and
2) Identify all notes with places and time.
j) Clean up location or arrange to have it done.
k) Report to headquarters by radio or telephone.
6. Step Six. After Leaving the Scene:

a) Get medical report on injured persons from doctor or hospital.
b) Question drivers or witnesses: At hospital or home if not adequately
questioned; and Take needed additional statements.
c) Notify: Relatives of dead or injured; and Owner of vehicles.
d) Have specimens analyzed if were taken for chemical or laboratory test.
e) Have photograph developed, get prints if needed for report.
f) Complete the report of the accident: Have copies made if necessary; File
report and copies; and Complete factual data on investigation report if not
completed at scene.
g) Decide whether analysis of accident is warranted by the time available
for making it.
h) Reconstruction of the accident:
1) Estimate speeds of vehicles involved;
2) Draw scale diagram;
3) Analyze angle of collision;
4) Get technical help if necessary, and
5) Summarize opinions.
i) Present case summary to a lawyer.
j) Complete report or investigation.
k) Submit to superior for approval.
l) Inform other Agencies or departments of any condition at the scene
which needs attention for safety.
7. Step Seven. If Case Goes to Court:

a) Find out what the prosecutor wants further to develop evidence.
b) Return to the scene if necessary for the following:
1) Additional photographs of general scene and long-lived evidence;
2) Measure for scale diagram for use in court; and
3) Locate additional witnesses and review their testimony.
c) Locate also, if necessary:
1) Relatives and friends who can confirm activities before the accident;
2) Technicians who developed pictures, made chemical tests, etc.; and
3) And expert who can help.
d) Have enlargement made of any photo needed in court.
e) Enlarge scale diagram made for court use.
f) Pre-trial conference with prosecution.
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g) Insure that subpoenas are issued.

h) Testify in court.
i) Organize papers and file permanently.
j) Insure that the disposition of case is recorded in drivers’ record and
other reports.
K. The Traffic Accident Investigation Report (TAIR).

1) Uniform traffic Accident Reporting System.
2) Preparation of Traffic Accident Report:
a) By a competent bonafide traffic accident investigator.
b) Requirements for an investigator in the submission of report such as evidence
gathered, diagrams, sketches as well as sworn statements of witnesses.
c) TAIR will be accomplished in five (5) copies for the:
1) Court or Prosecutor's Office;
2) TRAFCOM or Traffic Division;
3) Investigator;
4) Insurance company of Party-involved #1; and
5) Insurance Co. of Party-involved #2.
L. Sample of Traffic Accident Investigation Report Form.
PC/INP Form ________________________________________ FILE NR_____________________________

________________________________________
TRAFFIC ACCIDENT INVESTIGATION REPORT
I.
WHERE: ..........................................................................................................................................................................................................
.................
(Near/Km Post Nr) (Near Intersection/landmark)
...........................................................................................................................................................................................................................
.
(Hwy/St/Rd) (Dist/Bo) (Mun/City) (Prov)
II.
WHEN: .............................................................................................................................................................................................................
..............
(Day of Week) (Date) (Time)
III. WHAT:
1.  Another vehicle 5.  Bicycle 9.  Animal-drawn vehicle
2.  Pedestrian 6.  Scooter 10.  Fixed object
Vehicle vs. 3.  Animal 7.  Railroad train 11.  Non-collision(fell, overturned, etc.)
4.  Motorcycle 8.  Push cart
TYPE OF ACCIDENT: 1.  Fatal 2.  Non-fatal 3.  Property damage
IV. HOW:
1.  Head-on 4.  Sideswipe-same direction Width of road
.......m/ft.......................................................................
2.  Rear-end 5.  Sideswipe-opposite direction Width of shoulder
m/ft.......................................................................
3.  Angle 6.  Others (specify) Number of
lanes: ..............................................................................
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V. VEHICLE Number of vehicles involved

(Use supplemental TAIR if more than two vehs)
Vehicle 1 Vehicle 2
TYPE: ...........................................................................................
…............................................................................................
Make and
Model........................................................................... .................................................................................................
Plt Nr. Decal Nr............................................................................. ……
……………………………................................................
Classification & Place of Issue....................................................
………………….......................................................................
Driven by......................................................................................
…………………………. ............................................................
Address........................................................................................ ................................................... .........................................
Occupation.................................................................................. ................................................... .........................................
Driver’s Lic.
Nr............................................................................. .................................................................................................
Nationality./..................................................................................
………………………................................................................
Age..............................................................................................
…………..................................................................................
Sex & Status................................................................................ .
………………………................................................................
Driving experience.......................................................................
……….......................................................................................
Vehicle owner .............................................................................
………… .................................................................................
Address......................................................................................
………………………………………………………………………..
Reg. Cert. Nr. & File Nr ............................................................. ………………………………………………………………………
Estimate Damage.......................................................................
………………………………………………………………………..
VI. WHAT DRIVERS WERE DOING:

1 2 (Check appropriate boxes)
1.   Going straight 10.   Backing
2.   Turning right 11.   Evading vehicle
3.   Turning left 12.   Evading pedestrian
4.   Making U-turn 13.   Evading animal
5   Slowing 14.   Evading object
6.   Abrupt stopping 15.   Overtaking
7.   Stopped 16.   Parked
8   Entering parked position 17.   Others (specify).................................
9.   Leaving parked position
VII. WHAT PEDESTRIAN OR ANIMAL WAS DOING

1.  Crossing between intersection 11.  Along roadway outside sidewalk
2.  Crossing at intersection 12.  Along roadway without sidewalk
3.  Crossing upon signal 13.  Standing in safety zone/island
4.  Crossing against signal 14.  Getting on vehicle
5.  No signal 15.  Getting off vehicle
6.  Crossing at pedestrian lane 16.  Evading other vehicle
7.  Crossing without pedestrian lane 17.  Pushing cart/wagon
8.  Coming from behind moving vehicle 18.  Pulling cart/wagon
9.  Coming from parked vehicle 19.  Vending on road
10.  Along roadway on sidewalk 20.  Others (specify).....................................................
VIII. CONDITION OF MOTOR VEHICLE

1 2
1.   No defects noted 9.   Tail lights out
2.   Brakes defective 10.   Brake lights defective
3.   Headlights glaring 11.   Signal lights defective
4.   Both headlights insufficient 12.   Steering mechanism defective
5   Both headlights out 13.   Windshield wipers defective
6.   One headlight insufficient 14.   Defective tires
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CRIM PROF 317
7.   One headlight out 15.   Others (specify).................................
8   Tail light/s insufficient
IX. VIOLATIONS INDICATED:

1 2
1.   Disregarding traffic signs and signals 9.   On wrong side of road
2.   Weaving in-and-out of traffic 10.   No right of way
3.   Exceeding lawful speed 11.   Dangerously loaded
4.   Unsafe passing between intersection 12.   Under the influenced of intoxicants
5   Unsafe passing in hill/curve 13.   No valid driver’s license
6.   Operating defective vehicle 14.   No driver’s license
7.   Failure to signal 15.   Others (specify)..................................
8   Hit-and-run
X. CONDITION OF DRIVER OR PEDESTRIAN:

1 2
1.   Absolutely normal 5.   Had been drinking liquor
2.   Physical defects (eyesight..........) 6.   Was absolutely drunk
3.   Sick or ill 7.   Others (specify)..................................
4.   Apparently sleepy
XI. VISION OBSCURED BY:

1 2
1.   Tress, plants, crops, etc. 6.   Moving vehicle
2.   Building, house, fence, etc. 7.   Its own cargo
3.   Hillcrest, embankment 8.   Rain
4.   Signboards 9.   Falling objects
5.   Parked vehicle 10.   Others (specify)..................................
XII. ROAD CHARACTER, SURFACE: XIV. WEATHER CONDITION, DAYLIGHT CONDITION:

1.  Straight road 1.  Concrete 1.  Fair 1.  Sunny
2.  Curve 2.  Asphalt 2.  Cloudy 2.  Dim (cloudy)
3.  Level road 3.  Gravel 3.  Foggy 3.  Dark-moonlight
4.  Dip 4.  Sand 4.  Stormy 4.  Dark-artificial light good
5.  Hillcrest 5.  Earth 5.  Rainy 5.  Dark-artificial light poor
6.  Upgrade 6.  Coral 6.  Smoky 6.  Darkness
7.  Downgrade 7.  Windy
XIII. ROAD CONDITION, WIDTH, LANES: XIV. POINT OF IMPACT:

1.  No defects noted 1.  Dry 1 2
2.  Lanes marked 2.  Wet 1.   Front end 7.   Front left side
3.  Defective shoulder 3.  Muddy 2.   Right front 8.   Center left side
4.  Loose material on surface 4.  Dusty 3.   Left front 9.   Rear left side
5.  Holes, deep ruts 5.  Under construction 4.   Front right side 10.   Rear end
6.  Opposing lanes separated 6.  Others (specify) 5.   Center right side 11.   Right rear
6.   Rear right side 12.   Left rear
XVI. SKETCH OF ACCIDENT:

(Use separate sheet if necessary and indicate File Number)
INSTRUCTIONS:
1. Number each vehicle and show 3. Show pedestrians or animals by
the direction of travel by arrow.
_______________________ ___________________________
2. Use solid line to show direction before impact. Show North by Arrow.
Dotted lines after impact. ……………….. 4. Draw out roadway in solid lines.
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Conforme: Driver veh 1 ..................................................... Veh 2 .....................................................................
XVII. BRIEF NARRATION:
Sample:
That on or around 1520H June 2020 a Red Hyundai Elantra with plate number TMG225 coming from the direction of Cauayan
City and driven by one “Juan Dela Cruz y Pedro” collided with a black Nissan Terra with plate number ABC 322 coming from the direction
of Rizal Avenue and driven by one “Juanito Miguel y, San Pedro causing damage to both motor vehicles and head injuries on Juanito
Miguel.
(Other facts may be included in this portion)

XVIII. CASUALTY LIST:
legend: K-killed; SI-Serious Injury; SPI-Slight Phy Inj.; D-Driver; Pd-Pedestrian; Ps-Passenger
NAME SYMBOL ADDRESS AGE SEX
HOSPITAL TAKEN
1. ................................................................. ..................................... .................................. ........................
2. ................................................................. ............... ..................... .................................. ........................
3. ................................................................. ............... ..................... .................................. ........................
XIX. WITNESSES: NAME ADDRESS
1. .......................................................................................................................................................................................................
2. .......................................................................................................................................................................................................
XX. ACTION TAKEN: ..............................................................................................................................................................................
XXI.
RECOMMENDATION: ......................................................................................................................................................................
XXII. STATUS OF
CASE: ..........................................................................................................................................................................
XXIII. REPORTED BY: ...............................................................................................................................................................................
XXIV. INSURANCE COVERAGE DATA: Veh 1 Veh 2
Insurance Company and Policy Nr. and Sticker Nr. ........................................................... .........................................................
................................................................................ ............................................................ .........................................................
Certificate of cover Nr. ........................................... .................................................... .........................................................
Date Issued/Period Covered ................................... .................................................... .........................................................
XXV. ENCLOSURES ....................................................... ................................................... .........................................................
XXVI. INVESTIGATED OR PREPARED BY: .................. ............................................................ .........................................................
(Office) (Print name and sign)
LESSON 5.5: HIT-AND-RUN INVESTIGATION
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CRIM PROF 317
The objectives of the investigation of a motor vehicle accident involving the flight of
one of the participants in two fold: responsibility must be determined and the identity of
the driver of the vehicle who fled the scene must be established.
A. Hit-and-run Cases Defined. Evading responsibility is a term commonly applied to a

traffic accident in which a driver fails to comply with any of the duties required by Sec. 55 of
RA 4136.
Drivers can only leave the are of accident if the driver:

1) is imminent danger of being seriously harmed by any person or persons by
reason of the accident;
2) reports the accident to the nearest officers of the law; or
3) driver has to summon a physician or nurse to aid the victim.
B. Reasons of Apprehending and Prosecuting Hit-and-Run Drivers.

1) Injury might have been lessened or death prevented if the driver had promptly
sought help;
2) Compensation of injuries, death or property damage for the victim/s;
3) Deter other would be hit-and-run offenders; and
4) Secures increased public support.
C. Two Important Considerations.

1) The driver who flees is not necessarily the driver responsible for the accident.
His reasons maybe are: he may be wanted for another crime, or intoxicated,
or without a valid license, etc.
2) The suspect may report that his motor vehicle was sideswipe or hit by an
unknown vehicle or to report that his vehicle was stolen.
D. Elements of Hit-and-Run.
1) Suspect driving the vehicle at the time of the accident.
2) Suspect was involved in an accident resulting in death, personal injury or
damage to property.
3) Suspect failed to perform his responsibilities stated in Sec. 55 of R.A. 4136.
4) Suspect had knowledge of the accident. Note the following:
a) Physical evidence may prove the vehicle figured in the accident.
b) Extent of damage to vehicle. Extensive damage to vehicle would preclude
allegation of lack of knowledge and If suspect refrained from using his MV
for several days since the accident.
c) Guard against claims that the vehicle was stolen to evade responsibility.
E. The Hit-and-Run Operator.

1) Categories based upon possible psychological explanations for their
motivation of flight:
a) Apprehensive-panic-drive, fearful driver:
1. intoxicated drivers;
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CRIM PROF 317
2. without license;
3. no insurance;
4. his companion in the car is not his/her mate;
5. stolen car;
6. stolen goods in car;
7. leaving scene of another crime;
8. fleeing crime scene or wanted for crime
b) Projectionist-projects guilt. One who blames the other driver.
c) The sneak operator. This type involves minor property-damage-only
accidents and usually thinks that the accident ca happen to any other driver.
2) Classes of Hit-and-Run Drivers:

a) Drunk drivers.
b) Criminals fleeing from the scene of the crime.
c) Improperly licensed drivers, or drivers with no license or with revoked or
expired license.
d) Drivers who fear publicity and prosecution.
e) Ignorance of the accident.
f) Driver who flees in panic.
g) Drug addicts.
h) Insurance or financial reasons.
i) Juveniles.
F. Preliminary Steps in Hit-and-Run Investigation.

1) Refer to checklist on Accident Investigation.
2) Obtain the best possible descriptions of the car and driver.
a) from partial descriptions given by witnesses.
b) Get the license plate and any unusual features of the vehicle.
c) Concentrate on the car's description first.
d) Dispatch initial description and all subsequent information to the HQs and to
police agencies.
e) Try to determine the damage to the fleeing car.
3) Appeal for information through local newspapers, radio, T.V., etc.
4) Carefully search the hit-and-run scene for physical evidence (debris).
a) Request laboratory study of evidence.
b) Watch out for the possible return of the hit-and-run driver to the scene of the
accident.
5) The Victim
a) Check his clothing; other parts of his body for possible transferred evidence.
b) If the victim is killed, get samples of uncontaminated blood, hair and skin from
him.
c) Collect and preserve for laboratory examination, the clothes, shoes, and other
items he was wearing at the time of the accident.
G. Follow-up Investigation.
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CRIM PROF 317
1) Interview persons living along the route taken by the hit-and-run driver; also
operators of filling stations and garages.
2) Canvass parking lots and other filling stations and garages.
3) Return to the accident scene at the same time on subsequent days and on the same
day of the following weeks to obtain additional witnesses such as delivery men
operating on scheduled routes.
4) Follow-up phone calls to garages and dealers of auto parts.
5) Continue appealing for information through the press, radio and TV.
H. Search for Suspect Car.

1) Look for physical evidence, such as latent fingerprints, pieces of clothing, marks,
damaged parts, hair, blood, etc. which will identify the car as that involved in the hit-
and-run accident.
2) Search the undercarriage of the suspect car. Determine also if there is indication of
disturbance in the grease or dirt adhering to it.
3) Make a careful investigation for replaced parts.
I. Interview of Suspect. When the suspect is apprehended:

1) Obtain a signed statement if you can.
2) Get a full account of suspect's whereabouts and write it down just in case he refutes
in later.
3) Approach and apprehend the driver of the suspect car as soon as his identity and
whereabouts are ascertained.
4) Place the driver in a defensive position by properly directed questions upon
approach
LESSON 5.6: SKIDMARKS: AS A TOOL IN TRAFFIC ACCIDENT INVESTIGATION
Skidmarks. The sudden application of brakes which results in the locked wheel condition
places such a great pressure between the brake shoe and the brake drum that the frictional
force at this point becomes greater than the frictional force between the tire and the road
surface. When this condition exists, the wheels skid.
A. Skidmarks as a Tool in Traffic Accident Investigation.

1) One of the main reasons for studying and measuring skidmarks at the scene of a
traffic accident is to get some idea how fast the car which left these marks was going
prior to the accident.
2) Estimates of speed based on skidmarks sometimes lead to convictions in connection
with an accident. On the other hand, knowing how to estimate speed correctly may
help to keep an innocent person from being convicted.
3) For example, skidmarks 80 feet long were measured at an accident scene. A test
skid made 20 miles per hour showed 20 feet long skidmarks.
4) It was argued in court that with skidmarks 20 feet long from a speed of 20 miles per
hour, the car must be going 80 miles per hour to leave 80 feet skidmarks. The driver
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CRIM PROF 317
was unjustly convicted. His actual speed was more nearly half of that, or 40 miles
per hour.
B. Other Tire Marks.

1) Centrifugal skid mark. A marking on a roadway left by a rotating tire and wheel of
a speeding vehicle on a curve when the speed of the vehicle is above the critical
speed of the curve and the centrifugal force entirely or partially overcomes the
friction between the mass of the vehicle and its tires and the surface of the roadway.
2) Impending skid marks. Marks caused by the forward rotation of the wheels being
slower than the forward movement of the vehicle. The shadowy beginning of a skid
mark along the approach path of the vehicle is the impending skid mark (a.k.a. as
tire shadow marks), while the darker markings are the skid marks which begins in
the impending skid mark and ends at the point of collision or position or final rest.
3) Yawn mark. A scuffmark made while a vehicle is yawning the mark made on the
road by a rotating tire which is slipping in a direction parallel to the axle of the wheel.
4) Skip mark. A braking skid mark interrupted at frequent regular intervals; the skid
mark made by a bouncing wheel on which brakes keep the wheel from turning.
Compare with gap skid.
5) Gap skid. A braking skid mark which is interrupted by release and reapplication of
brakes or which terminates by release of brakes before collision.
C. Other Marks and Impression Left by a Motor Vehicle either on the Road Surface
or on the Other Motor Vehicle.
1) Ruts. A sunken track worn by a wheel, as in road; hence, a groove forming a path
for anything.
2) Gouge. A groove made by a hard part of a motor vehicle to another car after side-
sweeping each other or it may be left on a road surface by a motor vehicle which
over turned then slid on the road surface.
3) Paint Strips. When a vehicle collided with other object, it sometimes transfers its
paint to the other object.
D. Skidmarks as Evidence in Accident Cases.

1) Aid in determining the speed of the car prior to the accident or collision.
2) It will show if the vehicle was traveling in the wrong distance or on the wrong side of
the road.
3) It will indicate if the driver failed to observe the right of way.
4) It will also show if the driver did not obey a traffic signal.
E. Skidmarks Do Not Show All of the Speed. They show only how far the car would
have had to slide to stop in the distance shown by skidmarks.
Evidence of additional speed. A car is somewhat going faster and often faster is
calculated from skidmarks because in addition to losing speed is sliding the distance shown
by the skidmarks, the car losses some of its speed on one or more of the following ways:
1) Sliding with one or more wheels before any skidmarks begin to appear.
2) Braking without skidding.
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CRIM PROF 317
3) Dragging the car as it hits some object.

4) Damaging other cars or objects.
5) Sliding other cars or objects along the way.
6) Vaulting or bouncing up into the air.
F. Estimating the Approximate Speed of MV in Case Skid Mark is Absent. In many

accident of course, other evidence of terrific speed is the WRECKAGE (EXTENT OF
DAMAGE), but there are no skidmarks at all because brakes were not put on hard enough
to lock the wheels. The following guides the investigator:
1) In an accident in which brakes are put on just before contact of vehicles, the
skidmarks maybe only two or three feet long and therefore, show a speed of only five
or six miles per hour. Whereas, the wreckage tells us that the total speed may have
been ten times as great.
2) In accident in which most of the speed is lost in skidding, the speed calculated from
skidmarks may come close to showing how fast the car was actually going.
Accidents involving pedestrians are the most common ones of this kind.
3) In any accident in which great damage was done will skidmarks show more than
small part of the speed, often a very minor part of it; but if the skidmarks have been
rightly identified and measured, it can be said that the car was going faster than the
speed calculated from the skidmarks, much faster if there was considerable damage.
G. Things that Determine Skidding Distance.

1) Speed itself is by far the most important.
2) Slipperiness of the pavement.
3) Grade or slop of the road whether road up or down.
H. Other Factors that Affect the Skidding.

1) Brake Pedal Pressure.
2) Weight of the Car.
3) Tire Thread.
4) Air Pressure.
5) Tire Material.
6) Road Surface.
7) Direction of Slides.
8) Temperature of the Air and the Road Surface.
9) Against Head Wind.
10)Downhill/uphill
I. Speed Estimates. Generally, you do not have to consider those minor factors in
establishing speeds from skidmarks. Because the minor factors are neglected, we can not
calculate speeds precisely. We only estimate them. Some of the minor factors would tend
to give a higher speed and others a lower speed, and they would partly balance or cancel
out.
Sometimes all of the factors tend to give a high estimated speed. In this connection,
the skidmarks do not show all of the speed and therefore, the probable actual speed is still
greater than your estimate.
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CRIM PROF 317
J. Facts Needed.
1) Length of Skidmark.
a) Be sure they are skidmarks - not just tire marks.
b) Did all wheels slide or just some of them? It makes little difference if tire is
sliding forward or sidewise.
c) Are there any gaps in the skidmarks? Be sure there are gaps caused by a
release of brake pedal pressure and not skids caused by bounced.
d) What is the length of each skidmarks around any curves; it may not make
straight from beginning to the end in the shortest line. You may want to
consider two separate lengths for each Skid mark. One of these is based on
the part of the Skid mark you can positively identify. It gives you speed which
will be minimum beyond reasonable doubt. The others is a possible Skid
mark which will give you a more likely speed. The first is all you can use in
court, the second is often much useful in figuring out just what did happen in
the accident.
e) Use the length that the wheel skids, not the tire skid. Dual tires which leave
two marks are considered as one wheel, and the skid mark length is counted
if either tire on the wheel leaves this mark.
f) There are two ways of figuring the length of a slide if all on the same kind of
pavement. These are:
1. Straight Line. A slide is considered straight if both rear-wheel
skidmarks do not go off to one side of the front wheel skidmarks.
a. Use the length of the longest Skid mark left by any wheel minus
gaps in it. This method is possible because all wheels slide
about the same distance.
b. If one wheel does not slide as far as the others, still it was about
to slide when the others began. The drag on the pavement by
this wheel is about the same just before it begins to slide as
when it is actually sliding. It may even be greater.
c. Therefore, we are usually safe in saying that all wheels are
dragging as much as if there were sliding wheel skid applies to
motorcycles, trucks, truck and trailer combinations, and buses
as well as ordinary motor vehicles.
2) Spin. A slide is considered a spin if both rear wheel skidmarks do get off to one side
of the front wheel skidmarks.
a. Take the length of each skidmarks minus gaps. Add the Skid mark length for
all wheels and divide the numbers of wheels.
b. This method is necessary in the case of the spins, because some of the
wheels slid much farther than others; that is, one end of the car may
practically stand still while the other sweeps around it.
c. Use this method only when there is about the same weight on front and rear
wheels; that is usually for ordinary cars, motorcycles, and light trucks with
trailers or heavily loaded trucks having duel tires on the rear wheels. Uneven
weight with a spin is a situation which requires special calculations.
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CRIM PROF 317
d. These methods gives you a figure for the sliding distance of the vehicle. It is
not necessary to compute it more accurately than to the nearest foot. For this
length you may have two figures, one a positive distance and one a possible
distance.
g) Unfortunately, many investigations are carelessly made. For example,

investigators may:
1. Fail to show whether all wheel slid.
2. Fail to include in the sliding distance a skid shown by a shadow as well
as that more clearly shown by the smear of the hot tire.
3. Neglect to note whether they are gaps in any of the skidmarks.
4. Show only an overall length without separate measurements for each
wheel. This usually includes the wheel base of the car with the result
that the sliding distance appears to be length longer than it really is.
5. Fail to note whether the skidmarks are straight or a spin.
6. Measure straight across from beginning to the end of a curve
skidmarks rather than around its length.
h) If the facts are not all there, assumptions should have to be made about the
distance the car slid. For legal purposes, you may assume only what may be
true beyond reasonable doubt. Hence, poor observations and measurements
often leave you little value to go on.
i) Nevertheless, reasonable assumptions regarding conditions which more
definitely observed in investigations may be very helpful in coming to a
conclusion about what probably happened.
2. Coefficient of Friction or Drag Factor. It is the measurement of the maximum

frictional resistance of pavements. It is equal to the force exerted when the wheels are
skidding divided by the weight of the car.
Slipperiness of surface must also be known in order to calculate speeds from
skidmarks. We tell what this slipperiness by a number, usually decimal less than 1.00.
When any object is sliding, the surface it slid on puts a friction drag on sliding tire that slows
the car. A slippery movement creates a small friction drag and an abrasive pavement a big
drag. If we divide the amount of friction drag in pounds by the weight of the car in pounds,
we get the number that describes the slipperiness.
a. Principle of Computation. For example, the drag of the pavement on the sliding tires of
an automobile is 3,000 lbs.. The automobile weights 4,000 lbs.. The number representing
the slipperiness of the pavement, or its friction drag, is then 3,000 divided by 4,000 or 0.75.
1. This slipperiness number is called technically the “COEFFICIENT OF FRICTION.”
You can measure the drag factor of a pavement by making a test skid which tells
how far a car slides on that pavement while stopping from a known speed.
2. If we let "S" stand for the speed in miles per hour from which the test skid is made
and "D" the distance in feet that car slides in coming to stop, then the drag factor,
which we call "F", the formula will be:
F = S2
30(D)
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CRIM PROF 317
3. The "30" is the formula because speed is given in miles per hour and the distance in
feet (transformation of feet per second to miles per hour) and it is constant.
4. Thus, to find slipperiness number, F, we multiply this speed by itself and then divided
by 30 times the stopping distance. You do not need to carry the division out more
than two places to the right of the decimal point.
b. Applying the Principle. On a test to measure pavement slipperiness, a car was stopped
in 40 ft. from 30 miles per hour.
1. Substituting these numbers for the letters, we will have:
S2 302 900
F = ---- = ----- = ------ = 0.75
30D 30(40) 1,200
2. It is very important that the test skids to measure pavement slipperiness be correctly
made. You are unlikely to do it right without special instruction or experience.
3. At least two skids are desirable. Compute the slipperiness separately for each.
Unless these are within 0.05 each other friction calculated from any of several test
skids made on the same paving. This is necessary if you want to be sure beyond
reasonable doubt of calculated speeds.
4. Test skids using the same car that was in the accident are the best.
3. Grade or slope (Gradient). It refers to the degree of inclination either uphill or downhill.
a) It is measured usually by less than 1.00. The measure of the grade is the number of
the feet that the road rises or falls for each feet of the horizontal distance.
b) To find it, divide the vertical rise or fall by the horizontal distance.
horizontal distance
f = ----------------------
vertical rise or fall
4. Reaction Time. This is the distance traveled before applying the brakes. It is computed
by:
a. Divide seconds in an hour (3,600) into feet in a mile (5,280) = 1,467.
b. To determine distance you will travel in one second, multiply 1.467 (1.47 or 1.50)
times the speed at which you are traveling.
c. Time to get foot off the accelerator and slam it on the brake is 3/4 of a second on the
average. The age of the driver should be considered.
d. X speed = length in feet covered before brake works for you.
5. Brake Tests.
a. In most states (US), a vehicle traveling at 20 mph must stop within the following
minimum distances:
1. Two-wheel brakes-foot pedal: vehicle should stop within 45 ft.
2. Four-wheel brakes-foot pedal: vehicle should stop within 30 ft.
3. Hand brakes: vehicle should stop within 75 ft.
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b. Brake tests should not be conducted when the road surface is wet.
c. Use of Decelerometer. These are devices which hold their readings and indicate on
a clocklike face braking efficiency of the car being tested.
K. Procedure Followed by the Philippine National Police (PNP).
1. The officer submits as evidence in a case the measurements of the skidmarks and the
Court interprets the facts in the light of other evidence.
a. Some courts require the assistance of an expert.
b. Measurements should be accomplished by two men.
c. Sketches and photographs with measurements indicated should be made soon after
the accident.
2. Some police departments have their officers skid a vehicle to a stop from the legal
speed limit, if this can be done safely, and compare the skidmarks with those in the
accident.
3. Some would draw conclusions from tests based on physical calculation.
4. Measurement of Skidmarks.
a. Should meet legal standards. Officers measuring the skidmarks and the distances to
embankment or other fixed constructions should verify each other's measurements.
b. Evidence should be presented to show that the skidmarks were made by the suspect
car.
c. Witnesses should testify in court.
L. Basic Principles in Calculating Speeds from Skid marks.
1. Energy and vehicle speed. An automobile moving at any speed possesses energy. As
the speed of the vehicle increases, the resulting energy developed is said to increase as
the square of the ratio of the increase in speed. Examples:
20 kph = 40 30 kph = 90 40 kph = 160
2. Stopping a Motor Vehicle. Whenever a moving vehicle is stopped, the energy which it
possesses at that time must be expended or spent. It is only when most or all of the
vehicle's energy is expended through skidding of tires that a fairly accurate calculation may
be made of the vehicle's speed before the accident.
3. Test Runs. It is often necessary to conduct one or more test runs, using the vehicle
involved in the accident or, if it cannot be driven, another vehicle of similar characteristics
may be used.
a. Conditions should be the same as those existing when the accident occurred (road,
weather).
b. Conduct tests on the same road surface and in the same direction.
c. The vehicle's speedometer should be checked.
d. A speed consistent with safety, such as 20 or 30 miles per hour, should be selected.
e. Brakes should be applied suddenly and as hard as possible.
f. The length of each skid mark should be measured.
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g. If a brake detonator is available, the total braking distance should be accurately

determined using such equipment, either mechanically or electrically operated.
h. Generally, it is advisable to conduct two or three tests at the selected speed. The
longest braking distance, that which favors the defendant most, is generally used in
the calculation.
i. It may be advisable to have the driver of the accidents vehicle drive the car in the
test runs.
M. Speed Calculation. When a vehicle is stopped solely by skidding, it is possible to

calculate the speed of the vehicle at the beginning of the skid by using the formula based
on the principle that the skidding or braking distances vary as the square of the speed.
1. Formulas Used in Finding Speed Estimates.
a. S = 5.5  DF= (speed on a level road)

b. S = 5.5  DF (+/- f) = (up or downhill)
S2
c. D = -------- = skidmarks
30F
S2
d. F = --------- = Drag Factor
30D
2. Where: S = speed (mph); F = coefficient of friction (drag factor); f = grade (1,2,4) or

super elevation; D = distance (feet)
2. When accident vehicle cannot be driven. When the vehicle is damaged so badly that
it cannot be driven, part of the vehicle's energy is expended in damaging the car and the
object struck.
1) A calculation of speed from skidmarks left under these circumstances gives a speed
based only on the amount of energy expended in the skidding.
2) Consequently, the resulting speed value may be considerably less than the actual
pre-accident speed, since it is not possible to determine how much farther the
vehicle would have skidded had there been no collision.
N. Sample Problems. A driver of a Toyota Tamaraw FX while traversing down along

Marcos Highway suddenly steps on the brake when a young boy ran across the vehicle’s
path. In the process, the vehicle skidded before hitting the boy. When the skid mark was
measured, it yield 55 ft. long markings. Applying the formulas for speed calculations, find
for the approximate speed of the Toyota Tamaraw FX before it skidded if: 1) the skid mark
of the motor vehicle when tested at 30 mph is 35 ft. and 2) the vertical fall of the highway is
1.5 ft.. The solution will be:
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1. Compute first for the Drag Factor. Use the figures used during the test skid:
S2 302 900
F = ----- = ------- = ----- = .86
30 (D) 30 (35ft) 1050
2. Calculate for the gradient because the highway is down hill:
horizontal distance 1 ft.

f = -------------------- = ------- = .67
vertical fall 1.5 ft.
3. Compute the speed by using the formula for downhill.
S = 5.5.  DF (+f)
4. Substitute the figures:
S = 5.5.  (55ftx.86)+ .67
S = 5.5.  47.3 + .67
S = 5.5.  47.97
S = 5.5 (6.93)
S = 38.12 mph
MODULE 5
PROGRESS CHECK 5.1
Choose the best answer of the following questions. Encircle the
letter of your choice.
1. Which of the following is not included in the objectives of
conducting road check?
a. Checking of faulty vehicle equipment or accessories
b. Checking registration and licensing violations
c. Checking of contraband like illegal drugs and firearms
d. Determining intoxicated drivers
2. The objective of an officer in the principles of officer-
violator relations is to:
a. Establish pleasant relationship
b. Apprehend the violator
c. Enforce the traffic law violated
d. Issue traffic citation ticker or temporary operator’s
permit.
e. All of these
3. Pursuit operation is conducted when the driver is:
a. Unaware that he violated a traffic law
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b. Not aware that he violated a traffic law and fails to

stop when signaled to do so
c. Committed a very serious traffic violation
d. Sideswiped a pedestrian and killing the victim instantly.
4. In dealing with the violator, be business-like means:
a. You offer product to the violator
b. You ask for a money from the violator in exchange of his
non-apprehension
c. Secretly ask bribe from the violator
d. Communicating with the violator in the polities manner
5. When stopping a violator, what should NOT be done:
a. Blow your horn and sound your siren so he will stop
promptly.
b. Ask him to pull-over on the shoulder or the outermost
portion of the traffic way.
c. Consider whether you are parked safely and not
obstructing other motorist.
d. Consider your safety, the safety of other, and the safety
of the stopped violator.
6. In identification of motor vehicles using the itemized
features, sedan refers to:
a. Make
b. Model
c. Body type
d. Outstanding feature
7. Which of the following is NOT an example of hazardous
violations?
a. Damaged car headlights
b. Driving while under the influence of liquor
c. Reckless driving
d. Driving on excessive speed
8. When a driver violated any of any of the provisions of RA
4136, in exchange of his confiscated license, he should be
issued with:
a. TOP
b. TVR
c. TCT
d. Any of these
9. When a driver violated any of the provisions along the
Maharlika highway in Santiago City for violation of a
provisions of RA 4136, you should ask him to report to:
a. RTAS
b. TMG
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c. Prosecutor’s Office
d. LTO-TAS
10. Violators of traffic ordinance in Manila are advised to
report to:
a. LTO-TAS
b. WPD-TMD
c. Traffic Court
d. Prosecutor’s Office
11. Any violator when cited, are advised to report to the
appropriate office:
a. Within 24 hours but nor more than 72 hours
b. Within 72 hours but not less than 24 hours
c. Within 72 hours but not more than 24 hours
d. Within 3 days or 72 hours
12. If a violator appears after 15 days, his license is:
a. Forwarded to the LTO or nearest LTO regional office for
suspension or revocation.
b. His license is kept and he will be asked to pay for the
fine
c. Kept at the police office and the officer in charge will
ask the violator to pay for the corresponding penalty.
d. Subjected to suspension or revocation if he pleads
guilty.
13. Which of the following refers to the enforcement action
which does not contemplate possible assessment of penalty by
the court?
a. Arrest
b. Citation
c. Warning
d. Any of these
14. In requesting for the driver’s license and/or vehicle
registration certificate, the following should be observed,
EXCEPT:
a. Never accept anything other than the driver’s license.
b. Do not out your head or arms in the car windows.
c. Have the driver hand the requested papers to your outside
the window.
d. Do not return the driver’s license and vehicle
registration certificate until you are about to terminate
the interview.
15. One of the following is not one of the goals of traffic
enforcement activities:
a. To increase safety level
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b. To increase traffic efficiency

c. To ensure harmonious and comfortable environment
d. To increase compensation of public utility vehicles
PROGRESS CHECK 5.2.

Choose the best answer of the following questions. Encircle the
letter of your choice.
1. Traffic officers are only needed to direct and guide traffic
when traffic signal lights are not functioning. This is:
a. True along heavily traveled thoroughfares
b. Absolutely false
c. True in Urban centers
d. Not true in highly travelled thoroughfares
2. While approaching an intersection with the green light on, a
traffic officer suddenly stands in the middle of the
intersection and starts directing traffic. The officer with
his right hand pointed to you and signals you to stop. What
should you do?
a. Ignore the traffic light and follow the instruction of
the traffic officer.
b. Ignore the traffic officer and proceed with caution
c. Do not stop until the traffic officer blows his whistle.
d. Ignore the traffic officer, however proceed with caution.
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3. When two police traffic officers are manning and directing

traffic in an intersection, what should be observed?
a. The two of them should make coordinated decisions.
b. The two of them should make separate decisions
c. Only one should be directing he flow of traffic.
d. Only one makes the decision while the other takes his
from the officer making the decision.
4. When using a whistle, how will you blow your whistle when
stopping a lane of motor vehicles?
a. Two long blow
b. Two short snappy
c. One long blow
d. Three short blasts
e. All of these
5. When directing and guiding traffic during night time and the
light is sufficient.
a. Work as in day time
b. Use flashlight to designate your decisions
c. Use reflectorized vest and gloves
d. Use whistle.
6. When directing traffic night time and you need to use whistle,
how will you sound your whistle if you are about to stop a
lane of motor vehicles?
a. Two long blow
b. Two short snappy
c. One long blow
d. Three short blasts
e. All of these
7. To stop a moving lane, point at the car you intend to stop and
give the driver the opportunity to stop. This statement is:
a. True only during normal conditions
b. Not applicable during emergency cases
c. True only when directing traffic at night time.
d. True under all types of conditions.
8. The space occupied by two streets at the point where they
cross each other is referred to as:
a. Intersection
b. Space crossing
c. Crossing
d. Cross space
9. When you are assigned to direct traffic, you are expected to
indicate to the drivers and pedestrians to-
a. To stop and go at a particular time.
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b. How, when and where they may move

c. Your decisions as the traffic officer
d. Your communication through hand signals
10. Traffic officers who are tasked to direct traffic should
do it:
a. In the right side of the intersection so that he will not
be sideswiped.
b. In the left side of the intersection so that he can
adjust to the situation.
c. Either on the left or right side of the intersection so
that he can adjust to the situation.
d. In the center of the intersection.
PROGRESS CHECK 5.3.

your choice.
1. A type of traffic patrol where it is conducted at a certain

route or point of a major street in a City.
a. Area patrol
b. Line patrol
c. Stationary observation
d. Combination of A and B
2. What is the type of stationary observation where the observer is in
full view but so located, at a side street, so as to require effort
on the part of traffic users to discover the observer?
a. Conspicuous
b. Concealed
c. Visible
d. Covered
3. What is the type of stationary observation where the observer is not
visible to persons using ordinary power of observation?
a. Conspicuous
b. Concealed
c. Visible
d. Covered
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4. To ensure a deterrent effect of traffic patrolling, which of the

following should NOT be done.
a. Be sure you are seen by other motorists
b. Be in full view while patrolling/inspecting moving vehicles.
c. Spend more time where motorists or drivers fail to be aware of
their common bad driving habits.
d. Delay enforcement actions against habitual violators.
5. There is a need to be alert for potentially hazardous drivers
because of the following, except:
a. Their actions are illegal
b. You can avoid possible accident
c. They may be intoxicated of liquor or drug.
d. They may be running away from criminal act.
6. Traffic patrol officers are considered the eyes and ears of their
department because:
a. They have great ability in seeing and listening to violations.
b. Of the information they gathered from their daily
undertakings.
c. They can easily detect violations
d. Of their special training in detecting traffic violations.
7. Familiarization of the road and street networks of your assignment
is necessary because of the following, except:
a. You may be able to know where you can avail of free lunch and
snacks.
b. You can determine when to escape in cases of unusual
incidents.
c. You can determine where possible traffic congestion
d. You can determine where traffic violations usually occur.
8. When working with another unit and you are following a bunch of
motor vehicles in a traffic way, the other unit should overtake the
bunch of vehicles while your unit must:
a. Overtake also so you can support the other unit
b. Overtake and stay in the middle of the vehicle caravan.
c. Turn back, anyway the other unit can observe the vehicle
caravan.
d. Bring up the rear of the group vehicles
9. A vehicle is said to be abandoned when it is left-
a. Unattended in an area provided for parking for one day.
b. Unattended in an area not provided for parking while the
engine is running.
c. Unattended for 1 or 2 days in an area provided for parking.
d. Attended in an area not provided for parking or attended for
two or more days in area provided for parking.
10. When you notice stalled or bogged down motor vehicle, what
should not be done?
a. Ignore then continue patrolling since it’s your primary job.
b. Check the defect or condition of the motor vehicle.
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c. Ensure the safety or motor vehicles traversing in the area.

d. If practicable, help push the motor vehicle to the road
shoulder.
PROGRESS CHECK 5.4.

your choice.
1. As a traffic investigator, what is the immediate action to be
undertaken at the scene?
a. Check for casualties
b. Check for hazards
c. Interview witnesses
d. Call for assistance
2. Which of the following is most likely true:
a. The job of the investigator end at the accident scene.
b. The job of the investigator ends after he leaves the accident
scene.
c. The success of traffic accident investigation depends mostly
on the desire of the investigator.
d. The job of the investigator starts from the time the accident
is reported until the case goes to court, if ever.
3. Any circumstances contributing to a result without which the result
could not have occurred, an element which is necessary to produce
the result, but not by itself sufficient is known as:
a. Cause
b. Factor
c. Primary cause
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d. Attribute
e. modifier
4. In the chain of events, injury usually occurs after stopping. This
statement is:
a. False
b. True
c. Vague
d. Absolutely true
5. Taking of short-live evidence includes, except:
a. Making test-skid.
b. Examinations of drivers’ condition
c. Checking data on licenses and vehicles registration
d. Determining the position and condition of vehicles
6. A misnomer loosely applied to the most obvious or easily explained
factor in the cause of an accident or the most easily modified
conditions factor is:
a. Cause
b. Factor
c. Primary cause
d. Attribute
e. Modifier.
7. The combination of simultaneous and sequential factors without any
one of which result could not have occured is:
a. Cause
b. Factor
c. Primary cause
d. Attribute
e. Modifier
8. Any inherent characteristics of a road, a vehicle, or a person that
affects the probability of a traffic accident is referred to as:
a. Cause
b. Factor
c. Primary cause
d. Attribute
e. modifier
9. A circumstance that alters an attribute permanently or temporarily
is known as:
a. Cause
b. Factor
c. Primary cause
d. Attribute
e. modifier
10. The speed adjusted to the potential or possible hazards or the
road and traffic situation ahead and usually determined by the road
rather than the particular driver of a vehicle is:
a. Speed limit
b. Minimum limit
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c. Allowable limit
d. Safe speed
11. The place and time of which the hazard could have been
perceived by a normal person. It precedes actual perception and is
the beginning of perception delay. This event is known as:
a. Point of possible perception
b. Perception delay
c. Perception of hazard
d. Actual perception point
e. None of the above
12. Any action taken by the traffic unit to avoid hazardous
situations like steering, braking, accelerating to avoid collision
or other accident is known as:
a. Strategy
b. Technique
c. Tactic
d. Evasion
13. The adjusting speed, position on the road, and direction of
motion, giving signals of intent to turn or slow,or any other action
in situation involving hazards is known as:
a. Strategy
b. Technique
c. Tactic
d. evasion
14. While driving towards the accident scene, what should NOT be
done:
a. Consider obstructions on approach
b. Ignoring oncoming persons and motor vehicles
c. Ascertaining possible situation at the scene
d. Noting hazards to approaching traffic
15. Damage to a vehicle resulting from direct pressure of some
foreign object in a collision or roll over. It is usually indicated
by striations, rub-off material or puncture. This is known as:
a. Impact
b. Contact damage
c. Wreckage
d. Maximum damage
Essay:
1. Discuss comprehensively the five levels of traffic investigation
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CRIM PROF 317
PROGRESS CHECK 5.4.

your choice.
1. Which of the following best describes hit-and-run accidents?
a. Driver leaving the area of accident because he is in imminent
danger.
b. Driver fleeing the area of accident to evade responsibility.
c. After hitting someone on the highway, the driver leaves and
reported to the police.
d. After sideswiping a pedestrian, the driver fled to seek
assistance of a physician.
2. When a driver flees from accident area, always, he is evading
responsibility. This statement is:
a. True
b. False
c. Vague
d. Doubtful
3. SPO1 Tabukol responded to an accident scene. Upon arrival, the
victim is already lifeless and the witness told him that the suspect
could nowhere to be found. SPO1Juan should consider that the suspect
left the area because the suspect:
a. Reported to the nearest police station
b. Looked for medical assistance
c. Was in imminent danger
d. He might be wanted for another crime.
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4. The investigator of hit-and-run cases should prove that:

a. The victim was killed during the accident
b. The suspect was driving the suspect vehicle
c. The suspect is wanted for another crime.
d. The suspect is either intoxicated with drugs or unlicensed
5. Which of the following is NOT and example of apprehensive panic
drivers?
a. Intoxicated drivers
b. Without license
c. Stolen goods in the car
d. Ignorance of the accident
6. When Physically examining the body of the victim of hit-and-run
accident, consider the following, except:
a. His clothing
b. Other parts of the body
c. His internal organs to possibly determine the cause of death.
d. The marks, grease or paint chips.
7. During the follow-up investigation on hit-and-run cases, why the
investigator should return to the accident scene.
a. To have a vivid look of the accident scene
b. To appeal to the TV or radio programs
c. To canvass garages in the area.
d. To obtain additional witnesses such as delivery men operating
on scheduled routes
8. The objective of motor vehicle accident investigation involving the
flight of one of the participants is two-fold. First, to determine
who is responsible for the collision, and the second is to:
a. Identify the driver of the vehicle who fled
b. To apprehend the involved drivers
c. To file necessary charges against the responsible driver.
d. To identify the victim in the accident.
9. Which of the following is not included in the legal requirements for
a driver who is involved in an accident?
a. Stopping
b. Giving aid
c. Identifying himself to proper authority
d. Seeking assistance of physician
10. The following are reasons why hit-and-run accidents should be
investigated, except:
a. Ensuring harmonious and comfortable environment
b. Lessening injury or preventing death
c. Victims will be appropriately compensated
d. Deterrence to other drivers who are inclined to evade
responsibility in case they are involved in an accident.

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Activity:
1. A Nissan Terra while traversing along a level surface of Cauayan City suddenly
stopped when a young girl ran across the vehicle’s path. In the process, the
vehicle skidded before hitting the girl. When the skid mark was measured, the
result is 50 ft. Applying the formulas for speed calculations, find for the
approximate speed of the car before it skidded if: the skid ark when tested at 20
mph is 25 ft.
8. Assessment Task.
Quiz
Recitation
9. References.
 Criminal Investigation Manual Revised 2011 (PNPM-DIDM-DS-9-1). Retrieved on

June 20, 2020 from: http://www.pnp.gov.ph/index.php/memorandums/didm-manuals
with Practical Driving. Third Edition. Wiseman’s Book Trading, Inc. Quezon City
Chapter 6. Practical Driving
2. Introduction:
This chapter discusses Practical Driving concepts and tips. Driving is now included in
the most recent B.S. Criminology Curriculum as per Commission on Higher Education
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Memorandum (CMO) Number 05, series of 2018. For this module, Practical Driving is used
in reference to concepts and tips that could be easily understood and applied by B.S.
Criminology students.

Lesson 6.1 – Car Familiarization
Lesson 6.2 – Basics of Driving
Lesson 6.3 – Defensive Driving

1) Discuss Practical Driving concepts and tips
2) Perform the actual driving of any kind of vehicle.
3) Perform actual trouble shooting of vehicle
4. Leaning Content:
Lesson 6.1: CAR FAMILIARIZATION
Car Defined. A car is a motor vehicle with a room for a small number of passengers.
(Car in Collins Online Dictionary, n.d.). It also refers to an automobile which is wheeled
motor vehicle used for transportation (Car in Wikipedia, n.d).
Rationale. In today’s motorized society, owning a motor vehicle or a car is no longer

a matter of luxury but a matter of necessity. Hence, many earning individuals and
professionals are buying their own vehicle- from motorcycles to automobiles.
There are numerous driving schools but some opt to practice driving through the help of
their relatives, friends, and/or colleagues. Some may be hesitant to lend their motor vehicle
for practice driving purposes because of the risks of incurring mechanical and engine
defects own their vehicles.
It is also observe in many government and non-government companies where
unwarranted early car failures were experienced because some of their personnel are using
their company car for practice driving. Same is observe in some law enforcement
agencies. It is in the reason that B.S Criminology students and other aspiring professionals
should learn skills in driving by enrolling in legitimate driving schools.
There are also instances that unwarranted motor vehicle defects occur because of
unfamiliarity with the parts and accessories of motor vehicles and the operating system of a
motor vehicle such as the electrical system, and the braking system. For traffic law
enforcers, familiarity with car parts and accessories could enable them to properly describe
what part of motor vehicle is damaged in cases of motor vehicle accidents. They may also
give them practical knowledge on how to assist motorist who are unexpectedly stocked in
the middle of a roadway.
A. External parts and Accessories.

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Definition and Description of each part or accessory. Some part not labelled are also
defined and described particularly those parts and accessories that should be known by a
driver. The definitions are based mostly from Macmillan Online Dictionary (n.d), unless the
reference is specified. Some of the definition and descriptions are from the author’s
concept. Other parts are no longer defined or described because they can be self-
explained.
a. Bull bar- a frame of strong metal bars around the front of a car or truck, used for
protecting it if there is an accident.
b. Bumper- a long thin bar of metal or plastic attached to the front or back of a
vehicle, designed to protect it I it hits anything.
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c. Chassis- the frame and wheels of a vehicle which is located under the motor
vehicle.
d. Exhaust pipe- used to direct the flow of exhaust gas and smoke coming from the
engine.
e. Fender- it covers or protects the area around the wheel.
f. Gas cap or fuel tank cap- the cover that fits on the hole where the fuel is placed.
g. Grill- a metal screen in front serving as air vent to help cool down the engine.
h. Hood- it covers the engine that can be raised. The British word is bonnet.
i. Hubcap of center cap- a metal cover for the central part of a wheel on a car.
j. License plate- a plate containing letters and numbers attached on the back an d
front of a car, that shows its official number and the region (state) where it was
licensed.
k. Luggage rack (top load rack) - a metal frame fix on the roof of a car, used for
carrying large objects, bicycles etc. British word is roof rack
l. Mudguard (mudflap) – a piece of metal, plastic, or rubber over or behind a wheel
of a vehicle that stops dirt from the road from hitting the vehicle.
m. Muffler- a piece of equipment attached to the exhaust pipe to make the sound of
the engine quieter. The British word is silencer.
n. Panel- a piece of shaped metal that form part of the body of a vehicle.
o. Roof- the top outer part of a vehicle.
p. Roof box- a large hard container that fits on the roof of a car.
q. Running board- a step outside the door of a vehicle, especially on an old car.
r. Side view mirror (side mirror)- a mirror on the side of a car to enable the drivers
see anything or activity on the side and/or rear of the vehicle.
s. Spoiler- part on the back of a race car that keeps it on the ground at high speeds.
Sometimes attached to ordinary cars as decoration.
t. Stabilizer- a part on the vehicle or machine that keeps it steady or in the correct
position.
u. Sunroof- part of the roof of a car that can be opened
v. Tailgate (tailboard) – a door at the back of a van or truck that opens downward.
w. Tail light- light of different colors attached at the back to guide other motorist and
road users on the actions or intentions of a driver.
x. Tail pipe- the pipe at back of a motor vehicle that takes waste gases out of the
engine.
y. Tow bar- a metal bar on the back of a vehicle used for towing another vehicle.
z. Trunk- the covered space at the back of a car, used for carrying things in.
aa. Wheelbase- the distance between the front and back wheels of a vehicle
bb. Windshield 9wind screen)- the large glass window at the front of a vehicle the
British word is windscreen.
cc. Windshield wiper- a long thin piece of equipment that moves across a vehicle’s
windshield in order to wipe the rain (or water) of it.
Internal Parts and Accessories. For clarity, some of the external parts and accessories of
a car or motor vehicle are defined below.
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1. Side defroster outlets

2. Side vents
3. Instrument cluster
4. Center vents
5. Electric moon roof switches
6. Personal lights
7. Power door lock switches
8. Power window switches
9. Glove box
10. Portable ashtray
11. Rear console box
12. Cup holders
13. Power outlet
14. Parking brake lever
15. Automatic transmission selector lever
or manual transmission gear shift lever
16. Hood lock release lever
17. Window lock switch
1. Headlight, turn signal and front fog light switches

2. Wiper and washer switches
3. Emergency flasher switch
4. Car audio
5. Clock
6. Front passenger’s seat belt reminder light
7. Rear window defogger switch
8. Auxiliary boxes
9. Power outlet or cigarette lighter
10. Air conditioning controls
11. Ignition switch
12. Cruise control switch
13. Tilt steering lock release lever
14. Interior/instrument panel light control dial
15. Power rear view mirror control switches
16. Toyota vehicle intrusion protection
system indicator light
Drivers compartment parts and accessories.

a. Turn signal lever and Headlight switch- the turn signal lever is used when either
turning right or left. Aside from turning on the headlight, the headlight switch is also
used as “passing light” by pulling upward the lever. The headlight switch also
enables the driver to place in “high (bright)”or “low (dim)”the headlight.
b. Multi-information display- the panel behind the steering wheel which shows the
various indicators such as the fuel tank indicator, temperature gauge, speed meter
and odometer, and engine revolution per minute (RPM).
c. Meters (Speedometer, Temperature gauge, Fuel tank indicator, etc. )
1. Fuel level meter- it shows the actual content of the fuel tank.
2. Odometer- it shows the total distance travelled.
3. Speedometer- it shows the actual velocity or speed of the vehicle at the moment.
4. Temperature gauge- it shows the temperature of the engine
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5. RPM meter- it shows the speed of revolution of the engine.

d. Windshield wiper and washer switch
e. Emergency flasher switch- the emergency flasher is used to inform other motorist
that you are on emergency such as when bringing a critical patient to the hospital.
f. Audio display
g. Hood luck release lever- it is used to unlock the engine hood.
h. Tilt and telescopic steering control lever- it is used to unjust the inclination of the
steering wheel
i. Brake pedal
j. Engine switch (keyhole)- it is also used to lock and unlock the steering wheel.
k. Accelerator pedal- it is used to increase or decrease the amount of injected fuel.
l. Engine switch (push button)
m. Parking brake (hand brake handle)
n. Shift lever
o. Air-conditioning system/switch.
2. Other important interior parts and accessories
a. clutch pedal (for manual transmission) – it disengages the clutch disc and
the pressure plate to facilitate smooth shifting of gears.
b. steering wheel- it is used to control the direction of the motor vehicle.
Major Operating System of a Motor Vehicle. Better operation or driving a motor vehicle is
attained when the operator or driver understands the major operation systems of a motor
vehicle. Failure to properly maintain the different operating system of the vehicle usually
shortens the life-expectancy of the motor vehicle particularly the engine.
1. Lubrication system. It consists of the oil pump and other hoses used to distribute
engine oil to different internal parts of the engine to reduce friction. Once this system
malfunctioned, it may cause mechanical deterioration of the moving parts such as the
piston rings and engine valves. It also causes overheating of the engine.
2. Cooling system. It consists of the radiator, water pump, cooling fan hoses and
passages (ducts) in the engine block and heads. The water absorbs the heat while passing
through the ducts. Failure of this system also causes overheating of the engine.
3. Electrical system. It consists of the car battery, alternator, voltage regulator,
starter, and the distributor (in cases of gasoline-fed motor vehicles.) failure of the electrical
system affects the life-expectancy of the car’s battery, and in cases of gasoline-fed motor
vehicle, it affects complete combustion of the gasoline by spark plugs. Worst, it may cause
accidental burning of a motor vehicle due to short circuiting.
4. Brake system. It is designed to slow down or to stop a motor vehicle. It consists
of the hydrovac, brake fluid cup and brake fluid line. In front wheels, brake discs and braked
pads are usually used. In rear wheels, brake drums and brakes shoes are used.
5. Intake system. It allows the engine to inhale the oxygen which is vital in the
complete combustion of the fuel. The intake system is composed of the intake manifold, air
filter, throttle, and air passageway. Some used turbocharge to reflow the exhausted air,
other used supercharge or a pumped to increase the amount of air passing through the
intake system. For gasoline-fed engines, the carburetor could be a vital element in the
intake system because the carburettor mixes the gasoline with the incoming air. Failure of
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the intake system causes incomplete burning of combustion resulting to weaker engine
power and black or grayish smoke coming out from the exhaust tail pipe.
6. Exhaust system. It aides in the free flowing of exhausted air out of the engine. It
starts from the exhaust manifold and ending of the exhaust tail pipe. The muffler is also a
vital element of the exhaust system because it reduces noise. Defects in the exhaust
system may contribute to the overheating of vehicle due to the smothering of exhaust
heated and air smoke.
A motor vehicle driver needs to be conscientious on the various operating system or
mechanism of a motor vehicle enable him preserve the life-expectancy of the engine and
the motor vehicle. Thorough knowledge on the various operating systems will also help the
driver to detect possible malfunctioning of the vehicle while on operation therefore pre-
empting any accident. It is also recommended that drivers should not only be skilled in
operating the vehicle but also to troubleshoot basic vehicle malfunctioning.
Lesson 6.2: BASICS OF DRIVING
Driving Defined. Driving is the act of controlling and directing the speed and
travelling of a motor vehicle. It could be also understood as the directing and controlling a
motor vehicle towards the desired way or action. In RA 4136, the person, driver is defined
as a person operating a motor vehicle.
Rationale. Driving or operating a motor vehicle entails a psycho-motor skill. Psychological

skill because it involves familiarization of the various mechanisms of a vehicle to attain
smooth driving. It is also psychological because a driver must think like the motor vehicle. In
a way, the driver and motor vehicle acts in unison. It is a motor skill because there must be
coordination among the various body parts involve in operating a motor vehicle such as the
entire lower extremities and the upper extremities.
In addition, psychomotor skills, driving also includes perceptual skills. Perceptual skills
involve the ability of the driver to observe occurrences in and around the motor vehicle as
wheel as the ability to foresee the traffic situation and traffic hazards.
Like in any other activities involving skills, development of driving skills is starts from the
basics. The basics of driving involve the proper holding of the steering wheel, proper control
of the accelerator, brake and clutch pedals, proper and timely shifting of gears, appropriate
using of the various lights and signals of a motor vehicle, and correct utilization of the other
gadgets and accessories of a motor vehicle.
Since driving is a skill, all the actions in driving should be done repeatedly until it will be
embedded in the body system of a driver. Hence, in practice, the driving instructor should
instruct the student driver to repeatedly perform the actions until it will become
spontaneously done.
For this book, the context of driving as discussed is based in countries which use left-hand
driving like the Philippines. In left hand driving, the steering wheel is located in the left side
and the shifting lever is on the right side or the left side is the driver side and the right side
is the passenger side.
A. Before Boarding and or Starting a Motor Vehicle. A driver must always visually
inspect the motor vehicle at its surrounding before embarking. Looks for any hazards
under the car, in front, or at the rear. In addition a driver must consider the old reliable
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BLOWBAG principle. This principle is usually useful to avoid sudden motor vehicle
breakdown and accident particularly when preparing for a long road trip.
1. Battery. The battery is important for gasoline-fed engines because it supplies

the electric power to the spark plugs which burn the fuel. In diesel-fed
engines, the electric current coming from the battery will not affect the engine
while running as long as the electric alternator and voltage regulators are
properly functioning.
a. Open the hood or in some other cars, the battery is located somewhere
inside the motor vehicle.
b. Check the battery liquid (juice) if using a battery that needs to be
frequently maintained. This is not applicable to maintenance-free batteries
which are common today.
c. Check also if the battery clamp or holder is tight to avoid movement of the
battery out of its place.
d. Checks also the battery clamp terminals (connectors) if they are tight.
Loose battery connections often times cause discharging of the battery
power and worse, it may cause sparking. See also the terminals I corroded
or if covered with hardened acids.
e. Upon switching the engine, check also the battery indicator in the panel
display which shows a possible malfunctioning of the voltage regulator
and/or the electric alternator. Malfunctioning of the voltage regulator and/or
the electric alternator causes discharging of the battery.
2. Lights. This include the headlight, the signal lights, fog lights, the tail lights,
and the plate number lights. The headlight is very significant when driving in
the dark to enable the driver see the road and for him to be seen by others.
Like the other lights, the headlights are also used to communicate with other
motorists and road users.
a. Check if there are broken glass or plastic covers 9housing) of the
lights, crack on covers may cause sipping of rain waters. Once the
housing of the light is filled with water, it causes busting of light and
it may also cause short-circuiting.
b. Look for possible busted or malfunctioning lights by switching on all
light switches and walk around the motor vehicle.
c. It is practical also to keep in the car, reserve light bulbs and
electrical fuses (capacitors).
3. Oil. The lubrication ensures the optimizing the engine power by reducing
friction of the moving parts inside the engine. Regular oil charging is a must to
lengthen the life of the engine. For routine practice---
a. Check always the oil gauge in the engine by pulling out the oil
engine stick. Wipe with cloth or tissue paper then reinsert the oil
gauge stick. Pull out again and read the oil level if still within the
limit. This practice is necessary when using older cars.
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b. If the oil gauge is below the minimum limit, add engine oil which
should be the same quality as with the oil that is already filled
during the last changing of oil.
c. Inside the motor vehicle, switch on the engine, and check for the oil
warning light in the display panel.
d. If necessary, keep reserve engine oil inside the car.
4. Water. The cooling system is also vital to the life of the engine. The radiator is
usually located in front of the engine especially rear-drive motor vehicles.
a. Open the radiator cap and check whether the water level is up to
the brim.
b. If up to the brim, then the cooling system is functioning well. Add
water if necessary. Newer cars have a separate coolant container.
c. If there is a separate coolant container, check also the level of the
coolant, and add coolant if necessary.
5. Brakes. The braking system is another vital system of a car. Proper
functioning of this system is necessary. The brake fluid container is located
inside the hood near the engine. Other cars have their brake fluid container
inside the motor vehicle.
a. Check the brake fluid level if it within the minimum limit. Add brake
fluid if necessary.
b. Upon start of the engine, push the brake pedal. Pump the pedal at
least twice.
c. Push the brake pedal up to the limit. If it suddenly loosens, there is
something wrong in the brake system.
6. Air. The air pressure is in the tire is not as vital as the other operational
systems of the motor vehicle. However, insufficient or excessive air pressure
of the tires may endanger the lives of the driver and its passengers.
a. Walk around and check all the tires. See if there are any flat tires or
seemingly lack of air.
b. If the driver has a portable or handy air pressure gauge, check the
gauge by thru the air valve heads of the tires. Tire pressures vary
depending on the types and motor vehicle weight. Usually the
required tire pressures are provided by the motor vehicle
manufacturers and such required tire pressures are marked on the
interior of driver side door. For the maximum tire load, it is marked
on the tire itself.
c. Aside from the air pressure, check also for possible damages on
the tires and any other object under the car which may cut or
puncture the tires.
7. Gas. Motor vehicle breakdown due to lack of fuel will not only cause delay. It
may also cause engine damages once the motor suddenly stops while on
high speed movement. Upon starting the engine, check the fuel gauge display
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in the panel display. Other cars have digital travel distance left corresponding
to the present amount of fuel in the tank.
B. Before Starting the Engine. A driver must always ensure his safety and convenience
in driving before starting the car’s engine. He should---
1) Fastens his/her seatbelt for safety purposes.
2) Adjust his/her seat enable him/her reach the clutch, brake, and accelerator pedals,
and to fit with his/her driving convenience.
3) Adjust the rear and side mirrors to have complete view of the rear and sides of the
motor vehicle.
4) Adjust or tilt the steering wheel if necessary.
5) Look around if possible hazards like motor vehicles or persons who suddenly park or
stand at the rear.
C. Starting the Engine. Safety is always the concern of a driver, hence, when starting the
engine, a driver must---
1) step on the brake pedal with the right foot to ensure that the motor vehicle will not
move forward or backward.
2) ensure that the hand brake or parking brake is pulled up.
3) fully press the clutch pedal with the left foot and hold on the shifting lever to check if
the gear is in NEUTRAL position. In case of automatic transmission (AT) motor
vehicles, place the shift to gear to either PART or NEUTRAL position.
4) slightly step on the accelerator pedal in starting the engine. Twist for a moment the
key to start the engine. Some vehicles are equipped with push button starting switch.
Once the engine started, immediately get off your hands from the key. In cases of
diesel engines, twist the key to switch on the “heater” before switching on the engine.
5) allow the engine thru the oil pump, to distribute lubrication inside the engine before
slightly revving.
D. Moving the Motor Vehicle. The driver must smoothly move the vehicle and sudden
jumping of the motor vehicle must be avoided. Hence the driver should---
1) not rev on the start of the engine. In case of diesel engines, allow the engine to heat
up before start moving the car.
2) fully press the clutch pedal to disengage before shifting the gear in NUMBER 1
position or first gear.
3) slowly rev the accelerator pedal while slowly releasing the clutch pedal until driver
will feel vibrations in the engine indicating that the clutch disc and pressure plate
slowly engage. Abrupt releasing of the clutch pedal will cause jumping movement of
the motor vehicle. Steps 1 to 3 should be repeatedly done by a student driver until
he/she masters the smooth starting movement of the vehicle.
4) not fully rev up the vehicle after the first gear unless the engine is already heater (for
diesel) and/or the engine is already running for few minutes ensuring the complete
distribution of engine oil.
5) scan the front and rear areas of the motor vehicle if there are any other road users
around who could be affected by his/her movement.
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6) switch on the turning light when moving in a roadway and/or blow the horn to signal
other motorists of his of her intention to move in.
E. The Steering Wheel. The steering is considered as one of the most significant parts of a
motor vehicles because it is the main part used in directing and controlling the path of the
motor vehicle.
Proper hand positioning is necessary. The olden times, the 10 o’clock (left hand) and
2 o’clock (right hand) positions were advisable. Today, such hand positioning is still
applicable but no longer mandatory particularly on motor vehicles having smaller steering
wheels and with air bags in the center of the steering wheels. Correct hand positioning and
steering wheel control should be done by the following tips of the National Highway Traffic
Safety Administration (NHTSA) in the United States (Using Efficient Steering Techniques,
n.d.).
1) Both hands should be outside (left and right sides) of the steering wheel.
2) Gripping should be firm but gentle.
3) Fingers should be gripping the steering wheel, not the palm.
4) Keeping the thumbs up on the face of the steering wheel.
5) It is not advisable to turn the steering wheel from the inside of the rim of the steering
wheel.
Further, NHTSA recommends three (3) types of steering method to enable a driver
safely and conveniently turn a motor vehicle (Using Efficient Steering Techniques, n.d.).
1. Hand to hand Steering: (commonly called push/pull steering)
a. Hand position: left hand between 7 and 8 o’clock, and right hand between 4
and 5 o’clock.
b. Turning right: the left hand pushes the wheel up and the right hand slides up,
grasps the wheel and pulls down to turn. While the right hand moves down,
the left hand slides back towards its original position to make adjustments as
needed.
c. Turning left: the right hand pushes the wheel up and the left hand slides up,
grasps the wheel and pulls down to turn. While the left hand moves down, the
right hand slides back towards its original position to make adjustments as
needed.
d. In pushing up and down the steering wheel, proper hand positions: between
11 & 8 o’clock with the left hand and between 1 and 8 o’clock with the right
hand.
2. Hand-over-hand Steering: Applicable when the turning at low speeds with limited
visibility at an intersection or when parking the vehicle or recovering from a skid.
a. Hand positions: left hand between 8 and 9 o’clock and right hand between 3
and 4 o’clock.
b. Used the right top third of the steering wheel to move the wheel to the right
and use the left top third of the wheel to move the wheel to the left.
c. Turning right: left hand pushes up, while the right hands lets go, reaches
across the other arm, grasps the wheel and pulls the wheel up, over and
down as appropriate. As the wheel is being pulled up, the left hand releases
the wheels and returns to its original position.
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d. Turing left: right hand pushes up, while the left hand lets go, reaches across
the other arm, grasps the wheel and pulls the wheel up, over and down as
appropriate. As the wheel is being pulled up, the right hand releases the
wheel and returns to its original position.
3. One Hand Steering: this is used when backing or while operating or manipulating or
adjusting vehicle controls like wipers, flashers, lights, etc. that require a reach from
the steering wheel. This method of steering is critical to vehicle balance, steering
reversals, and potential injury.
a. Hand position when reaching for an operating control: between 8 and 9
o’clock or 3 and 4 o’clock depending on steering will design.
b. Hand position when backing: 12 o’clock is recommended to the left or right
and the driver has to turn his head in order to see the path of travel to the
rear.
c. When turning right while backing, the steering wheel is also turned to the
right.
d. When turning left while backing, the steering wheel is also turned to the left.
F. The Pedals. Controlling the pressure of applied on the pedal controls is dependent on
how tight or loose the pedals. In new vehicles, pressure applied is usually light and foot
movement is slow. On the other hand, some old vehicles have very tight pedals, hence foot
pressure is greater or stronger.
1. Accelerator pedal. In slow speed movement, the pedal is usually slightly pressed
at approximately 1000 rpm to 1200 rpm. When travelling at higher speed, the revving
is greater but should not be more than 2500 rpm (ideal).
2. The Clutch Pedal. As earlier stated, when the clutch pedal is fully pushed down, it
disengages the clutch disc and the pressure plate, thus enable smooth changing of
gears.
a. generally, pushing down the clutch pedal should be quick and completely pushed
downward.
b. the speed releasing the clutch pedal is slow when shifting gear from first to second
gear to third gear, the release of the clutch is a little bit faster than when shifting from
first gear to second gear.
c. the releasing is also slowly when adjusting the speed from fast to slow such as from
fourth to third gear to avoid sudden engagement of the clutch disc and the pressure
plate. Such abrupt engagement of the clutch disc and the pressure plate causes
struggling of the engine and transmission because the spinning speed of the engine
does not match the spinning movement of the transmission. Eventually, when this
always happens, it will contribute to the early wearing out of the engine, and the
gears in the transmission.
d. Shifting from 3rd to 4th or 4th to 5th, the releasing of the clutch pedal should be very
quick when traversing on flat and downhill roads.
e. Releasing the clutch pedal should also be slow when shifting from a high gear to a
lower gear such as from 5 th to 4th, 4th to 3rd, and 3rd to 2nd. In shifting back to low gear,
the driver should slightly press the brake pedal to slow down the spinning (or
revolution per minute (rpm)) of the engine to avoid struggling of the engine. The
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struggling is caused by the discrepancy of the rpm of the engine and the gears in the
transmission.
f. The clutch pedal is always completely pressed whenever the motor vehicle comes
into complete stop to avoid sudden shutting off of the engine.
3. The Brake Pedal. Similar with the other control pedals, the pressure of pushing down
the brake pedal is dependent on the tightness of the pedal.
a. Reducing speed: the movement of pushing the brake pedal should be slowly and not
full-pressing depending of the desired speed of the motor vehicle.
b. Complete stopping: It should be fully-pushed downward but the movement of
pushing the brake pedal should be slowly unless there is an immediate risk of
collision.
c. In some older motor vehicles, particularly those still equipped with manual braking
system, pushing the brake pedal is sometimes done twice or more until the brake
functions.
d. In reducing the speed by stepping on the brake pedal, once the engine and
transmission struggle (it can be detected by vibration from the engine), fully pushed
the clutch pedal to avoid sudden shutting off of the engine.
G. Shifting Gears. Shifting of gears entails coordinated and simulated actions and
movements of the hand controlling the shifting lever, the left foot in pressing the clutch
pedal, and the right foot in releasing and pushing back the accelerator pedal. In addition,
the remaining hand should firmly grip the steering wheel.
H. Lights and Signals. While driving, controlling the switches of lights and signals cannot
be avoided. Like is shifting gears, there are body movements that are simultaneously and
coordinately done. Usually, one hand is left gripping the steering wheel, while the other
hand is controlling or adjusting lights and/or signal switches ( refer to One-hand Steering
Method).
I. Other Accessories. In driving, controlling the switches of other accessories such as the
car air-condition, the audio or visual gadgets and other interior accessories cannot be
avoided. This also involves body movements that are simultaneously and coordinately
done. Usually, one hand is left gripping the steering wheel, while the other hand is
controlling or adjusting switches of accessories and/or gadgets (refer also to One-hand
Steering Method).
J. Backing or Reverse Movement. Backing the motor is more difficult than moving
forward. Moving forward involves coordinated and simulated movement of the head, eyes,
feet and hands. Safe and convenient backing may be done through the following.
1. Apply the one-hand steering method when the driver needs to turn his/her head to
have better view of the rear.
2. Apply the two-hand steering method when backing is done with the aid of the
sideview and rearview mirrors.
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3. While backing, control of the clutch and accelerator pedals are similar to when
starting to move the motor vehicle from NEUTRAL GEAR to FIRST GEAR. In this
case, the clutch pedal is usually half-pressed as well as the accelerator pedal.
K. Driving on Uphill Roads. Driving uphill is similar to driving in flat roadways. The
difficulty arises when the driver stops while going up on ascending portions of highways.
Stopping is more frequent in traffic congested areas. Failure of the driver to control the
clutch and accelerator and the brake pedal may cause accidental backing of the motor
vehicle which may cause collision to any motor vehicle, pedestrian or object at the rear.
Following are some of the tips for safer and more convenient uphill driving.
1. Similar to when starting to move a motor vehicle. The difference is that when driving
uphill, greater revving is necessary to enable the engine gain power.
2. Quickly release the clutch pedal up to the point that the clutch disc engages with the
pressure plate while on the 1 st gear and while stepping on the brake (for some, the
hand brake is used to avoid backward movement of the motor vehicle). Continue
pressing the clutch pedal while slowly revving the accelerator. Once the motor starts
to move forward, slowly release the clutch and slowly increase the pressure on the
accelerator.
3. In shifting to higher gear such as from 1 st to 2nd, 2nd to 3rd, 3rd to 4th, and/or 4th to 5th,
Increase the revving and shift gear once the engine has already gained enough
power for the next higher gear.
4. If the engine struggles after shifting to a higher gear, rev up. But if the engine still
struggles which is the driver feels vibration of the engine, shift back to the lower
gear. Rev up again and shift to a higher gear once the engine gains power.
5. While on high speed and the engine starts to lost power, shift to lower gear.
6. The releasing of the clutch pedal in shifting to higher gear should be a little quicker
than when shifting from 1st to 2nd gear. Immediate releasing of the clutch pedal is
done when shifting to higher gears such as from 2 nd to 3rd, 3rd to 4th, and /or 4th to 5th.
L. Driving on Downhill Roads. In driving downhills, the gear is usually in higher speed
which is 3rd gear and above. The choice of the gear is however dependent on the degree of
descending and the load of the motor vehicle.
1. Check the brakes before an approach to descending areas and slow down in
preparation to shifting to low gear.
2. For a safer driving particularly when the descending is very steep, use engine break.
That is -use low gear, either 1 st or 2nd gear and do not push the accelerator pedal.
Engine break is also done when the vehicle is fully loaded even if the descending in
not too steep.
3. If the road is safe and no other hazards in the highway shift to higher gear.
4. From time to time, apply pressure on the brake pedal to control the speed of the
motor vehicle.
5. There are instances that revving up is not necessary. The engine automatically revs
up depending on the speed of forward movement of the motor vehicle.
M. Driving on Bumpy and Dilapidated Roads. Use low gears when there are so many
road bumps and holes on the roadway. As deeper holes or higher bumps are encountered,
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if necessary, come to a full stop and start again from 1 st gear. In releasing the pedal and
revving up, apply the same method as in when starting to move a motor vehicle.
1. Speed bumps are usually installed in school zones, churches, private roads, and
heavily populated areas. Speed bumps are designed to slow down motor vehicles
the lowest possible speed for the safety of pedestrians and other road users. On
approach, the driver should slow down and come to a full stop before the front
wheels touch the bumps. Control the speed before the motor vehicle similar to when
starting to move a car from 1 st gear. Full stop again once the driver feels that the rear
wheels touch the bumps. Start again from 1 st gear and apply the same methods In
starting a car from 1st gear.
2. Speed humps are lower than bumps and are less steep. Speed humps are designed
to slow down motor vehicles. On approach, press the brake to reduce speed then
change to lower gear like from 3rd to 2nd. It is not necessary to come to full stop. It is
enough to reduce the speed in such a way that it will not cause jumping of the
wheels. Speed humps are most common in public roadways.
N. Stopping the Motor Vehicle and Switching Off the Engine. Improper stopping and
switching off the engine may also cause wearing of the car engine and other moving parts
inside the transmission. The following are the correct stopping and shutting off the engine.
1. In stopping the motor vehicle to park or come to rest, push the brake pedal.
2. Before it will totally stop, completely push also the clutch pedal to avoid erroneous
shutting off the engine.
3. Finally switch off the engine by twisting back the key.
4. In flat terrains or roads, while still pressing the clutch and brake pedals, position the
shifting lever to any gear. Release the clutch pedal before releasing the brake pedal
and pulling up the hand brake.
5. In downhill roads, while still pressing the clutch and brake pedals, position the
shifting lever to reverse gear. Turn the front wheels toward the curb. Release the
clutch pedal before releasing the brake pedal and pulling up the hand brake.
6. In uphill roads, while still pressing the clutch and brake pedals, position the shifting
lever to any forward gear. Turn the front wheels away from the curb. Without curb,
turn the wheels towards the edge of the road. Release the clutch pedal before
releasing the brake pedal and pulling up the hand brake.
7. For automatic transmissions, shift the gear to “PARK” position.
O. Common Errors in Driving in Relation to the Operation of the Motor Vehicle. There
are individuals who unknowingly commit errors in while operating a motor vehicle. It could
be a product of wrong training in driving or it could be a result of trial and error while driving.
The following are some of the common errors in driving.
1. Keeping the foot on the clutch pedal – This will cause immediate wearing out of the
clutch disc.
2. Skipping the first gear – Instead of starting from 1 st gear, some drivers start from 2 nd
or 3rd gear. This could be done when driving downhill and the motor vehicle is slightly
moving but not when in flat terrain, on uphill, or when the motor vehicle is in
complete stopped position. This error causes struggling of the engine which may
eventually affect the lifespan of the engine.
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3. Skipping gears – The normal and proper shifting of gear is gradually done such as 1 st
to 2nd, 2nd to 3rd, 3rd to 4th and 4th to 5th. However, there are some who change gear by
skipping gears such as 1st to 3rd or 2nd to 4th or 3rd to 5th. This error also causes
struggling of the engine.
4. Overusing of the engine break – This error causes wearing out of the engine. It is
better to use a higher gear and from time to time pressing the brake pedal to control
the speed of the motor vehicle and wearing the brake pads and brakes shoes rather
than wearing the engine.
5. Riding on the Brake Pedal – This may be safer going downhill but it may easily burn
the brake pads and brake shoes. Excessive heating may cause sudden burning of
the rubber tires.
6. Untimely Shifting to Reverse Gear – Drivers who need to make a U-turn in narrow
areas such as maneuvering their cars. Hence, many times, they are forced to shift to
reverse gear while the motor vehicle is still moving forward. This error may cause
wearing out of gears, and even the differential.
7. Resting on the Shifting Lever of Stick – This will cause pressure on the shift collar
which may cause early wearing of the shifting gears.
8. Under-inflation of Tires – Lack of air in the tire causes the entire exterior surface of
the tire engages the road surface creating higher friction. Increase friction increases
the wearing out of the tires. Lack of air also causes flexing or the outer side of the
tires while the center surface flattens against the road. The flexing of the outer side
will eventually result to tire failure (cracking of the rubber) and such tire failure may
cause tire blowout.
9. Overusing of Low Gears on Uphill – There are drivers who fear that their vehicles
may not be able to climb so they tend to keep moving in low gear. Prolonged low
gear driving does not only consume more fuel but it also places excessed torque in
the engine while in low speed. Thus, causing overheating of the engine. Frequent
overheating may eventually damage the engine.
10. Misusing the Car Air-conditioning System. Unlike large motor vehicles, smaller
vehicles have no separate motor or engine for their air conditioning system. The air
conditioning motor relies on the engine with a pump belt. Hence, when the air
conditioning is switched on, it gives more burden on the engine so greater revving is
necessary. Except for the greater fuel consumption, there is not much a problem
occur when driving uphill in low gear while the air conditioning system is switched on.
It gives more torque on the engine resulting to engine overheating.
11. Excessive Use of the Clutch and Accelerator In Controlling the Speed on Uphill –
One safe way to drive uphill during bumper to bumper traffic condition is to control
the movement of the vehicle through balancing the pressure on the clutch and
accelerator pedal.
a. To stop the motor vehicle, slightly push the clutch pedal until the clutch disc
and pressure plate engage.
b. While the left foot is on half-clutch position, the accelerator pedal should be
pressed until the motor vehicle does not move. Keeping these feet positions
will keep the motor vehicle from moving.
c. To start slow movement, slightly release the clutch pedal while slowly adding
pressure on the accelerator.
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CRIM PROF 317
d. Repeat the same actions once the motor vehicle in front stops and again
slowly moves.
e. However, prolonged controlling the stopping and slow movement of the motor
vehicle through this clutch-accelerator technique burns the clutch disc. If the
burning is severe, the clutch disc will eventually slide.
Lesson 6.3: DEFENSIVE DRIVING
Defensive driving is the “driving to save lives and money, in spite of the conditions
around you and the actions of others”. It is also understood as the “driving manner that
utilizes safe driving strategies to enables motorists to address identified hazards in a
predictable manner. These strategies go well beyond instruction on basic laws and
procedures” (What is Defensing Driving, n.d.).
Rationale. Operating a motor vehicle is a risky activity. Risks exposures of drivers

include health-related risks due to inhalation of toxic gases and smoke. The worst risk is the
possible accidental loss of lives, limbs and properties.
Health-related risks can be reduced or prevented by the state-of-the-art gadgets as
masks, refining of fuels, and more recently the introduction of alternative energies to power
vehicles. Example of vehicles powered motor vehicles. Those alternative energies are
virtually zero in carbon emissions.
The second risk in driving which is possibility of involvement with accidents, is more
difficult to totally prevent because of the multi-causes of accidents. However, of the
identified causes of accidents, human errors or human factors attribute for more than 90%
of all the causes of accidents. Hence, accidents can be reduced into tolerable level through
defensive driving training.
A. Defensive Driving Tips. The emphasis of any defensive driving approaches and
strategies is on driving safely. For this author, safe driving can be attained by
conscientiously observing the following tips. For easier recalling, the acronym DEFENSIVE
is used.
1. D – Decrease speed upon perceiving potential hazards. In traffic accidents, hazards

are not limited to dangerous physical objects in the traffic way and road conditions.
Hazards in traffic are generated by negligent or imprudent behaviors of road users.
Hence, all pedestrians, motorists, animals, commuters (passengers), and other road
users are considered potential hazards. Listed below are examples of the potential
hazards.
a. Any person walking or standing along the sidewalk. There are instances that persons
walking or standing on sidewalks suddenly run across the street.
b. Playing children near the road or beside roadways, those playing children may
suddenly run across the streets.
c. A rolling ball on the road could be develop into hazard if suddenly a child will come
running towards the ball.
d. Public utility vehicles (PUV) which are unloading passengers. Some passengers who
have just disembarked from the PUV quickly cross the street.
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e. Any motor vehicle or pedestrian encroaching on your driving lane.

2. E – Ensure your personal safety and safety of your passengers. Drivers are legally
and morally bound to ensure his/her passengers not only his/her own safety. Hence,
a driver must do the following safety tips for his/her passengers.
a. Remind his/her passengers to exercise utmost care in embarking and disembarking.
b. Not allow hitching at the back of his/her car or on the running board, and riding on
top of the vehicle.
c. Audibly tell his/her passengers not to immediately cross the street after
disembarking.
d. Tell at once to anyone not to bring out in the window any part of their body.
3. F – Fasten seatbelts. Many lives are lost because of the failure to fasten seatbelts.
The driver must at all times fasten his/her seatbelts regardless of the distance to be
travelled. He/she must also his/her passengers to fasten their seatbelts if there are
any.
4. E – Expect that other motorists and road users will commit mistakes. The core of any
defensive driving principle is the anticipation of any negligence or imprudence by
other drivers and other road users. It is normal. Some may unintentionally or
unconsciously or may be intentionally commit error while driving. Regardless of the
reason of such error, a driver must always anticipate those misbehaviors of others so
he/she could immediately react. Misbehaviors of drivers and other roads users
include but not limited to the following enumeration.
a. Beating the yellow or red light
b. Anticipating the green light
c. Overtaking in a no overtaking zone
d. Miscalculating a road curve or bend
e. Going beyond the speed limit
f. Improper overtaking or passing
g. Sudden backward movement on uphill road particularly in a congested area
h. Failure to yield the right of way
i. Improper use of headlight and other signal lights
j. Improper parking
k. Jaywalkers
l. Abrupt running to cross a street
m. Disembarking in no loading areas
5. N – Never beat the yellow and/or red light. Commonly, people say “do not beat the
red light”. However, beating both the yellow and red light is correct. It is beating the
red light because a driver or a pedestrian accelerates before the yellow light turns to
red. On the other hand, may road users accelerate their speed once the yellow light
is on before it turns to red. Hence, beating the yellow light is also correct.
6. S – Start the day with a prayer. This could not be the first statement among this list
of defensive driving techniques but it is actually the first to be done by any traveler,
whether on wheels or on foot. Divine guidance is still the best antidote for every
misdeed in the highway.
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CRIM PROF 317
7. I – Increase speed if another motor vehicle is in the risked of hitting the rear of your
car. There are times that some drivers anticipate the green light, that is – start
moving even the light is still red. There are also drivers who accelerates in the
intersection after a vehicle passed across his/her path placing a risk of angular front
to rear collision. To avoid accident and as a defensive driver, he/she must increase
his/her speed so that his/her vehicle’s rear will not be hit by the speeding vehicle
coming from an angular direction.
8. V – Veer direction away from vehicles encroaching your lane. As earlier mentioned,
some drivers may intentionally or unintentionally overtake in a very risky manner. As
a defense, a driver should veer away or change direction away from the overtaking
motor vehicle. Reducing speed is also recommendable so as to give chance for the
overtaking driver to get back to his/her lane.
9. E – Establish the 2-second rule (3-second rule for others). Tailgating is a risky
driving behavior unless a driver is preparing to overtake a motor vehicle. Normally, it
takes a driver at least 1.5 seconds to react and final come to a complete stop from
the moment he/she perceive that the motor vehicle in front suddenly stops.
To check whether the distance is at least 2 seconds away, a driver will use any
fix object as a reference point. Once the vehicle in front reaches the point adjacent to
the fix object, the driver behind will start counting 1001, 1002, 1003 and so on until
the latter also reaches the point adjacent to the reference fix object. If the counting is
2 seconds and more, then the distance between the two vehicles is safe.
B. Additional DO’s and DON’T’s related to defensive driving.

1. Plan the trip and the route to be taken. This is critical particularly when going for a
long road trip. For shorter travels, a driver could avoid sudden swerving or turning
toward another road/street. Sufficient sleep and rest is also vital particularly
before going out for long trips. Sleepy or dozing drivers is one of the most
common factors leading to accidents.
2. Learn to be far-sighted. A defensive driver must be able to perceive what is going
on beyond the motor vehicle in front as well as beyond the vehicle right behind
the rear. Misbehavior by the driver of the motor vehicle in front may be because
of the negligent act of another driver far in front.
3. Frequent scanning the surrounding area. Learn to scan the rear, front and the
sides of the motor vehicle. Many times, some motorists, especially motorcycle
riders, take the appropriate evasive action, a driver should from time to time, look
at the side mirrors and the rearview mirrors. Frequent moving of the eyes may
also help alert a driver, thus preventing dozing while driving.
4. Take a rest or nap when drowsy, Resisting drowsiness is very dangerous
because it affects one’s reflexes and alertness. Look for a safe place to park the
vehicle so as drowsy driver may rest and sleep before continuing to drive.
5. Always bring Early Warning Devices (EWD). Motor vehicle malfunctioning may
occur the least it is expected. Having ready early warning devices inside the car
could help in avoiding accidents when the vehicle is stalled particularly in risky
areas of a highway.
6. Do not insist right of way. Accidents occur when a motor vehicle encroaches the
right of way of another vehicle and when the driver who has the right of way
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insists his/her right. Example of this is when a vehicle and the affected driver on
the opposite direction does not give way, collision is likely to occur.
7. Do not take alcoholic beverages hours before operating a motor vehicle. It is
proven that intoxication of alcohol affects the reflexes and the alertness of a
driver.
8. Misusing the horn. The horn is use to communicate with other road users such as
warning pedestrians that your are approaching, expressing gratitude to those
who yielded the way, and telling a road user to pass ahead. Misuse of the horn
may cause accident and it is also annoying. Some of the don’ts is using the horn
are listed below.
a. Blowing the horn on pedestrians crossing on a crosswalk unless the
crosswalk Is controlled by a traffic signal light. The pedestrians are priority
in any crosswalk.
b. Lengthy blowing of the horn when another motorist committed misbehavior
in the road. The negligent driver may just be rattled causing him/her to
commit further error that lead to accident. In addition, lengthy blowing of
the horn may indicate anger and could irritate the erring driving which may
erupt into fight between the two drivers.
c. Continuous blowing of the horn to inform the motorist in front which failed
to immediately move forward after the traffic light turned to green. This can
also irritate the affected motorist causing him/her to retaliate or be rattled
causing him to abruptly move forward.
9. Switching the headlight in bright position to warn an overtaking vehicle coming
from opposite direction. As defense, consider the following whenever wrong
overtaking of oncoming motor vehicles happens.
a. Miscalculations in overtaking is one of the most common mistakes
committed by motorists. A driver affected by such miscalculated overtaking
may later commit the same error.
b. Switching on the headlight in bright or in high position is tantamount to
shouting at the negligent driver. It may only irritate the erring driver which
may cause him/her to retaliate by switching also his headlight in bright
position.
c. Better to reduce speed, or come to complete stop, or change direction to
give the overtaking driver sufficient space to return back to his/her lane.
10. Racing with pedestrians along crosswalks. There are some drivers while
approaching a crosswalk, they try to beat the pedestrians to pass across the
crosswalk lines. Such act may rattle the pedestrians who are about to cross and
they might run also to beat the passing vehicle. For defense, reduce speed
before approaching a crosswalk and prepare for any misdeeds by pedestrians.
Remember, not only drivers who have the tendency to “beat the red light”.
Pedestrians too have the same tendency.
11. Using electronic gadgets while driving. Even with the presence of anti-distracted
driving law, many drivers, by reason of habit, are still using their mobile phones
while driving. Other are also distracted by resetting their car stereo or GPS Travel
equipment.
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CRIM PROF 317
Lesson 6.4: BASIC TROUBLESHOOTING
Most of us have been driving cars since we were in our teens. For many, it’s almost
impossible to imagine living without a car. In a way, they epitomize a part of our lives. But
like many things, cars can fail us every once in a while.
10 Basic Car Repairs everyone should know:
1. Changing oil.
You need to regularly check and change your car’s oil to ensure smooth running of
the vehicle and to prolong the lifespan of its engine. Changing your car’s oil is one of the
most fundamental DIY skills you should have for car maintenance or repair. Of course, it’s a
different story if the oil filter and oil drain plug of your car are very hard to reach.
Basic steps involve draining the oil by removing the oil drain plug, unscrewing the oil
filter and emptying it, putting the oil filter and drain plug back, removing the oil filler hole
cap, and pouring fresh oil.
2. Changing a flat tire.
There’s a reason “wheels” is slang for car. It’s because the tires are one of the most
important parts of your vehicle. And they can go flat on you every once in a while. But
changing a flat tire doesn’t have to be a big deal and could actually be a lifesaving skill to
learn.
Basic steps involve loosening the lug nuts (with a wrench), using a jack stand to lift
the car off the ground, removing the lug nuts (and subsequently the tire), placing the spare
tire on, wrenching the lug nuts back on, lowering the car, and finally making sure the lug
nuts are tight. Simple.
3. Changing spark plugs.
Most of us know what spark plugs are and what they do. They are the tiny devices
inside the cylinder that create sparks to ignite the gasoline, ultimately powering your
vehicle. But they do wear out every 10,000 miles or so.
The steps include: locating your spark plugs, removing the spark plug wire, removing
the faulty spark plug, inserting the new spark plug in its place, and putting the wire back.
You’re done! Make sure to watch a tutorial before you do it yourself.
4. Removing scratches from paint.
Scratches are the absolute worst. Even the tiniest scratches are visible from a
distance and can kill the overall appearance of your metal monster. Unfortunately, it may
cost you thousands to get them removed in a body shop. But you can save the money and
the frustration with a simple DIY job.
The steps include: determining the depth of the scratch, lightly sanding the scratch,
cleaning the area, applying rubbing compound, polishing the area with the rubbing
compound, washing the area, and finally waxing the area to seal the repair. You’ve just
saved yourself a lot of money.
5. Changing a car battery.
Car batteries tend to die on us at the most inconvenient times. If you’re in the middle
of nowhere, your best bet would be to find roadside assistance and/or call a tow truck. But if
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you’re home and your battery shows signs that it might need replacement, the DIY
replacement method is quite easy.
The steps include: removing any covers from the battery, disconnecting the negative
cables, moving the clamp away from the battery post, doing the same for the positive cable
clamp, removing all screws, replacing the old battery with the new one, and finally
reconnecting the cable clamps. Make sure you label the cables before you remove them.
6. Replacing a headlight or taillight.
Having a broken headlight or taillight is not only inconvenient, but is actually illegal.
Consequently, you need to change them as soon as they begin to fade. But why waste
money on a mechanic when the DIY replacement is so easy?
The process involves: removing the screws connecting the headlight frame to the
bracket, disconnecting the electrical connector, removing the faulty bulb and replacing it
with a new one, plugging the connector back on, and finally replacing the frame.
Sometimes only your frame might be broken, which can be just as hazardous. You can
change it following the same procedure.
7. Replacing wipers.
Windshield wipers are one of the least-appreciated parts of your car’s safety system.
Imagine what would happen if they failed on you during a heavy rain or snowfall, perhaps
resulting in damage to your brand new vehicle. Faulty wiper blades need to replaced, and
you need to be sure that your windshield wipers are always in perfect shape. This DIY is an
easy fix.
The steps involve: lifting the wiper arm away from the windshield, depressing the
small tab that allows the wiper blade to be pulled off, lining up the new wiper blade with the
arm, and pushing it in tightly. Done! Make sure to follow tutorials while doing it.
8. Replacing air filters.
Air filters are one of the most overlooked parts of your car. They keep your engine
free of dust and other contaminants. They are inexpensive and quite easy to replace, so
keeping your car’s engine clean is another easy DIY.
The steps include: opening the hood, locating the air filter unit, removing the air filter
cover, taking the air filter out and cleaning the air filter housing, inserting a new filter, and
finally replacing the cover. You’re done! Make sure you change your filter once every
30,000 miles, or approximately once every year.
9. Changing brake pads.
The brakes are one of the most important elements of your vehicle for ensuring your
safety while driving. Many car accidents result from brake failures, so your car’s brakes
always need to be in perfect condition. Thankfully, changing the brake pads can be as easy
as changing a flat tire.
Basic steps involve loosening the lug nuts of the wheels, jacking the car up,
removing the wheels, removing the slider bolts, removing the older brake pads and
replacing them with new ones, and putting the slider bolts and the wheels back on securely.
You should be particularly careful if you’re using replica wheels. This is another simple DIY
that can save you some money!
10. Jumpstarting a car.
This is not so much a repair as it is a fundamental skill. Everyone should know how
to jumpstart their own car. You wouldn’t want to have to call roadside assistance every time
your car won’t start, and it’s really the easiest thing ever.
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CRIM PROF 317
Just take your jumper cables out, put both vehicles in neutral and shut the ignition
off. Now, attach one of the red clips to the positive terminal of your battery and the other to
the positive terminal of the battery in the other car (the one that will start). Attach one of the
black clips to the negative terminal of the battery in the other car. Attach the other end to an
unpainted metal surface. Now try to start your vehicle.
Activity #1. Identify at least 10 common errors in driving in relation to the operation of the
Motor vehicle and give possible solutions to address the identified common errors in
driving.
Activity #2. If you are a driver and preparing for a long trip going to Baguio City. What
principle will you consider?
 https://cdn.dealereprocess.org/cdn/servicemanuals/toyota/2004-corolla.pdf
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nFtbf4prm78
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ralw-IZAaf0
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yB0o4Cmf_u0
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qPKtCH3Epq4
8. Assessment Task.
Quiz
Recitation
Final exam.
9. References.
 Car. (n.d.) Retrieved on June 25, 2020 from Wikipedia:

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Car

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CRIM PROF 317
 Using Efficient Steering Techniques. (n.d.) National Highway Traffic Safety

Administration. Retrieved on June 20, 2020 from
https://www.nhtsa.gov/sites/nhtsa.dot.gov/files/steeringtechniques.pdf
 What is defensive driving? (n.d.) In SafetyMotorist.com. retrieved on June 20,2020
from: https://www.safemotorist.com/Articles/Defensive_Driving/
 https://www.lifehack.org/374885/10-basic-car-repairs-everyone-should-know
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CRIM PROF 317
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Module on Traffic Management and Accident Investigation with Driving

CRIM PROF 317

Chapter 1. Historical Background of Land Transportation

This chapter is divided into:

Lesson 1. Manpower, animal Power, and Wind Power

At the end of the course, the students should be able to:

Lesson 1.1 – Manpower, Animal Power, and Wind Power

Transportation is the movement or conveying of persons and goods from one

Tracing the historical development of human’s methods of transporting goods and

Various Ancient Modes of transportation:

2. Da Vinci’s Ornithopter – the great renaissance artist, scientist and engineer,

Lesson 1.2 – Wheeled Vehicles and Road History

Some of the earliest types of wheeled carts:

Lesson 1.3 – Evolution of Motor Vehicles

B. By the end of 18 th century, French, Scottish, and American inventors attempted to

1. Jacques Perier – built an steamboat in 1775.

D. Significant improvement of Road Vehicle began with the adaptation of Coach

G. The invention of Bicycle in the early 19 th century served as a nursery of automobile

H. Motor Vehicle – the first mode of transportation to challenge the railroads.

5. Teaching and Learning Activities

7. Flexible Teaching Learning Modality (FTLM) adopted

 Delizo, Darlito Bernard G. (2020). Traffic Management and Accident

1. Title of the Module:

Chapter 2. Traffic Management

This chapter is divided into:

At the end of the course, the students should be able to:

Lesson 2.1 – Fundamentals of Traffic Management

Traffic Management is best understood by understanding the following commonly

Articulated Vehicle – it means a combination of vehicles comprising a motor vehicle

Collector Highway – it is also known as collector road or distributor road which

Combination of Vehicles – it means coupled vehicles which travel on the road as a

Level-crossing. It means any level intersection between a road and railway or

Moped. It means any two-wheeled or three-wheeled vehicle which is fitted with an

(i) is provided, except at special points or temporarily, with separate

Operation. Pertains to a course or series of acts to effect a certain purpose; manner

Semi-trailer. It means any trailer designed to be coupled to a motor vehicle in such

Shoulder. It refers to either side of the roadway, especially along highways.

Standing. A vehicle is said to be standing if it is stationary for the time needed to

Through Highway. It means every highway or portion thereof on which vehicular

Traffic. It refers to the movement of persons, goods, or vehicles, either powered by

Trailer. It means any vehicle designed to be drawn by a power-driven vehicle and

Classifications of Intersections according to the number of Intersecting Roads:

Classifications of Intersections According to Traffic Control:

2. Uncontrolled Intersection – this intersection has no traffic signals or traffic signs.

What is Traffic Management?

Why Traffic Management is necessary?

procedures. Failure to coordinate these elements in a particular highway and/or intersection

A. Major Causes of Traffic Congestion. Based on studies conducted by authorities.

C. Scope of Traffic Management. In connection with the above stated causes of

D. Agencies involved in Traffic Management

5. Philippine National Police (PNP)

Lesson 2.2 – The Pillars of Traffic

Agencies and/or offices under Traffic Engineering:

Objectives of traffic Engineering:

When and where the Objectives of Traffic Engineering are applied?

3) Congested local areas and intersections.

Methods in achieving the Objectives of Traffic Engineering:

1) Planning and Geometric Design-Factor employed in Planning.

2) Factors Influencing Design

3) Regulation and Control-Traffic Regulation

Traffic Ecology or Traffic Environment.

a) What are the environmental effects of the urbanization of transportation?

Average background noise:

(iii) Freight trains – 75 dBA at 15m/ft.