__________________CHAPTER IV___________________

HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF LIE DETECTION

Ford (2006) reported that one of the first methods to prove the veracity of a statement uttered
by the accused was described in China circa 1000 BC. The person suspected of lying was required
to fill his/her mouth with a handful of dry rice. After a while, s/he was to spit out the rice. If the
expectorated rice remained dry, the suspect was found guilty of fraud.
The trial by ordeal method — The historical writingsof various Europeancountries more often
mention a technique known as trial by ordeal - or the Judgments of God (Apfel 2001; Holák, 1974;
Sullivan, 2001). This was another method used by authorities in the interest of detecting lies and
finding the truth. It was used to prove the truth of a claim of an accused person by a specific act
that the person had to go through. Based on its favourable or unfavourable outcome, the claim was
accepted as true or false. The rationale (and hence the court’s argument) was based on the belief
that God would not let a righteous man suffer and injustice prevail. For example, in the territory
of present day Slovakia, the first courts were established in the 11th century. They concerned either
a one-sided substantiation of the truth by the accused person, or a double-sided one, when one was
subjected to the judgment of God (Holák, 1974). The one-sided judgment of God was conducted
by a water test or a fire test. The water test was carried out by using either hot or cold water. When
using the hot water test, the accused was ordered to place the hand into a cauldron with boiling
water and hold it there for a specified time. If the hand in boiling water showed no traces of
scalding or small blisters, it represented a sign of the accused person’s claim to be true. A variation
of this test involved the accused retrieving a ring or stone out of the cauldron of boiling water.
Phrenology and graphology — In 1870, Franz Joseph Gall discovered a new possibility of
detecting deception through recognition of emotions of the accused. The theory was elaborated
and further improved in cooperation with his pupil Spurzheim. The point of their interest was
examination of specific areas of the brain assuming the existence of relations between different
abilities and skull shape (Rafter, 2005). The main ideas of their theory pointedtothebrainas
thecentralorganof the mind whichcanperceiveindividualemotions suchasemulousness, ambition,
destructiveness and, among the many others, the tendency to lie, and to engage in criminal
behavior.

DIFFERENT METHODS OF DETECTING DECEPTION

1. Observation of Behaviour
It was written that liars can be detected by observing their behavior. In an ancient text
written in India around 900 BC, it was mentioned that poisoners can be determined because they
are evasive and cannot give direct answers to a question. He exhibits gestures of uneasiness, and
noticeable physiological changes are indicated (Trovillo 1939).
Another popular example of observing the behavior to verify truthful and false statements
was reported during the era of King Solomon. He made a wise decision regarding the two women
claiming to be the mother of a disputed child. King Solomon determined the real mother by
observing the behavior displayed by both women when he started to cut the baby in two parts to
settle the conflict. The real mother readily gave up her claim rather than seeing the baby killed,
while the other woman agreed to the statement made by the king (Krapojl & Shaw, 2019).

2. Feeling the Pulse

It was depicted in history that, lying was presumed to affect the physiological activity of
the deceitful person. Physiological changes are observed as symptoms of lying when the person
experiences fear of being detected.
Erasistratus (200-250) a famous physician and anatomist known for his research on the
functions of the brain and nervous system, was consulted by the king of Syria to diagnose the
unknown illness of his son. The king’s son was observed losing his weight, no appetite, and feeling
depressed. Erasistratus hinted that the cause of the mysterious illness was the son’s passion for the
king’s young and beautiful wife. During the examination he conducted, Erasistratus observed that
the pulse rate of the king’s son increased when he mentioned the physical attributes of the king’s
new wife. His findings were later on proven with the birth of a wife. His findings were later on
proven with the birth of a baby girl out of the intimacy between the prince and the new queen
(Trovillo 1939).
Another attempt of detecting deception by feeling the pulse was described during the
Middle Ages. A nobleman who suspected his wife of having an illicit affair with another man
consulted one of his adviser to verify his doubt. The test conducted by the designated adviser was
administered by occasionally placing his hand on the wrist of the nobleman’s wife during their
conversation. The adviser found out that the pulse of the noble man’s wife quickened when he
mentioned the name of the suspected lover. Adversely, there was no similar response noted when
the name of her husband was mentioned (Trovillo 1939).
In 1730, Daniel Defoe, an English novelist, discussed in his writings the same concept. He
suggested that by feeling the pulse, he can discover the guilt of a suspected person. Defoe described
that a thief tends to run and evade when confronted, he will indicate obvious cues of tension that
can be observed. An innocent person, however, whose conscience is clear will not attempt to
escape (Matte, 1996).

3. Trial by Combat
In a fight between the accuser and the accused, whoever lost the battle will be adjudged
guilty. Originated in India where an accuser could hire somebody or a bigger one to fight the
accused. After the fight, the loser will be adjudged as guilty of the crime. It became a legal
ordeal in England during the time of “King Henry III.”
4. Red Hot Iron Ordeal
Practiced on the hill tribe of Rajhmal in North Bengal. An accused placed his tongue to a
red hot iron nine times unless burned sooner. If burned, he is put to death as he is guilty. Not
only just licking the iron but also he is made to carry the metal into his hands.
5. Ordeal by the Balance
An ordeal practice in Vishnu India. The scale of balance is used where the accused is placed
in the other end while a counterbalance is made. If he were found to be lighter than before then
he will be acquitted.

6. Boiling Water Ordeal

Common in Africa. The method was the subject will be asked to plunge their right arms
into the boiling water to the elbow and step into the other side of the fire. All are told to undergo
the test without a murmur. And when all are finished, they are told to return at the same time
the next afternoon. The one who showed blisters would prove the thief (Point out who is the
one who steals among his tribemates).
7. Ordeal By Rice Chewing
An ordeal practiced by the Indians. It is formed with a kind of rice called sathee, prepared
with various incantations. The person on trial eats the rice then spits upon an eyeful leaf. If the
saliva is mixed with blood or the corner of his mouth swells or he trembles, he is declared then
a liar.
8. The Ordeal of the Red Water
Used in a wide region of Eastern Africa. The ordeal of the “sassy bark” or red water was
used where the accused is made to fast to twelve hours the swallows a small amount of rice
until he is emetic and if the suspect ejects all the rice, he is considered innocent; otherwise, the
accused is guilty.
9. Combination of Drinks and Food Ordeal
An ordeal practiced by the West African region where the accused first fasted for 12 hours
and given a small amount of rice to eat followed by a large amount of black-colored water. If
the concoction was vomited, the accused was pronounced innocent, otherwise, guilty.
10. Trial by Torture
The accused was put into a severe physical test. If the accused can endure such torture, he
will be considered innocent.
11. Drinking Ordeal
The accused was given a decoction to drink by a priest-if innocent; no harm befalls him,
but guilty, will die. Practiced in Nigeria and India.
12. Trial of the Eucharist
This trial is reserved for the clergy and administered with pomp and ceremony. If the
accused was guilty, it was believed that Angel Gabriel will descend from heaven and prevent
the accused from swallowing the food given to him. Practiced in the European countries.
13. Ordeal by Heat and Fire
The accused was compelled to walk barefooted through the fire, if he remains unhurt then
he is innocent. Practiced in East Germany, early Scandinavian countries, and early England.
14. The Ordeal of Boiling Oil or Water
The accused was forced to dip his hands into the boiling water or soil and ask to pick up
the stone in it. If he remains unhurt he is innocent. Practiced in Asian Countries.
15. The Ordeal of Red Hot Needle
A red hot needle was drawn through the lips of the accused, if innocent, no blood will be
seen flowing out. Practiced in East Africa.
16. The Ordeal of the Tiger
The accuser and accused were placed together in the same and a tiger set loose upon them.
If both were spared, further elimination followed. Practiced in Thailand.
17. Test of the Cross Ordeal
The accuser and accused each was made to stand with arms crossed on their breast. The
one who endured the longest was deemed to have told the truth the other, is the liar. Practiced
in Europe.
18. Donkey’s Tail Ordeal
A donkey was placed in one room alone and was observed. If the donkey cried as judge of
the guilty of crimes, then the accused is guilty.
19. Smelling the Liars
In Africa, there are other techniques involve in determining fear thru smell. In this
approach, suspects were assembled in a circle, then an exorcist, who will perform hypnotic
ceremonies will throw himself at each suspect and smell their neck. This procedure continues
around the circle for several hours until the guilty person was smelled out (Trovillo, 1939a).
20. Guillotine Ordeal
In Turkey, the ordeal of the guillotine is the most severe mean of detecting deception. The
head of the accused was cut off during the trial. If he was innocent, his head would roll through
the maze directly to the sea. If the accused was guilty, his head would get stuck in the maze.
The implication of this ordeal reflects on the honor of the family, if the accused was proclaimed
innocent, his family would be spared from the embarrassment of the crime.
21. Trial by the Sacred Ass
The trial by the Sacred Ass is a kind of test that employed psychology. This ordeal was
practiced in India around 500 BC (Keeler, 1939). In this method, a donkey is placed in an
enclosed dark tent. Suspects are instructed to enter a dark tent one at a time. Each of them is
ordered to pull the donkey’s tail. They are told that the donkey will bray if a guilty person pulls
its donkey tails. The suspect’s hands were inspected upon leaving the tent. Only the guilty
person’s hand was found clean. He will not pull the tail of the donkey because of fear of being
detected. The origin of the sacred ass ordeal can only be traced to Keeler’s story. There are no
other published materials found to trace its source (Krapohl & Shaw, 2019).
22. The Sheik Solution
This story is similar to the scared ass tale of Keeler. The Sheik was able to identify from
the members of his tribe who took a piece of jewelry. Before he conducted the ceremony, the
Sheik proceeded to the desert with his wife ass to solemnly pray and lasted there for several
hours before he returned. He assembled the tribe members and told them to hold the ass tale
one by one to prove their innocence. Tribe members believed that the Sheik’s white ass is
sacred and can determine the culprit. They were told that will bray when touched by an
immoral person. Not known to the tribe member, the Sheik rubbed a pungent herb in the ass
tail while he was in the desert. The guilty person is afraid to be discovered and his hand was
found not having the smell of the herb when inspected by the Sheik (Krapohl & Shaw, 2019).
23. Smearing the Bell
Another similar tale of the Sacred Ass is a story written in the history of China thousand
years ago. A judge in Fujian China assembled the possible suspects for theft. The judge told
them that there was a magic bell placed behind the curtain, suspects were told to reach and
touch it one by one. The bell has the power to identify theft, it will ring when touched by the
guilty. Not known to the suspects, the bell was painted with dark ink to stain the hand of anyone
who holds it. The judge examined the hands of the suspects after they reached the magic bell
behind the curtain. The guilty suspects will not touch the bell because of his fear to be
recognized as theft (Krapohl & Shaw, 2019).
24. The theft Catcher
The same concept with the sacred ass ordeal that originates from India was practiced in the
th
19 century. Whenever there is a theft incident, a holy man sets up a heavy grinding stone
rubbed with unpleasant smelled substance. The stone hand mill is placed in a room containing
religious relics. Suspects were instructed to enter the room one at a time and to touch the center
of the stone. They were told that if they are innocent, there is no reason to hesitate and obey
the instruction. Further, they were told that the hand of the guilty will be crushed by the stone
and it is very difficult to free himself from the predicament. After each suspect had come out
from the room, the theft catcher examines their hands to determine the presence of an odorous
substance. Each of them was placed in a separate room to avoid communicating with one
another. Only the guilty one will not touch the stone and his hand would not smell or odorous
substance. The theft catcher will then confronted the guilty suspect and convince him to
confess privately to preserve his reputation (Krapohl & Shaw, 2019).
 Countries that Practiced Trial by Ordeal
1. China- This country in the circa 1000 BC practiced that the person suspected of lying
was required to fill his/her mouth with a handful of dry rice. After a while, s/he was to
spit out the rice. If the expectorated rice remained dry, the suspect was found guilty of
fraud (Ford, 2006).
2. Burma- This country practiced that the accuser and accused were given each identical
candle and both were lightened at the same time. The holder of the candle that
consumed faster was adjudged the liar.
3. Borneo- This country practiced that the accuser and accused were presented by
shellfish placed on a plate. An irritating fluid was then poured on the shellfish and the
litigant whose shellfish moved first was adjudged the winner.
4. Greece- This country practiced a suspended ace was spun at the center of a group of
suspects. When the ax stopped, whoever was in line with the blade was supposed to be
guilty as pointed out by the divine providence.
5. Nigeria- This country practiced that the priest greased a feather and pierced the tongue
of the accused. If the feather passed through the tongue easily, the accused was deemed
innocent. If not, the accused is guilty. Another method in Nigeria was the practice of
pouring corrosive liquid into the eyes of the accused who was supposed to remain
unharmed if innocent. Pour boiling oil over the hand of the accused with the usual
requisites for guilt or innocence ( if remain unharmed, he is innocent).
6. Europe and Early United States (17th Century)- This country practiced that the trial
by water was commonly used on those accused of witchcraft. The accused was bound
(hand and foot) and then cast into the body of water. If the accused sank, he was hauled
to the surface half-drowned and deemed innocent. If he floated, he was deemed guilty
and burned to death.
Forerunners of Scientific Methods of Detecting Deception
1. Hypnotism
This method was introduced by an Austrian Physician Franz (Friedrich) Anton Mesmer
(1734-1815) in 1778. He believed in animal magnetism, by which in his electro-
magnetism, therapeutic effect influenced other persons. These effects produced were
attributed to the state of mind of a subject whereby he is set up, and thereby instructed to
sit quietly and gazed at flashing light or shiny object dangled in front of his eyes and to
cooperate with whatever the hypnotist would like him to do.
Detected deception through hypnosis was not admissible in court due to the following:
 It lacks the general scientific acceptance of the reliability of hypnosis in
ascertaining the truth from falseness.
 The possibility that the hypnotized subject will deliberately fabricate.
 The prospect that the state of heightened suggestibility in which the hypnotized
subject is suspended will produce distortion of the fact rather than the truth.
 The state of the mind and professionalism of the examiner is too subjective to
permit the admissibility of the expert testimony.

2. The Word Association Test

This method was introduced in 1879 by Sir Francis Galton (1822-1911- an English
Scientist and Anthopometrist. His experiment was later developed by Dr. Carl Gustav Jung
(1875-1961)- a Swiss psychologist and psychiatrist and the founder of Analytical
Psychology.
This method is done by giving a subject a long list of carefully selected stimulus words
or objects with other pictures combined with other irrelevant words, objects, or pictures
with the instruction to respond with the very first word that may come to the subject’s
mind. Dr. Jung was able to observe how the thinking reactions were linked to the emotional
habit of his subject. The theory behind this method is, one word or idea is reflective of
another word or idea and the expression of their association forms a meaningful picture.
3. The Truth Serum Method
This method was introduced by Dr. Edward Mandel House (1858-1938), a U.S
Physicist and diplomat and a confidential adviser to former U.S. President Woodrow
Wilson. The term “truth serum” is a misnomer. The procedure does not make someone tell
the truth and the thing administered is not a serum but is a drug.
This method is based on the theory that “intervention through interrogation is made
possible after dosage of drugs has been appropriately administered, which depresses the
cerebral activity to a point of unconsciousness, an influence called as the “ House Receptive
Stage” or the “ Twilight Zone”. On this condition, the subject is half asleep.
The objective of the test is to extract from the subconscious mind of the subject the
stored contents of the mind called “memory”. During the test, a drug called Byosine
Hydrobromide is usually administered hypodermically to the subject in repeated doses until
a state of delirium is induced. When the proper point is reached, the questions were
answered by the subject truthfully. He forgets his act or may even implicate others.
Accordingly, he will disclose everything without evasiveness.
Of all the deception detection methods, the “Truth Serum” test is considered most
favorable and effective if all the following conditions proper to the conduct of the test will
be observed.
 The test must be performed by a skilled experimenter, operator, technician, or
physician.
 The subject expresses his consent to undergo the test.
 The dosage of drugs injected or administered is sufficient for acquiring desired
results.
 There is sufficient time during the test.
 Assurance of results is acquired to determine truth or deception.
Through statements taken from the subject under this process is not admissible as
evidence in court because its nature is involuntary, its application to criminal investigation
is very useful because of its psychological effect, before, during, and after. Just as well, a
person not knowing the misleading notion of the test may tell the truth to avoid the pain of
needles and possible brain destruction even before the test is done.
4. Narco-analysis or Narco-synthesis
This method of detecting deception was practically the same as that of the
administration of truth serum. The only difference is the drug used. The drug Sodium
Amytal or Sodium Pentothal is administered to the subject. When the effects appear,
questioning starts. It was claimed that the drug causes, depression of the inhibitory
mechanism of the brain, and the subject talk freely. The administration of the drug and
subsequent interrogation must be done by a psychiatrist. As the administration of truth
serum, the result of the test was not admissible in court.
5. Intoxication
This was practiced utilizing drinking alcoholic beverages as stimuli to obtain truth on
the part of the subject. The subject for interrogation will be allowed to take alcoholic
beverages up to the point of intoxication. Theoretically, when under the influence of
alcohol, the power of control is said to be diminished; thus, the subject will tend to tell
everything he knows or reveal all the relevant information. Interrogation is to be made
during the excitatory effect of alcohol.
 Under this method, there is eventually a lack of self-control of the subject is already in
the depressive state due to excess alcohol intake, he will not be able to answer questions
anymore, and perhaps fell asleep. Confession made by the subject while intoxicated is
admissible if he is physically able to recollect the facts and state them truly and exactly
even after the influence or “spirit” of alcohol has disappeared. But in most instances, he
can recall his utterances or usually refuses to admit the truth of the statement given.
6. The Psychological Stress Evaluator (PSE)
When a person speaks, there are audible voice frequencies, and superimposed on these
are the inaudible frequency modulations which are products of minute fluctuation of the
muscle of the voice mechanism. Such oscillations of the muscles or microtremor occur at
the rate of 8 to 14 cycles per second and are controlled by the central nervous system.
When a person is under stress as when he is lying, the microtremor in the voice
utterance is moderately or completely suppressed. The degree of suppression varies
inversely to the degree of psychological stress on the speaker. The psychological stress
evaluator (PSE) detects, measures, and graphically displays the voice modulations that we
cannot hear.
When a person is relaxed and responding honestly to the question, those inaudible
frequencies were registered clearly on the instrument. But when a person is under stress,
as when he is lying, these frequencies tend to disappear. Under this method, the following
procedures are followed:
 The examiner meets the requesting party to determine the specific purpose of
the examination and to begin the formulation of relevant questions.
 A pre-test interview is conducted with the subject to help him or her feel at ease
with the examiner, to provide an opportunity to specify matters, to eliminate
outside issues, and to review questions that will be asked.
 An oral test of about 12 to 15 “yes” or “no” questions is given which is recorded
on a tape recorder. The questions are a mixture of relevant and irrelevant
questions.
 Immediately following the test or are a late time, the tape is processed through
the Psychological Stress Evaluator for analysis of answer.
 If stress is indicated, the subject is given the authority to provide additional
clarification. A retest is given to verify correction and clarification.
Methods of Detecting Deception through Regular Police Works
The police methods sought to answer the legal investigative process are the so-called “
Five Wives and One Husband” technique or the 5 W’s and 1H which stands for WHAT, WHEN,
WHERE, WHO, WHY, and HOW. These questions are used to gain the so-called “ Three Eyes”
(3 I’s) of investigation which refers to the following:
1. Information gathering- Through record check, surveillance, and intelligence check.
2. Investigation- Through interrogation and/or interview to obtain admission or confession.
3. Instrumentation- Through criminalistics processes with the use of the different
investigative forensic sciences such as medico-legal or forensic medicine, forensic
ballistics, questioned documents examination, dactyloscopy, and polygraphy or
deceptography.
Contemporary Methods in Detecting Deception
1. Physiological Lie Detection
The use of modern equipment to record the physiological changes that occur in a person
was employed in determining guilt or innocence. The polygraph is used to accurately records
and measure physiological changes which include respiratory, electrodermal, cardiovascular,
 and vasomotor activity. These parameters are monitored by the sensors connected to a
particular part of the body of the person being tested.
a. Deception Test
An approach in polygraph testing is conducted to determine the involvement of an
examinee in a known incident or multiple issues of concern.
 Comparison Question Technique
 Non-Comparison Question Technique
b. Recognition Test
This approach in polygraph testing is intended to determine if the examinee knows the
issue being tested. An examinee who is knowledgeable on the case information or facts
will exhibit physiological reaction when confronted with the item relevant to the test.
The type or recognition test is as follows:
 Searching Peak of Tension Test
 Known Solution Peak of Tension Test
 Concealed Information Test
 Acquaintance Test

2. Non-verbal Lie Detection

There are several concepts considered to determine the non-verbal indicators of
deception. These approach includes the following:
a. Multifactor Model
In multifactor model, there are elements that may influence cues to
deception and each has distinct effect on the non-verbal behaviour of liar
(Zuckerman et al., 1981)

 Emotional Reaction
According to Ekman, (1985) telling lie in most commonly associated with
different emotional such as fear, guilt , or delight. A lying person may feel guilty,
afraid to discover his lie, or elated about fooling someone. The strength of these
emotions depends on the personality of the liar and the circumstances under which
the lie takes place (Ekman, 1985; Vrij, 2008).
It is important to note that behaviour of a lying person may be affected
because of guilt, fear and excitement.
Example:
Emotion Indicators of Reaction
1. Guilt Gaze aversion
2. Fear and Excitement - Increase in movements
Speech hesitation
Speech errors (shutters)
Repetition of words
Omission of words
Increase pitch
The stronger the emotion, the more likely that some of these behaviors will reveal deceit
(Ekman, 1985).
Cognitive Load
There are various aspects that may explain why lying requires more cognitive demand than
telling the truth.
 1. Formulating a lie demands more cognitive effort.
2. Liars are typically less likely than truth-tellers to take their credibility for granted.
3. Liars monitor the interviewer’s reactions more carefully in order assess whether they
appear to be getting away with their lie.
4. Liars may be preoccupied by the task of reminding themselves to act and role-play,
which requires extra cognitive effort.
Liars who engaged in cognitively complex tasks experiences speech hesitations and errors,
speaks slower, and takes time to give answer (Goldman-Eisler, 1968). It also resulted in less hand
and arm movements (Ekman & Feizen, 1972). It further resulted to more gaze aversion due to
difficulty in maintaining eye contact (Doherty-Sneddon et al, 2002).
Attempted Behavioral Control
Liars are aware that they nust appear convincing in the eyes of an investigator, thus they
will try to control their behaviour. They must subdue their nervousness while trying to hide their
difficulty of answering questions. Liars need to act and appear honest and keep away from
dishonest behaviour. These effort of controlling behaviour increases on high stakes situation
(Ekman, 1985).
b. Self Presentational Perspective
This approach predicts that as liars experience one or more factors in multifactor
model, it is plausible that signs of deception will occur (Sukerman et al.’s, 1981). However,
DePaulo et al argued that emotions, cognitive load, and behavioural control may also influence
the behaviour of truth-tellers. Liars and truth-tellers will succeed in their social interaction goals
only if they appear sincere and convincing (DePaulo,1992; DePaulo et al, 2003).
c. Interpersonal Deception Theory
This theory suggest that liars must performed several simultaneous communication
task during a face-to-face encounters (Buller and Burgoon’s 1986). Their verbal message must be
credible while projecting plausible non-verbal behaviour. Liars must control their behaviour, while
maintaining smooth conversation with their partner. The response is in accordance of what they
say, and mut conceal any intent to deceive their partner. IDT embraces the three multifactor model
of Zuckerman as fundamental reasons for cues of deceit (Burgoon, et al, 1999).
3. Verbal Lie Detection
This basic premise of verbal lie detection are that liars have to think harder to fabricate a
lie and will try to make more convincing impression than thruthful persons. Verbal lie detection is
a memory-based approach, regarded as a unique signs of deception. It is presumed that people
remember differently the events that he experienced from the events that are fabricated. Hence,
they talk about them in different ways (Vrij & Ganis, 2014).
Tools for Verbal Lie Detection
a. Statement Validity Assessment (SVA)
The SVA is a tool designed to verify the accuracy of the testimony of child witnesses during
the trial of sexual cases. There are times that an investigator encountered difficulty in
determing the facts of sexual offense involving children due to unavailability of evidence.
Also, because of the absence of possible witness that could provide independent version of the
events to validate contradicting statement of victims and accussed. The SVA assessment are
accepted as evidence in some North American courts and in criminal courts in several West
European countries, including Germany, the Netherlands, and Sweden (Vrij, 2008).
 Stages of Statement Validity Assessment:
 Case-file analysis
 Semi instructed interview
 Criteria-based content analysis (CBCA)
 Validity checklist

b. Reality Monitoring (RM)

This method is used only for scientific research and said to have strong theoretical support.
It is based on memory theory and is centered on the concept that memories of experienced
events differs in the quality from memories of imagined events (Johson and Raye, 1981,1998).
c. Scientific Content Analysis (SCAN)
This tool was developed by Avioam Sapir, a polygraph examiner and a former Israeli police
lieutenant. It supposed in this approach that truth-tellers and liars differ from each other.
However, no theoretical support is available to support the said assumptions (Nahari et
al,2012a). The procedure requires an examinee to write down in detail his/her activities on
crucial period of time. Handwritten statement is then analysed based on the criteria set for this
tool. SCAN criteria like denial of allegation and use of self-references mostly occur in
thruthful than deceptive statements, while other criteria like change in language and missing
information are likely to appear in deceptive than truthful statements (Sapir, 1987, 2000).
d. Assessment Criteria Indicative of Deception (ACID)
The process of Assessment Criteria Indicative of Deception, involves detailed examination
of the length of response, admitting potential errors, and use of Reality Monitoring (RM)
criteria to distinguish the difference due to memory and impression management of control of
information. This extended approach to RM corresponds to the unique external, contextual,
and internal details as observe during the processof investigative interview for detection of
deception. The first experiment with this approach indicates 95% of the statements of honest
ad deceptive participants were determined accurately. The statements of honest participants
are more clear and spontaneous:
1. It has more external and contextual detail overall.
2. Response are more detailed due to the recall enhancement effect of the mnemonics.
The most salient and statistically powerful features of the study was the details that were
not provided during free recall but rather were added in the course of later recall task
(Colwell, Hiscock-Anisman, Memon, et al., 2007).
4. Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging-Based Lie Detection (fMRI)
The method of monitoring brain activity has been employed by several researchers in an
attempt to detect deception. The fMRI approach involves measurement of changes in regional
cerebral blood flow cause by the activity of the nervous system. The activity of the brain in
response to a specific type of events is measured through fMRI procedures (Vrij & Ganis, 2014).
Classes of postulated neural process engaged during deception (Vrij & Ganis, 2014):
 Cognitive control processes
 It includes working memory, memory retrieval conflict monitoring, and response
inhibition. These refers to the processes with higher complexity of producing lies
relative to telling the truth.

 Memory-relate processes

These refers to the fact that lies and truths may differ in how well they are encoded,
and in the richness and quality of these memories.

 Social cognitive processes

It refers to the idea that a successful liar needs to take into account the perspective
of the target of the lie in order to be able to deceive the target.
Current studies suggests that fMRI methods so far could not outshine the traditional
methods of detecting deception. But since fMRI is a new approach, there is always a
possibility that this method will be improved in the future. Time will come that the
techniques in brain-imaging and analysis will be refined and enhance through
numerous research that may be conducted.

5.Optical Motor Detection of Deception

The idea of measuring the size of pupil can be traced from the theory suggested by Charles
Darwin that pupil dilation was associated with fear and other emotion (Andreassi, 2000). It
was speculated based on research that sympathetic nervous system influenced the pupillary
changes which could be used to measure the value of interest and pleasure on visual stimuli.
Succeeding researchs suggest that congnitive effort can be related to pupil dilation (Hess &
Polt, 1960).
The Autonomic Nervous System controls the dilation and constriction of the pupil. The iris
dilates when sympathetic nervous system is activated, the parasympathetic subdivision of the
ANS causes the constriction of the iris (Andreassi, 2000).

Causes of Pupillary Changes

1. Light Reflex
2. Startle Response
3. Fatigue
4. Pain
5. Emotional Arousal
6. Cognitive Load
In 1943, Berrien and Huntington conducted experiments to measure emotional
disturbances associated with lying using pupillary responses. Several succeeding
researches suggests that pupil responses influenced by cognitive demands can be associated
with deception.
Reading beahviors particularly eye movements are used to verify deception. Eye-
tracking system were designed to capture movements of the eyes and measure the changes
in the size of pupils (Andreassi, 2000).
The procedure in optical motor detection of deception involves asking the examinee to
seat in front of a computer and listen to the voice recorded test instruction. Included in the
instruction are the nature of test and answering procedure. A proctor will attached the eye-
tracking device to the examinee. Thereafter, the examinee proceed with the test by reading
another set of instructions displayed on the computer screen. Subject is required to give a
true false answer on every statement presented during the test.
 Reading ability is a vital factor in this method. Test result for examinees having poor
reading skills is affected by this factor. Necessary adjustment and remedy should be
undertaken in the future research to assess the effect difference in reading fluency of every
examinee (Hacker et al, 2014).
EyeDetect is a new technology available designed for optical motor detection of
deception test. It measures eye movements, pupil diameter, reading behavior, etc., during
the process of examination using an infrared camera and scoring algorithm to determine
the test ourtcome.
EVOLUTION OF THE POLYGRAPH
In the past, the device designed for medical purposes were used to record certain
physiological parameters in an attempt to detect deception. The effort to improve the
instrument evolved as numerous research and experiment was conducted that leads to the
development of the polygraph.
1730
Daniel Defoe a British novelist writes an essay entitled "An Effectual Scheme for the
Immediate Preventing of Street Robberies and Suppressing all Other Disorders of the Night",
wherein he recommends that taking the pulse of a "suspicious fellow" is a practical, effective, and
humane method for distinguishing truthfulness from lying. Defoe’s is an early and insightful
suggestion to employ medical science in the fight against crime.

1846
Carl Friedrich Wilhelm Ludwig a German physician and physiologist invents what he
calls a "kymographion", a device with the ability to record changes in arterial blood pressure and
respiration simultaneously so that he can draw conclusions about the correlation between external
respiration and the circulatory system. Ludwig’s kymographion records these physiological
variables in graphical form using a metal stylus that marks a rotating drum wrapped with a sheet
of smoked paper. The kymographion not only changes the everyday work of physiologists, but
other sciences benefit from it as well. Carl Friedrich Wilhelm Ludwig is credited for the invention
of one of the most acclaimed apparatuses for quantitative measurement.

1849
Emil du Bois-Reymond in Germany discovered that the human skin is electrically active.

1851
Jacques D’ Arsonval a French scientist who declared that electricity is generated by the
body. This known as “External Friction”. He asserted that those sweat glands in the body at times
store the electricity and at other times discharged them. His works helped in the development of
the galvanometer.

1878
Science first comes to the aid of the truth seeker through the research of Italian physiologist
Angelo Mosso. Mosso uses an instrument called a "plethysmograph" in his research on emotion
and fear in subjects during questioning, and he studies the effects of these variables on their
cardiovascular and respiratory activity. Mosso studies blood circulation and breathing patterns and
how these change under certain stimuli. The use of the plethysmograph reveals periodic
undulations or waves in a subject’s blood pressure caused by the respiratory cycle in response to
certain stimuli. Angelo Mosso is the first scientist to report on experiments in which he observes
that a person’s breathing pattern changes under certain stimuli and that this change, in turn, causes
variations in their blood pressure and pulse rate.

1886
 Christian Hans Stoelting founded a Stoelting Company based in Illinois, United States,
in the field of psychological assessments, physiological assessment, and psychophysiological
measurement.
Christian Hans Stoelting created Stoelting (originally called Chicago Laboratory Supply
and Scale Co.) in 1886 and quickly grew it into a successful supplier and producer of physiological
and psychological products.

1888
Charles Samson Fere found that by passing a low electrical current between two
electrodes placed on the surface on the skin, one could use a galvanometer to measure momentary
decreases in skin resistance in response to a variety of stimuli of various types, including visual
and auditory ones (Féré 1888). In this way Féré discovered that the skin becomes a better conductor
of electricity in the presence of external stimuli.

1890
Ivan Tarchanoff (Tarchanov, Tarkhanishvili, a Russian physiologist of Georgian origin
discovered that one could measure changes in the electrical potential between two electrodes
placed on the surface of the skin, yet unlike in Féré’s experiment, without applying an external
source of current. Various stimuli result in a change in the electrical potential and make the pointer
of the galvanometer move (Tarchanoff 1890).

1890
Ivan Tarchanoff presents the discovery that the galvanometer reacts similarly to stimuli
even in the absence of an external source of energy (Tarchanoff 1890).

1892

Sir James Mackenzie, a heart surgeon of London, England, constructed the clinical
polygraph. Not intended for detecting deception in individuals, he used this instrument when
giving medical examinations as it had the capability to record simultaneously undulated line
tracings of the vascular pulses (radial, venous and arterial), by way of a metal stylus on to a rotating
drum of smoked paper.

1895
Cesare Lombroso the first to use of a scientific instrument designed to measure
physiological responses for this purpose occurs in 1895 when Italian physician, psychiatrist and
pioneer criminologist modifies an existing instrument called a "hydrosphygmograph" and uses this
modified device in his experiments to measure the physiological changes that occurs in a crime
suspect’s blood pressure and pulse rate during the course of a police interrogation.

Notably, Lombroso’s early device for measuring pulse rate and blood pressure is similar
to the cardiosphygmograph component of the contemporary polygraph. Although Lombroso did
not invent the hydrosphygmograph, he is accorded the distinction of being the first person to use
the instrument successfully as a means for determining truthfulness from deception in crime
suspects. On several occasions, he uses the hydrosphygmograph in actual cases to assist the police
in the identification of criminals.

1897
George Sticker a German, was the first to suggest the use of a galvanometer
(psychogalvanometer) for lie-detection (Trovillo 1939).

1906

Sir James Mackenzie, M.D., refined his clinical polygraph of 1892 when he devises the
clinical Ink Polygraph with the help of Lancashire watchmaker, Mr Sebastian Shaw. This
improved instrument uses a clockwork mechanism for the paper-rolling and time-marker
movements, and it produces ink recordings of physiological functions that are easier to acquire
and to interpret.

Although not for the purpose of detecting deception in suspects, Dr Mackenzie’s ink
polygraph is the first-known instrument that contains the essential features of the present-day
instruments, and its construction is based on precisely the same principles. It is written that the
modern polygraph is fundamentally a modification of Dr Mackenzie’s clinical ink polygraph.

1907
Otto Veraguth was one of the first to make word-association tests with the galvanometer.
He noted that emotional complexes, unveiled in word association experiments, made an ascending
galvanometer curve (as contrasted with the "rest curve" of non-crucial stimuli), and that these
personally significant stimuli produced larger fluctuations than indifferent stimuli. Veraguth also
indicated that the first indifferent stimulus words caused larger responses than succeeding
indifferent stimuli. He probably was the first to use the term "psychogalvanic reflex" (1907).

1908
Hugo Munsterburg proposed and advocated that lie test based on lie detector should be
admissible as evidence in court.

1914
Italian psychologist Vittorio Benussi discovers a method for calculating the quotient of
the inhalation to exhalation time as a means of verifying the truth and detecting deception in a
subject. Using a "pneumograph", a device that records a subject’s breathing patterns, Benussi
conducts comprehensive experiments on the respiratory symptoms of lying. He concludes that
lying causes an emotional change within a person that results in detectable respiratory changes that
are indicative of deception.

1915

Dr William Moulton Marston, a lawyer and psychologist, discovers a correspondence

between telling a lie and a rise in a person's blood pressure. He develops the Discontinuous Systolic
Blood Pressure Test and invents an early form of the polygraph when he builds a device with the
capacity to measure changes in a person’s blood pressure. Dr Marston’s technique uses a standard
blood pressure cuff and a stethoscope to take intermittent systolic blood pressure readings of a
suspect during questioning for the purpose of detecting deception.
Dr Marston’s discontinuous systolic blood pressure test later becomes one component of
the modern polygraph.

1918
Harold Burt determined that respiratory changes were indicative of deception. He found
out that changes in systolic blood pressure were greater value in determining deception than
changes in respiration.

1921
John A. Larson, a police officer with the Berkeley Police Department with a Ph.D. in
physiology, builds on the work of Dr William Moulton Marston and develops what many consider
to be the original "lie detector" when he adds the item of respiration rate to that of blood pressure.
Larson's instrument provides continuous readings of these physiological responses rather than
discontinuous readings of the sort found in Dr Marston’s device. Larson calls his instrument a
"cardio-pneumo psychograph", which later becomes known as a "polygraph", a word derived from
the Greek language meaning "many writings" since it could read several physiological responses
at the same time and record these responses on a rolling drum of smoked paper for future analysis
and evaluation.
Using his polygraph, John A. Larson is the first person to continuously and simultaneously
measure changes in a subject’s pulse rate, blood pressure, and respiratory rate during questioning.
His polygraph is used extensively, and with much success, in police investigations at the Berkeley
Police Department.

1925
Leonarde Keeler, who gains firsthand experience in polygraph interrogations as a result
of working with John A. Larson at the Berkeley Police Department, works to devise a polygraph
that uses "inked pens" for recording the relative changes in blood pressure, pulse rate, and
respiratory activity, thus eliminating the need for smoking the paper and having to preserve it with
shellac.

1926
The Keeler Polygraph comes on the market as the "new-and-improved" lie detector, an
enhanced version of John A. Larson’s polygraph.

1930
Capt. Clarence D. Lee designed the Lee Polygraph consist essentially of four units-chart
drive or recording unit, Pneumograph or respiration unit, Cardiograph or pulse-blood pressure
unit, and the Stimulus signal unit.

1932
Chester W. Darrow made the third modification to the Larson Cardio-Pneumo
Psychograph, by adding a galvanometer. The New instrument included a psycho galvanometric
record, electrodes on the palm and back of the hand, as well as a continuous blood pressure record,
and a pneumographic record.

1938
Leonarde Keeler further refines the Keeler Polygraph when he adds a third physiological
measuring component for the detection of deception — the psychogalvanometer — a component
that measures changes in a subject’s galvanic skin resistance during questioning. In doing so,
Keeler marks the birth of the polygraph as we know it today.

1939
Leonarde Keeler patents what is now understood as the prototype of the modern
polygraph — the Keeler Polygraph. Today, Leonarde Keeler is known as the "Father of
Polygraph".

1947
John E. Reid, a lawyer from Chicago, develops the "Control Question Technique" (CQT),
a polygraph technique that incorporates control questions that are designed to be emotionally
arousing for truthful subjects and less emotionally arousing for deceptive subjects than the relevant
questions. The Reid Control Question Technique is a breakthrough in polygraph methodology and
it continues to be the polygraph technique that is used by most examiners today. Reid’s CQT
replaces the "Relevant/Irrelevant Question Technique" (RIT), a technique which uses relevant or
irrelevant questions during a polygraph examination.

1947
Max Wastl a founder of Lafayette Instrument Company which became a leading
polygraph machine distributor.

1948
Leonarde Keeler opens the world’s first polygraph school — the Keeler Polygraph
Institute, in Chicago.

1951
Paul Wilhelm & Frank Donald Burns were known as Lie Detector Specialist in
Michigan City, Indiana, USA, who invented Electric Pychometer, sometimes known as lie
detector using electrodermal response as basis for lie detection.
1958

Richard O. Arther experiments with two pneumographs and finds there is a difference
between the thoracic and the abdominal pattern about 33% of the time. By utilizing two
pneumograph channels, the best recordings of the respiratory changes would always be recorded.
Arther also experiments with the use of Galvanic Skin Response automatic and manual
modes and finds there is not a significant difference between the two.

1960

Cleve Backster, building upon the Reid Control Question Technique, develops the
"Backster Zone Comparison Technique" (ZCT), a polygraph technique which primarily involves
an alteration of the Reid question sequencing.
Cleve Backster also introduces a quantification system of chart analysis, making it more
objective and scientific than before. His system for the numerical evaluation of the physiological
data collected from the polygraph charts is standard procedure in the field of Polygraphy today.

1962

The study of the use of computers in the physiological detection of deception progresses
through several phases.

1970

Dr Joseph F. Kubis, of Fordham University in New York City, is the first researcher to
use potential computer applications for the purpose of polygraph chart analysis.

1980s

Dr. John C. Kircher and David C. Raskin conducted research on computerized

polygraph at the University of Utah Psychology Laboratory.

1988

Dr. John C. Kircher and David C. Raskin develop the "Computer Assisted Polygraph
System" (CAPS), which incorporates the first algorithm used for evaluating physiological data
collected for diagnostic purposes.

1993

Dr Dale E. Olsen assisted by Mr John C. Harris, at Johns Hopkins University Applied

Physics Laboratory, completed a software program called "POLYSCORE". The program
implements an algorithm-based chart-scoring system to analyze the polygraph data collected and
to estimate a statistical probability of deception in a subject after questioning.

1993
Polygraph makes its formal entrance into the computer age.

2003
POLYSCORE Version 5.1 analyzes the data from polygraph examinations administered
in 1,411 real-life criminal cases provided by the United States Department of Defence Polygraph
Institute for study and comparison purposes.
 Validated algorithms exceed 98 percent in their accuracy to quantify, analyze, and evaluate
the physiological data collected from polygraph examinations administered in real-life criminal
cases.

2003

The United States Department of Energy (DOE) commissions a review committee of The
National Academy of Sciences (NAS) to study the scientific evidence on the polygraph. In this
endeavour, the Committee sifts through existing evidence in the polygraph research literature and
does not conduct any new laboratory or field research on polygraph testing for, as they report:
"Real-world conditions are difficult — if not impossible — to replicate in a mock-crime
setting or a laboratory environment for the purpose of assessing polygraph effectiveness."
The Review Committee of The National Academy of Sciences concludes that, although
there may be alternative techniques to polygraph testing, none can outperform the polygraph, nor
do any of these yet show promise of supplanting the polygraph in the near future.

Other Important Events and Personalities in the History of Lie Detection

a. The Word Association Test
In 1879 the word association test was conceptualized in the application of
psychology in detecting deception. The first to conduct experiments is Sir Francis
Galton. The procedure involves presenting numerous words that are irrelevant and
inserted with words that are pertinent to the issue under investigation. The subject is
directed to call out the word that first comes to his mind. It supposed that a guilty
subject will indicate obvious mental conflict that becomes observable when answering
the words relate to the crime and words that have no connection to crime under
investigation.
In 1908, Hugo Munsterberg prescribe the use of word association test in a forensic
application to determine guilt (Trovillo, 1939).
b. The Ink Polygraph
Sir James Mackenzie was the inventor of the first polygraph and a famous heart
specialist of London, England. The machine based sphygmograph was designed not for
lie detection but for medical use. The instrument record tracings of the radial, jugular
and hepatic pulse. He first described the instrument in an article entitled the "The Ink
Polygraph," which appeared in the June 13, 1908 (Reid & Inbau, 1977 ).
c. The Cardio-Pneumo-Pscyhogram or Breadboard Polygraph

John Larson was credited for developing the cardio-pneumi-psychogram that was
used in Berkeley police department. The instrument is capable of continuously
recording blood pressure, pulse and respiration during examination. It was assembled
in portable form and was used successfully in the test of criminal suspects. Larson
polygraph takes about half and hour to set up. He also designed a relevant irrelevant
interviewing techniques which he used in the investigation of criminal cases.

d. Keeler Polygrah

The Keeler Polygraph was originally manufactured by the Western Electro

Mechanical Company. It had three tambours: a cardiosphygmograph, a pneumograph,
and a second pneumograph or a muscular movement device. The kymograph could
be adjusted to run the chart paper to 3, 6, or 12 inches per minute. Associated Research,
Inc. later produced the Keeler polygraph, similar to the original design. It included a
galvanograph channel, and the chart speeds were adjusted to 6 and 12 inches per minute
(Krapohl and Sturm, 2002). Keeler polygraph was called Emotograph, it is more
advance than the breadboard polygraph of John Larson.

e. Relevant Irrelevant Technique

This first widely used anxiety-based polygraph testing technique was

developed by Leonarde Keeler. The Relevant Irrelevant Technique use crime-
relevant questions which refers to the issue being tested and crime irrelevant
questions which are not related to the case. Crime-irrelevant questions are designed
to control for interpersonal differences. Physiological data is analyzed by clinical
approach in which the reaction to crime-relevant question is compared to the
reaction of crime irrelevant question. The theory of Relevant Irrelevant Test
suggests that physiological response are produced by anxiety of being detected
when lying (Raskin and Honts, 2002). Examinee is pronounced lying if reaction to
the crime-relevant questions is greater than the crime-irrelevant questions. This
rationale is considered very simplistic and naïve (Podleny and Raskin, 1977). The
Relevant and Irrelevant technique has been criticized as an inappropriate polygraph
technique that should not be used (Honts, 1991; Iacono, 2008b; Lykken, 1998:
Raskin, 1986; Raskin and Honts, 2002; Saxe, 1994).
Example:
An innocent examine who is being tested for allege theft issue at her workplace,
became aware that physiological reaction to crime-related questions may cause to lose her
employment. Therefore, it is possible that the innocent examinee may produce reactions to
the crime relevant questions because of the consequence.

f. Peak of Tension Test

There are two types of Peak of Tension Test, Known Solution POT
(KSPOT) and Searching Peak of Tension. A known Solution POT is used to
determine if the examinee has has knowledge of details of a crime that have not
been disclosed to anyone. It is presumed that only the perpetrator, the victim or the
investigator have knowledge about the details of the crime being investigated. A
Searching POT (SPOT) is used to determine details of a crime that are known to
officials, such as the location of an unrecovered body, but would be known to a
participant in the crime. The chart is evaluated by simply identifying the point in
the tracings where physiological arousal has peaked. These test are not generally
used to determine truth or deception, but rather to assist in the investigation or
interrogation (Krapohl and Sturm, 2002).

g. Berkeley Psychograph

Captain Clarence D. Lee of Berkeley Police Department designed the

Berkeley psychograph similar to Keeler polygraph. The instrument consists of a
chart drive recording unit, a pneumograph, a cardiograph, and a stimulus signal unit
(Matte, 1996).

h. Reid Polygraph
 John E. Reid devised an instrument capable of recording muscular activity
along with changes in blood pressure, pulse, respiration, and GSR.

i. The Reid Control Question Technique (General Question Test)

The Reid Control Question Technique was introduced in 1947. It uses control
question as basic response indicator. The techniques is consist of six types of testing
procedure which include the Straight- Through Test, Card Test, Mixed Questions Test,
Silent Answer, Yes Test and the Guilt Complex Test, the methods of chart analysis is
called Global Analysis or Clinical Approach, in which the physiological response are
evaluated as a whole. Subject’s behaviour and facts of the case is also considered in
determining the test outcome (Vrij and Ganis, 2014). In 1953, the Guilt Complex Test
was introduced by John Reid, this technique was designed to test the overly responsive
polygraph subject (Reid & Inbau, 1977, Matte, 1996).

j. Backster Zone Comparison Test

The Zone Comparison Test was developed by Cleve Backster in 1960. The
technique has three zone, green, red and black which represents the types of polygraph
questions. The Backster Zone Comparison Test is consist of three testing format, the
Backster SKY, Backster Exploratory and Backster You-Phase. Backster introduced
and incorporated a sacrifice relevant questions, earlier-in-life comparison question and
symptomatic question to the existing relevant irrelevant test format. The Backster Zone
Comparison Tests were developed as modifications of the original comparison question
technique of John Reid (Nelson, 2013). Cleve Backster introduced the term
psychological set theory, super dampening concept, and anti-climax dampening
concept that was made the central foundation of his techniques.

k. Numerical Scoring of Polygraph Data

Cleve Backster was credited for the introduction of numerical scoring approach in
the evaluation of polygraph charts. The procedure involves assigning numerical scores
on the degree of physiological response observed in relevant and comparison questions.
Backster was also credited for developing a The Uniform Chart makings. He founded
the Backster School of Lie Detection in San Diego, California (Matte, 1996; Nelson
2013).

l. Comparison Question Test

The Comparison Question Test was originated from the Reid Control Question
Technique of John Reid. It was developed by Dr. David Raskin in 1970’s. This
technique use relevant questions that specifically reffering to the crime and comparison
questions that is same in nature of the crime but unrelated by time, place or category.
Comparison questions is believed to produce stronger reaction than the relevant
questions on innocent examinee. Adversely, guilty subject will react strongly on the
relevant questions (Vrij and Ganis, 2014). The theory of Comparison Question Test
suggest that, there are changes in measured physiology load on one group of questions
or the other, as a function of deception or truth-telling to the relevant questions (
Handler, 2018).

m. Early Studies about Computerized Polygraph

 Dr. Joseph F. Kubis of Fordham University was credited for his idea about the
computerization of polygraph. His research work entitled Studies in Lie Detection,
Computer Feasibility Considerations was completed in 1962. Dr. Kubis experiments
includes monitoring the cardiovascular, respiratory, and galvanic skin response. Peak
of Tension Technique was employed and the data collected from the test subject was
numerically evaluated. Despite the favourable result of his experiments, Dr. Kubis
made significant recommendations for the improvement of the deception method for
computerized application (Kubis, 1962, Matte, 1996).

n. Arther II Polygraph and Arther Specific- Accusation Test

Richard O. Arther, Director of National Training Center for Lie Detection, was the
first polygraph examiner to record two pneumograph tracings. In 1965, he introduced
the Arther II polygraph manufactured by Stoelting consisting stimulus marker designed
to record the time when the question was asked and answered. Arther was also the first
to record two galvanic skin response set in self centering and floating mode. He
suggested that automatic or self centering mode is better than manual mode (Arther,
1971; 1986). Subsequent research provide opposite result (Raskin, et al, 1978; Matte,
1996). Arther designed a polygraph technique which include behaviour analysis in the
interpretation of polygraph data (Matte, 1996).

o. Guilty Knowledge Test

Dr. David T. Lykken, professor at University of Minnesota, Medical School

developed and introduced the Guilty Knowledge test in 1960.

p. American Polygraph Association (APA)

The American Polygraph Association was established in 1966. Membership is

composed of polygraph professionals from law enforcement, government and private
sector. The association was formed by merger of several polygraph associations
including the Academy of Scientific Interrogation, American Academy of Polygraph
Examiners, National Board of Polygraph Examiners, and International Association of
Polygraph Examiners (Matte, 1996; Krapohl and Sturm, 2002).

q. Electronic Analog Polygraph

The analog polygraph had evolved from mechanical channel to electronic

component. In 1974, Stoelting introduced the polyscribe, an all-electronic polygraph
instrument with multi function capability to record simultaneously heartbeat, pulse rate
and strength, and changes in blood pressure using both the conventional arm cuff and
CAM. The electronic enhancement enable the examiner, to adjust the amplitude of
tracing (Miller, 1995; Matte, 1996). The Lafayette Instrument Company also
introduced their electronic polygraph instrument. In 1984 Lafayette made modification
by adding an auto base response circuit, designed to increase the amount of baseline
amplification at lower sensitivity setting. Lafayette introduced the Factfinder model
using 1o inches chart available in 3, 4 or 5, channels (Decker & Pochay, 1985; Matte,
1996).
r. Department of Defense Polygraph Institute (DoDPI)

In 1986, the Department of Defense Polygraph Institute was established by virtue

of Department of Defense directive 5210.78. The creation of DoDPI was rooted from
the US Army Military Police School (USAMPS). Dr. William J. Yankee was appointed
as the first director (Decker, 1995). DoDPI was renamed Defense Academy for
Credibility Assesment. DACA was named National Center for Credibility Assessment
in 2010.

s. Army Modified General Question Test

The Department of Defense Polygraph Institute designed a polygraph technique

for multi-facet polygraph testing. This technique is modification of the General
Questions Test of John Reid. The analysis is through numerical evaluation unlike with
the Reid techniques that is clinical approach (Matte, 1996).

t. Employee Polygraph Protection Act

In 1988 the Employee Polygraph Protection Act (EPPA) was enacted in the United
States (Matte, 1996). Prior to the enactment of EPPA, polygraph is administered on
the job applicant screening, periodic employee testing, and investigation of specific
cases in private sectors. The growing complaints raised against the abused on the use
of polygraph leads to the creation of the EPPA. Membership of the American
Polygraph Association was greatly affected by this Act (Vaughan, 2009).

u. Computer Assisted Polygraph System (CAPS)

The Computer Assisted Polygraph System CAPS System was developed by David
Raskin and John Kircher of the University of Utah. It allowed a modified analog
polygraph to interface with a computer. The signal extracted from the pen drive motors
were processed using an analog-to-digital converter.

v. Computerized Polygraph
Drs. David Raskin and John Kircher developed the first US made computerized
polygraph system (CPS). The CPS was introduced into the market by Stoelting Company
in 1991. Its algorithm was developed at the University of Utah by Scientific Assesment
Technology base from several years of extensive research. CPS algorithm analyzed the
physiological changes measured from respiration, skin conductance/ skin response, cardio,
and finger pulse and reports the probability of truthful or deceptive results (Miller, 1995,
Matte, 1996).

In 1988, Bruce White developed and introduced the Axciton Computerized Polygraph
System with its own A/D converter system and custom hardware/ software which was very
flexible, user friendly, but at that time had an inadequate algorithm (Schwartz, 1994; White
1995).

The development of Polygraph Automated Scoring System (Polyscore) at John

Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory started in 1989. The Axciton was selected
by APL for data collection because of availability and compliance with the established
requirements.

In 1993, the new computerized data collection system of Lafayette. Instrument

Company implemented the APL’s Polyscore after making analysis on its signal and
developing data transformation software to account for differences between the two
collections systems (Olsen & Harris, 1995, Matte,1996).