Saint Mary’s University_Criminology Review Center 1
Subject: Lie Detection & Polygraphy
Review Notes in
LIE DETECTION & POLYGRAPHY
I. INTRO TO LIE DETECTION
The idea of searching the truth and
detecting lies began when the first people
became aware that there are deceivers among
them. The practice of detecting deception has
been a constant effort way back before the first
scientific instrument for detecting deception was
invented.
In searching the truth, one must be
aware of the nature of the lies, deceits and
fraud. A lie is a falsehood or a false statement
made deliberately. It refers to anything that
deceives or creates a false impression. It could
be something that gives a false or misleading
impression with or without intention to deceive.
Deceit is a dishonest practice. Also
called deceitfulness, it refers to an act or
practice of deceiving or misleading somebody. It
is something that is done to trick or mislead
somebody.
Lies and deceits are therefore
synonymous and they can be used
interchangeably. Based on their definitions,
these are means of committing deception.
In attempting to discover lies and deceit,
primitive people developed methods that are
founded on magic and mysticism. Since early
people believed that their gods send them
messages through fire and water, they used
these things as means to know the truth. This
practice became known as TRIAL-BY-ORDEAL.
In some situations, faith in mysticism surprisingly
let innocent people go unharmed while guilty
ones die or get seriously injured during their
ordeal.
Dr. Pedro Solis, in his book Legal
Medicine provided a more elaborate
classification of lie detection methods available
today.
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1. Methods involving the use of scientific
devices that record psycho-physiological
responses – these methods include:
a. Word Association Technique (WAT)
b. Psychological Stress Evaluation
(PSE)
c. Polygraph Method (Polygraphy)
2. Methods involving the use of substances
that “inhibit the inhibitor” such as:
a. Administration of “truth serum”
b. Narcoanalysis (also called
Narcosynthesis)
c. Intoxication with alcohol
3. Hypnosis (hypnotic induction)
4. Scientific observation and interrogation
However, there are new sophisticated
techniques of detecting deception not mentioned
by Solis. These include the ff:
1. Computerized Voice Stress Analysis
2. Brain Scanning
3. Iris Analysis
4. Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging
A REVIEW ON HUMAN NERVOUS SYSTEM
The human nervous system is composed of
central nervous system (CNS) and peripheral
nervous system. CNS consists of the brain and
spinal cord.
The peripheral branch includes all nerve tissues
outside the central nervous system. It is
responsible for providing sensory information to
the CNS and carrying motor commands out to
the body’s tissues.
The peripheral branch has two sub-divisions -
the somatic nervous system (SoNS) and the
autonomic nervous system (ANS). The SoNS
controls voluntary motor commands, such as
moving muscles to walk or talk. On the other
hand, the ANS controls involuntary motor
commands, such as digestion and heartbeat.
The ANS, which acts as a self-regulating
(autonomic) response of the body, is further
divided into two branches: sympathetic nervous
system and parasympathetic nervous system.
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Sympathetic nervous system (SyNS), also called
fight or flight mechanism, increases alertness,
stimulates tissue, and prepares the body for
quick responses to unusual situations.
Parasympathetic nervous system (PaNS), also
called rest and repose system, conserves
energy and controls sedentary activities, such as
digestion.
SyNS and PaNS act opposite each other. When
a person is under the influence of physical
stimulus (exertion) or emotional provocation
(such as excitement, fear and anger), the SyNS
dominates and overrides the PaNS. Once there
is shift from SyNS to PaNS (or vice-versa), there
will be changes in:
1. pulse (heart beat)
2. blood pressure
3. breathing
4. response-time
5. voice
6. other physiological reactions
When the conditions of stress are no longer
present, PaNS works to restore things to
normal. Thus, the parasympathetic branch is
dominant when things are normal and the
person is calm, contented and relaxed.
HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF LIE
DETECTION
Primitive methods of detecting deception were
usually in the form of torture and trial by ordeal.
Some authors take trial separately from ordeal.
Trial by ordeal involved the practice of settling a
dispute using divine intervention or Judicium Dei
(God’s judgment).
Ordeal refers to a form of antiquated trial rooted
on the practice of referring disputes to God’s
judgment, determined either by lot or by certain
trials. The following were the various forms of
ordeal practiced in different parts of the world:
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Subject: Lie Detection & Polygraphy
1. FIRE (or HEAT) ORDEAL: In this ordeal,
the accused who claims that he is
innocent is required to walk barefoot over
red hot coals (or over a burning
material). If he is unharmed (or he
escaped unhurt), then his claim is
deemed to be true. In other words, he is
declared innocent. Fire ordeal was
allowed only to persons of high rank.
2. WAGER (OF BATTLE): Wager involves a
pledge to engage in a battle, especially
in order to establish guilt or innocence by
single combat.
3. ORDEAL BY DIVINATION: This ordeal
was practiced in Burma. The two parties
involved in a dispute were given each
candle. These candles of equal size
were then ignited at the same time while
being held by the parties involved. The
party holding the last candle to die would
be considered as the winner.
4. ORDEAL BY COMBAT (also known as
Trial by Combat and Judicial Duel)
In combat ordeal, the judgment of God is
the primary determining factor. The
aggrieved party is given the right to fight
the alleged offender or to pay a
champion to fight for him.
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5. BALANCE ORDEAL: This was practiced
by the members of the Institute of Vishnu
in India. The accused person involved in
the dispute would stand on one end of a
balance. At the other end, a
counterbalance is positioned. The
accused would then step-out of the scale
and a judge will deliver an exhortation to
the balance. He goes back to the
balance and if the balance shows that he
is lighter than before, he is considered
innocent and thus consequently
acquitted
6. RICE-CHEWING ORDEAL: This ordeal
was practiced by the Indians. A type of
rice called sathee is prepared with
various incantations. The accused is
required to chew a handful of sathee
while facing the east direction. After a
few moments, he must spit on a pea leaf.
If saliva is mixed with blood or the corner
of his mouth swells or he trembles, he is
declared a liar.
7. BOILING WATER ORDEAL: The ordeal of
boiling water, according to the laws of
Athelstan, the first king of England,
consisted of lifting a stone out of boiling
water, where the hand had to be dipped
as deep as the wrist.
8. COLD WATER ORDEAL: This was the
usual mode of trial for witchcraft. It
involves a “no-win” situation just like
some other dangerous forms of ordeal.
In this ordeal, the accused was put into a
sack then thrown into an icy pond. If the
accused sank this showed he was
innocent, but he might well drown
anyway. If he floated, this was taken
proof that he was lying and he would be
hanged.
9. RED WATER ORDEAL: Red water
ordeal, also called sassy bark ordeal,
was practiced somewhere in Eastern
Africa. After fasting for 12 hours, the
accused is required to swallow a small
amount of rice. He is then immersed in
dark colored water (water mixed with
juice of sassy bark) which is actually
emetic. If the accused ejects all the rice,
he is considered innocent.
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Subject: Lie Detection & Polygraphy
10. BIER ORDEAL: A bier is a table on
which a casket or a corpse is placed.
Bier ordeal was practiced in England. It
was based on the belief that the dead
could point out their killer. The accused
is required to approach the bier. If the
wound of the dead starts to bleed again,
then the murderer is near.
11. CORSNAED ORDEAL (also called
BLESSED BREAD ORDEAL)
In this ordeal, a priest would place
hallowed bread into the mouth of the
accused while uttering imprecations. If
the accused swallowed the blessed
bread, he would be considered free from
punishment.
12. EUCHARIST TEST: This ordeal was for
the clergy and monks as practiced in
Europe, particularly by the Catholics.
Eucharist is a ceremony in many
Christian churches during which
consecrated bread and wine are
consumed to commemorate the last
meal of Jesus Christ with His disciples
before His death. Accordingly, when the
accused takes the host and he is guilty,
God would smite him with sickness or
death.
PSYCHOPHYSIOLOGICAL
SIGNS/SYMPTOMS OF DECEPTION
A. VERBAL SYMPTOMS OF DECEPTION
These signs are based on the manner of
answering questions by the subject during
interview or interrogation session.
1. Repetition of question
2. Incomplete statements or fragmented
sentences
3. Overly polite
4. Swearing to the truthfulness of
assertion
5. Vague response
6. Use of “I don’t remember…” or “Not
that I remember…” expression
7. Assertiveness
8. Inconsistencies
9. Slip of the tongue
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10. Tirades
11. Pauses
12. Speed of speech
B. NON-VERBAL SYMPTOMS OF
DECEPTION
1. Emblems
2. Manipulators
3. Breathing
4. Sweating and flushed face
5. Dryness of the mouth
6. Frequent swallowing
7. Facial muscle twitching
8. Gaze aversion
9. Facial expressions
10. Fidgeting
These telltale signs of deception can be shown
simultaneously or one at a time by a deceptive
suspect while being questioned. The
manifestations depend on the degree and type
of lie the suspect is using.
TYPES OF LIES
Law enforcement and criminal investigation
books classify lies in this manner:
1. Direct denial - a lie that results to
emotional disturbance
2. Lie of omission - the type of lie commonly
used because it is easy to tell
3. Lie of exaggeration - the type of lie used by
a person who overplays what actually
happened
4. Lie of minimization - involves acceptance
of a person that something happened but
downplays the implication or seriousness
of the offense.
5. Fabricated lie - also called lie of
fabrication, is the type of lie that is most
difficult to use
6. Red lie - sometimes called misinformation,
is a lie in the form of information that is
seemingly valuable but is intended to
destroy a political belief or ideology. Red
lie is better known in politics as
propaganda.
7. Malicious lie - a chronic (constant) lie that
is intended to mislead justice. It is usually
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Subject: Lie Detection & Polygraphy
in the form of a pure dishonest statement
for the purpose of obstructing justice.
TYPES OF LIARS
1. Panic liar - a person who panics when
questioned about his involvement
concerning a crime but immediately denies
the truth to avoid shame or humiliation that it
might cause to his family. A panic liar
decides to circumvent the truth in order to
avoid humiliating consequences of his
confession to himself or to his family.
2. Occupational liar - an individual whose job is
to tell lies and deceive other people. One
who is being paid to tell lies. He is a
practical liar - he will tell lies if doing it
provides a higher pay-off than telling the
truth.
3. Tournament liar - a person who uses the act
of lying to test his ability and prove to his self
that he is capable of deceiving the police or
authorities. One who is gratified by telling
lies to mislead others. His view is that telling
lies is one form of contest.
4. Ethnological liar - a person trained to lie.
Members of intelligence agencies are good
examples of this category of liars.
5. Psychopathic liar - an individual who has no
conscience thus capable of lying to the point
of causing death to other people.
6. Pathological liar - a sick person who tells lies
simply because he cannot distinguish what is
right from what is wrong.
7. Black liar - one who enjoys pretending. A
liar of this type is also known as hypocrite.
II. FUNDAMENTALS OF POLYGRAPH
SCIENCE
POLYGRAPHY or POLYGRAPH SCIENCE is
the scientific method of detecting
deception using an instrument called
polygraph. Some people consider
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polygraphy as the new name of lie
detection. However, strictly speaking,
polygraphy is just a part of the broad
field of lie detection.
A POLYGRAPH is an instrument whereby
multiple signals from the sensors are
recorded on a single strip of moving
paper. A polygraph is a scientific
instrument that simultaneously records
the changes in physiological processes
of the human body.
In polygraphy, the SUBJECT refers to the
person to be (or being) examined,
usually a suspected criminal. The
subject is also called examinee.
The EXAMINER is the expert in polygraph
science who uses polygraph instrument
to verify truthfulness of a subject’s
statement or testimony. Other
descriptions for the examiner are
polygraphist, forensic
psychophysiologist (FP) and polygraph
examiner (PE).
The REQUESTING PARTY refers to the
person or persons who ask for the
services of the examiner to help verify
the truthfulness of a subject’s statement
or testimony. The requesting party is
usually the investigator of the case that
requires the polygraph examination.
POLYGRAPH EXAMINATION is a form of
PVE which involves the examination of
a subject using the polygraph
instrument that officially covers the
moment the subject enters the
polygraph suite until he leaves. It may,
however, include the time when the
examiner officially accepted the case
and commenced gathering information
from the requesting party.
POLYGRAPH TEST is the specific part of the
polygraph examination that transpires
from the moment the chart drive
(kymograph) is turned on until it is
turned off. It is the actual test whereby
the reactions of the subject on a specific
stimulus are being recorded using the
polygraph instrument.
PRE-TEST INTERVIEW is the first official
stage of polygraph examination
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Subject: Lie Detection & Polygraphy
whereby the subject is informed about
the nature of the examination including
his rights in relation to the examination
and conditioned to take the test. During
pre-test interview, the subject is
conditioned for the next stage of
examination known as instrumentation.
INSTRUMENTATION is the stage of
polygraph examination whereby
polygraph instrument is actually used
while asking questions to the subject.
This is also known as the actual test. It
encompasses chart collection and chart
analysis.
POST-TEST QUESTIONING refers to the
questioning that concludes the
examination, either in the form of post-
test interview or post-test interrogation.
What are the objectives of using Polygraph
services?
In crime detection and investigation, the
common objectives of using polygraph
services are the following:
1. To ascertain if a person
(witness/suspect) is telling the
truth
2. To locate the fruit/s and/or
instruments of the crime under
investigation
3. To obtain additional investigative
leads to the facts of the
case/offense
4. To locate the whereabouts of
suspects and wanted persons
5. To identify suspects, witnesses,
and/or victims involved in the
criminal/civil case.
6. To recover valuable information from
reluctant witnesses
7. To eliminate innocent suspects
What are the principal uses of polygraph
examination?
There are 5 main uses of polygraph
examination.
1. Aid in investigation of criminal and
civil cases
2. Speeds up investigation process
3. Eliminate innocent suspects
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4. Pre-employment screening
5. Personnel test for honesty
What are the limitations of the polygraph
instrument?
The polygraph instrument is -
1. invaluable investigative aid but never
a substitute for an investigation.
2. not a lie detector, it is only a
scientific diagnostic instrument.
3. not capable of determining facts, it
only records responses of the
subject.
4. not 100% accurate or 100% reliable,
its accuracy depends on the
examiner’s competency.
Most authors explain that polygraph examination
progresses in 4 phases. The 4 stages of
polygraph examination are as follows:
1. Preliminary Preparation
2. Pre-test Interview
3. Instrumentation
4. Post-test Questioning
The main part of the polygraph examination is
conducted by attaching the polygraph instrument
to three or more different body parts of the
subject. The purpose is to collect physiological
data from at least three systems in the human
body. Convoluted rubber tubes are placed over
the examinee's chest and abdominal area to
record respiratory activity. Two small metal
plates are attached to the fingers to record
sweat gland activity. A blood pressure cuff, or
similar device is wrapped over the arm to record
cardiovascular activity.
Preliminary preparation basically involves the
process of interviewing the requesting party.
The questioning is done by the polygraph
examiner. In most criminal cases, the
requesting party is the investigator on case.
After the examiner’s interview with the
requesting party, initial questioning of the
subject (pre-test interview) takes place. The
examiner interviews the person to be tested for
purposes of gathering additional information
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Subject: Lie Detection & Polygraphy
thus finalizing the formulated questions that will
be asked during the actual test.
The instrumentation stage involves the actual
test. At this stage, questioning of the subject by
the examiner must occur inside the polygraph
room. Before actual questioning begins, the
examiner attaches first the polygraph sensors to
the subject’s body. Polygraph sensors must be
properly fastened to various body parts such
that subject’s physiological reactions towards
the examiner’s questions will be detected and
recorded for evaluation later on.
TASKS OF THE FORENSIC
PSYCHOPHYSIOLOGIST (EXAMINER)
1. Interview - gather facts/information
about the case by asking
questions
2. Profile the subject
3. Formulate polygraph questions
4. Prepare and set-up the polygraph
instrument
5. Conduct pre-test questioning
6. Condition the subject to be tested
7. Collect polygrams
8. Analyze and interpret polygraph
tracings
9. Conduct post-test questioning
PURPOSES OF THE PRE-TEST INTERVIEW
1. To psychologically condition the subject
for the test
2. To determine whether or not the subject
is fit to take the test
3. To have an opportunity to observe and
evaluate the subject thus determine the
best type of techniques applicable on the
case
4. To enable the examiner establish rapport
with the subject
5. To provide opportunity for the examiner
to determine whether the subject
voluntarily submits himself to the test
thus satisfy the requirement of Miranda
Doctrine (if the subject is the criminal
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suspect in the case that caused the
examination)
CHART MARKING – Chart marking is the
process of writing standard and customized
signs on the paper chart to denote the subject’s
reactions and other circumstances that occur
during the actual test. Marking the paper chart
while the pens are writing on it will facilitate the
evaluation and interpretation of the subject’s
reactions.
CHART PROBING – Chart probing refers to the
process of showing the polygram to the subject
and providing brief explanation on the
dissimilarities of responses. The main purpose
of this is to determine the true cause of recorded
responses and to clarify confusion or
misunderstanding that might have been caused
by vague questions.
CHART INTERPRETATION – Chart
interpretation is the process of reading and
deciphering the meaning of graphical responses
of the subject based on the chart tracings.
MAJOR PARTS OF POLYGRAPH:
1. PNEUMOGRAPH - Records breathing or
respiratory pattern. Tubes are fastened in
the chest (P1) and abdomen (P2). As the
subject inhale & exhale, the tube will expand
and contract.
2. GALVANOGRAPH - Records the skin
resistance to a very small amount of
electricity attached on the index and ring
finger. It has a longer pen that Pneumo &
Cardio (4-7inches).
3. CARDIOGRAPH - Records blood pressure
and pulse rate Arm cuff is placed around the
arm, inflated between 60-80mm
 Pressure is measured by
Sphygmomanometer
 Normal BP: 120/80 for adult
 Normal heart beat: 72-80 per minute
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4. KYMOGRAPH - Referred to as Chart Drive
Module. Pulls the chart paper at the rate of
6-12 in. per minute. Chart roll is 100 ft.
long, 6-12 in. width
PERSONALITIES Behind LIE DETECTION:
1. DR. HANS GROSS – Stated that “a large
part of the criminal work is nothing more than
a battle of lies”. Known as the “Father of
Criminalistics”
2. ANGELO MOSSO – Developed the
“SphygMOmanometer” designed to
measure the flow of blood while a person lies
on his back in a prone position.
3. CASARE LOMBROSO – Developed the
“Hydrosphymograph” which is the first
instrument to detect deception.
4. WILLIAM MOULTON MARSTON – Known
as the “Father of Modern Polygraphy”.
5. JOHN LARSON – Developed the first
instrument that simultaneously records blood
pressure, pulse and respiration.
6. LEONARDE KEELER – Invented the
“Keeler Polygraph” that records BP, pulse,
respiration & GSR.Designed the Kymograph
built-in in the polygraph instrument.
7. VITTORIO BENUSSI – Demonstrated that
changes in breathing patterns indicate
deception.
8. HAROLD BURTT – Said that changes in
systolic blood pressure were of greater value
in determining deception than in respiration.
9. LUIGI GALVANI – Developed the GSR or
the galvanometer.
10. VERAGUTH – First to use the term
“psychogalvanic reflex”.
11. JOHN REID – Developed the “reviewed
control question”
12. Discovered the “guilt-complex test”
13. CLEVE BACKSTER – Developed the “Zone
Comparison Test” –designed to disclose
outside issue.
14. RICHARD O. ARCHER – Founded the
“Journal of Polygraph Science” – oldest
polygraph publications.
15. RICHARD I. GOLDEN – Two answers in
control question technique; one is
TRUTH and the other is a LIE.
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Subject: Lie Detection & Polygraphy

16. FRANCIS GALTON - Developed the “Word

Association Test”.
17. ALLEN BELL - Developed the
“Psychological Stress Evaluator”.
18. ANTON MESMER - First to introduce
“hypnotism” as means of detecting
deception.
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Source: Lecture note of Mr. Chester D. King-eo

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