Thalamus

 Thalamus accounts for

80% of the diencephalon
 Sensory relay station
where sensory signals
can be edited, sorted, and
routed to the cortex.
 Also has profound input
on motor (via the basal
ganglia and cerebellum)
and cognitive function.
 Not all functions have
been elucidated.
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Thalamic Nuclei

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  It sendsThalamus
sensory information it
received from different brain
regions to the cerebral cortex.
 Axons from every sensory sys-
tem (except olfaction) synapse
in the thalamus as the last relay
site 'last pit stop' before the in-
formation reaches the cerebral
cortex.
 There are some thalamic nuclei
that receive input from:
1. Cerebellar nuclei,
2. Basal ganglia- and
3. Limbic-related brain regions.

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 Structure of the Thalamus
It has 4 surfaces & 2 ends.
Surfaces
 Lateral (L): Posterior limb of the internal capsule
 Medial: The 3rd ventricle in some people it is connected
to the thalamus of the opposite side by the interthalamic
connexus, (adhesion) or Massa intermedia.
 Superior: Lateral ventricle and fornix.
 Inferior: Hypothalamus, anteriorly & Subthalamus pos-
teriorly.
 Anterior end: Forms a projection, called the anterior tu-
bercle. It lies just behind the interventricular foramen.
 Posterior end: Forms a projection called pulvinar
which lies above the superior colliculus and the lateral
& medial geniculate bodies.

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 Internal Structure of the Thalamus
 White matter has
External medullary lamina:
 Covers the lateral surface.
 It consists of thalamocortical
& corticothalamic fibers.
Internal medullary lamina:
 Bundle of Y- shaped myeli-
nated (afferent & efferent)
fibers.
 It divides the thalamus into:
anterior, medial, lateral nu-
clear groups.
 Each of these group is subdi-
vided into a number of named
nuclei.
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 Lateral Nuclear Group
 It is divided into: Dorsal & Ventral tiers.
 Dorsal tier: which contains:
1. Lateral Dorsal (LD).
2. Lateral Posterior (LP).
3. Pulvinar: It is a collection of nuclei in
the thalamus that are largely related to
visual processing in higher cortical ar-
eas.
 Ventral tier, which contains:
1. Ventral Anterior (VA).
2. Ventral Lateral (VL).
3. Ventral Intermediate (VI).
4. Ventral Posterior (VP): (VPL, VPM)
5. Medial & Lateral geniculate nuclei.
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 Projection of Thalamic Nuclei
Anterior Thalamic Nucleus
 Afferent: Mammillary body.
 Efferent: Cingulate gyrus, (LS)
Medial Nucleus
 Afferent: Hypothalamus.
 Efferent: Prefrontal cortex.
Ventral Anterior Nucleus
 Afferent: Globus pallidus and
substantial nigra.
 Efferent: Premotor cortex.
Ventral Lateral Nucleus
 Afferent: Dentate Nucleus.
 Efferent: Primary Motor Cor-
tex.
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 Projection of Thalamic Nuclei Cont’d
Ventral Posterior Lateral Nucleus
Afferent: medial and spinal leminsci.
Efferent: Sensory cortex.
Ventral Posterior Medial Nucleus
Afferent: Trigeminal Leminiscus.
Efferent: Sensory cortex.
Lateral Geniculate Nucleus
Afferent: Optic tract.
Efferent: Visual Cortex.
Medial Geniculate Nucleus
Afferent: Lateral Leminiscus.
Efferent: Auditory Cortex.

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 Pulvinar Thalami
 Pulvinar is synonyms: none
 The pulvinar is an expansion found on the posterior aspect
of the thalamus.
 The pulvinar is subdivided the medial, lateral and  infe-
rior 
pulvinar nuclei.
 The pulvinar receives inputs from the nuclei of the visual
pathway and projects efferent fibers to the visual cortex,
as well as to association areas of the parietal and temporal
cortices.
 The exact function of the pulvinar is unknown, but due to
its connections, it is suggested that it takes part in modu-
lating higher functions (perception, cognition, memory) in
regards to vision.
 Specifically, the afferent fibers to the pulvinar stem from
the superior colliculus and retina. 9
 Thalamic Nuclei Cont’d
The two thalami are interconnected by communicating fi-
bres called mossa intermedia that pass through the 3rd ven-
tricle.
Each thalamus contains 3 groups of nuclei: anterior, me-
dial, lateral nucliar groups.
Functionally, the thalamic nuclei are classified in to 4 cate-
gories
A. Specific projection nuclei (cortical relay nuclei)
Ventral posterolateral thalamic nucleus: relay station of
somatic sensations from the trunk and limbs
Ventral posteromedial thalamic nucleus: relay station of
somatic sensations from the face and head
Medial geniculate body: relay nucleus of hearing sensa-
tion
Lateral geniculate body: relay nucleus of visual sensation
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 Thalamic Nuclei Cont’d

B. Nonspecific projection thalamic nuclei: in-

cludes anterior and ventero-anterior nuclei.
Receive impulse from RAS and project neu-
rons to all parts of the cerebral cortex.
Anterior thalamic nuclei connected with the
HT and limbic system, concerned with recent
memory.

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 Thalamic Nuclei Cont’d
C. Association nuclei of the thalamus:
 Includes dorsomedial, dorsolateral and posterolateral
nuclei. Receive impulse from prefrontal, parietal and
occipital association areas.
 Dorsal thalamic nuclei: Higher intellectual function
Dorsomedial nucleus: Projects to the prefrontal cor-
tex
Dorsolateral nucleus: Projects to the cortical asso-
ciation areas
D. Motor thalamic nuclei: Ventrolateral nucleus that
communicates with BG, cerebellum and cerebral
motor area
 The VLN receives signal from the BG and cerebel-
lum and sends impulse to the motor cortex
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 Functions of the Thalamus
1. It acts as a relay station of all sensory impulses (sensation of
fast pain, touch, vision, auditory and gustatory) except olfac-
tory sensations to the somatosensory cortex.
2. Relay station of impulses from opposite neocerebellum to the
motor cortex
3. Relay station for impulses from RAS
4. It acts as a final sensory center for the perception of slow pain
warm & crude touch.
5. In collaboration with the limbic system, thalamus is concerned
with storage of recent memory.
Thalamic syndrome: Thrombosis/hemorrhage of thalamo-genicu-
late artery→ degeneration of the posterior and ventral part of
the thalamus→ Hemianesthesia of contra lateral sensations→
recovery of crude sensations
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 Thalamic Syndromes
Based on the site of lesion, thalamic syndrome
grouped as:
Posterolateral thalamic syndromes:
Sensory disorders
Medial thalamic syndromes:
Disorders of consciousness, thalamic ne-
glect, thalamic amnesia
Anterolateral thalamic syndromes:
Motor disorders, paresis, ataxia, motor in-
coordination, dysphagia
 Hypothalamus
 HT is part of the diencephalons,
which forms the floor and the lateral
wall of the 3rd ventricle.
 Located near the bottom of the brain
(below thalamus); blood brain barrier
in this area is weaker than in rest of
the brain
 HT represents less than 1% of the
brain mass, about 5 gm
 Regardless of its size, it plays most
important role in controlling home-
ostasis.
 It is the main brain structure involved
in regulating hormonal levels in the
body
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 Hypothalamic Nuclei
Hypothalamic nuclei are classified into 5 groups as ante-
rior, middle, posterior, lateral and periventricular nu-
clei.
1. The anterior group includes the preoptic, paraven-
tricular, supraoptic, suprachiasmatic and the anterior
nuclei.
2. The middle group includes the arcuate, ventromedial,
dorsomedial and dorsal nuclei
3. The posterior groups includes the posterior nucleus,
premamillary, medial and lateral mamillary nuclei
4. The lateral nucleus forms one large nuclear mass
5. The periventricular nucleus is a thin sheet of gray
matter near the 3rd ventricle
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Hypothalamic Nuclei

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Hypothalamic Nuclei and their Functions

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 Functions of the Hypothalamus
1. Controls the ANS
 Anterior nuclei acts as a parasympathetic center
 Posterior nuclei acts as a sympathetic center
2. Endocrine function
 Controls adenohypophyseal hormones
 Controls neurohypophyseal hormones
 Controls adrenal medulla
3. Regulation of body temperature
 The thermostat center (anterior preoptic area)
 The heat losing center (anterior HT)
 Heat gaining center (posterior HT)
4. Regulates emotional behaviors such as anger,
fear, pain and pleasure.

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 Functions of Hypothalamus Cont´d
5. Controls food intake (hunger sensation):
- Feeding center (lateral HT),
- Satiety center (ventromedial HT)
6. Control of water-electrolyte balance
- Thirst center (lateral HT, OVLT)
- Osmoreceptors (anterior HT, SON, SFO)
e
7. Control of sexual behavior: libido, sexual activities ar
controlled by cerebral cortex, limbic system and HT.
8. Regulates sleep: Lesion to posterior HT-somnolence.
Hy po tha lam ic ne uro ns pr oject on RA S wh ere sleep cen-
ter is located.
9. Regulates MR by stimulating calorigenic hormones
such as T3/T4, AD, NA, glucocorticoids.
10. Co nt rol s milk letdo wn and uterin e co ntrac tio n (P VN ).
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 Effect of HT Lesion

 Diabetes insipidus: ↓ADH, polyuria

 Hypo-/hyperthermia
 Sleep disturbance
 Hormonal disturbance: Kallman’s syndrome
 Hyperphagia, obesity
 Emotional disturbance

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