By

DR. Khairun Nisa Berawi

Medical Faculty, Universitas Lampung
 Cerebrum

Corpus
Thalamus
callosum
Hypothalamus
Midbrain Cerebellum
Pons

Medulla
Oblongata

Regions of the Right Half of the Brain

 Divisions and function of the brain
Brainstem Connect the spinal cord to the cerebrum, several important
functions, location of cranial nerve nuclei
Medulla Pathway for ascending and descending nerve tracts; center for
Oblongata several important reflexes (e.g., heart rate, breathing, swallowing,
vomiting)
Pons Contains ascending and descending nerve tracts; relay between
cerebrum and cerebellum; reflex centers
Midbrain Contain ascending and descending nerve tracts; visual reflex
centers; part of auditory pathway
Reticular Scattered throughout the brainstem; controls cyclic activities
formation such as the sleep-wake cycle
Cerebellum Control of muscles movement and tone; regulates extent of
intentional movement; involved in learning motor skills

Division ……………………
Diencephalon
Thalamus Major sensory relay center; influences mood and movement
Subthalamus Contain nerve tracts and nuclei
Epithalamus Contains nuclei responding to olfactory stimulation and contains
pineal body
Hypothalamus Major control center for maintaining homeostasis and regulating
endocrine function
Cerebrum Conscious perception; thought, and conscious motor activity;
can override most other systems
Basal Nuclei Control of muscle activity and postures; largerly inhibit
unintentional movement when at rest
Limbic System Autonomic response to smell, emotion, mood, and other such
functions

Brainstem ………………
 Brainstem
1. Brainstem connects the spinal cord to the reminder of the
brain
2. Responsible for many functions,  damage to small area
often causes death
3. The brain stem consists of medulla oblongata, pons, and
midbrain
Anterior view of Brainstem and Diencephalon
Medulla oblongata ……..
 Medulla Oblongata
1. The medulla oblongata is the continuous with the spinal cord and contain
ascending and descending nerve tracts
2. The pyramids are nerve tracts containing voluntary muscle movement
3. The olives are nuclei that function in equilibrium, coordination, and
modulation of sound from the inner ear
4. Medullary nuclei regulate the heart, blood vessels, respiration,
swallowing, vomiting, coughing, sneezing, and hiccupping, the nuclei of
the cranial nerves V and IX – XII are in the medulla

Pons …………..
 Pons
1. The pons is superior to the medulla
2. Ascending and descending nerve tracts pass through the pons
3. Pontine nuclei regulate sleep and respiration. The nuclei of cranial nerves
V – IX are in the pons

Midbrain ………
 Midbrain
1. The midbrain is superior to the pons
2. The midbrains contains the nuclei for cranial nerves III, IV, and V
3. The tectum consists of for colliculi. The two inferior colliculi are
involved in hearing and the two superior colliculi in visual reflexes
4. The tegmentum contains ascending tracts and the red nuclei, which are
involved in motor activity
5. The cerebral peduncles are the major descending motor pathway
6. The substantia nigra connect to other basal nuclei and is involved with
muscle tone and movement

Reticular formation ……………

 Reticular formation
The reticular formation consists of nuclei scattered throughout the brainstem.
The reticular-activating system extends to the thalamus and cerebrum and
maintains consciousness.

Cerebellum ……………..
 Cerebellum

1. Cerebellum communicates with midbrain, pons, and medulla oblongata

through the superior, middle, and inferior cerebellar peduncles
respectively
2. Cerebellum has three parts, flocculonodular lobe, vermis, and lateral
hemisphere.
3. Flocculonodular lobe is the simplest part helps control balance and eye
movement
4. The vermis and medial portion of the lateral hemisphere are involved in
the control of posture, locomotion, and fine motor coordination 
producing smooth, flowing movements
5. The major portion of the lateral hemispheres is involved, with the cerebral
cortex of the frontal lobe, in planning, practicing, and learning complex
movements

Diencephalon …………
 Diencephalon

The diencephalon is the part of the brain between the brainstem

and the cerebrum. Its main components are the thalamus,
subthalamus, epithalamus, and hypothalamus

Thalamus ……………….
 Thalamus
1. Thalamus is the largest (four-fifths) part of the diencephalon, a cluster of
nuclei shaped somewhat like yo-yo that connected by interthalamic
adhesion or intermediate mass.
2. The space surrounding the intermediate mass is the third ventricle of the
brain
3. Most sensory input project to the thalamus. Axon carrying auditory
information synapse in the medial geniculate nucleus; axon carrying
visual information synapse in the lateral geniculate nucleus, and the most
sensory impulses synapse in the ventral nucleus
4. The thalamus influence mood and action associated with strong emotion.
5. ……………..

Thalamus ………….
5. The ventral anterior and ventral lateral nuclei are involved in motor
functions, communicating between the basal ganglia, cerebellum, and the
motor cortex.
6. The anterior medial nuclei are connected to the limbic system and to
prefrontal cortex and involved in mood modification.
7. The lateral dorsal nuclei is connected to other thalamic nuclei and to
cerebral cortex and is involved in regulating emotions
8. The lateral posterior nucleus and the pulvinar connected to other thalamic
nuclei and are involved in sensory integration

Subthalamus …………..
 Subthalamus
1. The subthalamus is a small area immediately inferior to the thalamus,
contains several ascending and descending nerve tracts and subthalamic
nuclei.
2. A small portion of the red nucleus and substantia nigra of midbrain extend
into this area
3. The subthalamic nuclei are associated with the basal nuclei and are
involved in controlling motor functions

Epithalamus …………….
 Epithalamus
1. Epithalamus is located superior and posterior to the thalamus, contains
habenular nuclei and pineal body
2. Habenular nuclei are influenced by the sense of smell and are involved in
emotional and visceral responses to odors
3. The pineal body is shaped somewhat like a pinecone appears to play a role
in controlling the onset of puberty (active research still continued) and
may influence the sleep – wake cycle

Hypothalamus …………..
 Hypothalamus
1. The most inferior portion of the diencephalon contains several nuclei and
tracts
2. The mammilary bodies are reflex centers for olfaction
3. Hypothalamus regulates many endocrine functions (e.g., metabolism,
reproduction, response to stress, and urine production). The pituitary
gland attaches to the hypothalamus
4. The hypothalamus regulate body temperature, hunger, thirst, satiety,
swallowing, and emotions.

Hypothalamic functions ………………..

 Hypothalamic functions
Function Description
Autonomic Helps control heart rate, urine release from the bladder,
movement of food through the digestive tract, and blood vessel
diameter
Endocrine Helps regulate pituitary gland secretion and influences
metabolism, ion balance, sexual development, and sexual
functions
Muscle tone Controls muscles involved in swallowing and stimulate
shivering in several muscles
Temperature Promotes heat loss when the hypothalamic temperature increases
regulation by increasing sweat production (anterior hypothalamus) and
promotes heat production when the hypothalamic temperature
decreases by promoting shivering (posterior hypothalamus)

Hypothalamic functions ………………..

Regulation of Hunger center promotes eating and satiety center inhibits eating;
food and water thirst center promotes water intake
intake
Emotions Large range emotional influences over body functions; directly
involved in stress – related and psychosomatic illnesses and with
feelings of fear and rage
Regulation of Coordinates responses to the sleep-wake cycle with the other
the sleep–wake areas of brain (e.g., the reticular activating system)
cycle

Cerebrum …………
 Cerebrum
1. The cortex of cerebrum is folded into ridges called gyri and grooves called
sulci, or fissures
2. The longitudinal fissure divided the cerebrum into left and right
hemispheres. Each hemisphere has five lobes
a. The frontal lobes are involved in smell, voluntary motor function,
motivation, aggression, and mood
b. The parietal lobes contain the major sensory areas receiving general
sensory input, taste, and balance
c. The oocipital lobes contain the visual centers
d. The temporal lobes receive olfactory and auditory input and are
involved in memory, abstract thought, and judgment
e. Cerebellum function in equilibrium
3. Nerve tracts connect area of the cortex within the same hemisphere
(association fibers), between different hemispheres (commissural fibers),
and with other part of the brain and spinal cord (projection fibers)
FUNCTIONAL AREAS OF THE
CEREBRAL CORTEX
Sensory & Motor Areas
The main functional areas of the cortex
1. Sensory areas receives and interpret sensory impulse
2. Motor areas control muscular movement
3. Association areas deal with more complex integrative
functions such as memory, emotion, reasoning, will,
judgment, personality traits, and intelligence
Sensory areas
1. Sensory input to the cerebral cortex flows mainly to the
posterior half of the hemispheres, to regions posterior to the
central sulci
2. In the cortex, primary sensory receptors, most direct
connection with peripheral sensory receptor
3. Secondary sensory areas and association areas often are
adjacent to the primary areas. Receive input from primary
areas and diverse other regions of the brain. Participate the
interpretation of sensory experiences into meaningful patterns
of recognition and awareness
 Motor Areas
Motor output from the cerebral cortex flows mainly from the
anterior portion of each hemisphere
 Reflexes in the Brainstem Involving Cranial Nerves
1. Many reflexes involved in homeostasis involve the cranial
nerves and occur in the brainstem
2. Many of the brainstem reflexes are associated with the cranial
nerve function
3. The circuitry of most these reflexes is too complex for our
discussion, but some general outlines can be presented.
These reflexes involve sensory input from the cranial nerves
or spinal cord, and motor output of motor cranial nerves
INTEGRATION OF NERVOUS SYSTEM
 SENSATION
1. The sense included general senses and special senses
2. Somatic senses include touch, pressure, temperature, proprioception,
and pain
3. Visceral senses are primarily pain and pressure
4. Special senses are smell, taste, sight, hearing, and balance
5. Sensation, or perception, is the conscious awareness of stimuli
received by sensory receptors
6. Sensation requires a stimulus, a receptor, conduction of an action
potential to the CNS, translation of the action potential, and
processing of the action potential in the CNS so that the person is
aware of a sensation
 RECEPTORS
1. Receptor include mechanoreceptors, chemoreceptors,
photoreceptors, and nociceptors
2. Free nerve endings detect light touch, pain, itch,
tickle, and temperature
 Receptors in the skin
1. Merkel’s disks respond to light touch and superficial pressure
2. Hair follicle receptors wrap around the hair follicle and are involved
in the sensation of light touch when the hair is bent
 Receptors in the skin
3. Pacinian corpuscles, located in the dermis, detect pressure. In joint,
they serve a proprioceptive function
4. Meissner’s corpuscles, located in the dermis. Are responsible for
two-point discriminative touch
 Receptors in the skin
Ruffini’s end organs are involved in continuous touch or pressure
 Sensory Receptor in the Muscle
Muscle spindles, located in the skeletal muscle, are proprioceptors
 Sensory Receptor in Tendon
Golgi tendon organs, embedded in the tendons, respond to changes in
tension
 TWO-POINT DISCRIMINATION
Two point discrimination can be demonstrated by touching a persons’ skin
with two points of a compass. When the two points are close together, the
individual perceives only one point. When the two points of the compass
are opened wider, the person becomes aware of two points
 Responses of Sensory Receptors
1. A stimulus produces a receptor potential in a sensory receptor.
Primary receptors have axons that transmit action potentials
toward the CNS. Secondary receptors have no axons but release
neurotransmitters
2. Adaptation is decreased sensitivity to a continued stimulus.
Tonic receptors accommodate slowly, phasic receptors
accommodate rapidly
 SENSORY NERVE TRACTS

Spinothalamic System
The lateral spinothalamic tract transmits
action potentials for pain and
temperature. Lines in the inset indicate
levels of section
 SENSORY NERVE TRACTS

Spinothalamic System
The anterior spinothalamic tract
transmits action potentials for light
touch
 Dorsal-Column = Medial-
Lemniscal System

The fasciculus gracilis and fasciculus

cuneatus convey proprioception and two-
points discrimination. Only the gracilis
pathway is shown. Lines on the inset
indicate levels of section
 Posterior Spinocerebellar Tract

This tract transmits proprioceptive

information from the thorax, upper
limbs, and upper lumbar region to the
cerebellum. Lines in the unset indicate
levels of section
 SENSORY AREAS OF THE CEREBRAL CORTEX
Functional Regions of the Lateral Side of the Left Cerebral Cortex
Areas of Referred pain on
the Body Surface
Topography of
the Somatic
Sensory Cortex
 MOTOR
CORTEX

Topography of the
Primary Motor
Cortex
 MOTOR NERVE TRACTS

Descending Pathways
The direct pathways (corticobulbar and
corticospinal) are indicated by the blue
arrow. The indirect pathways and their
interconnections are indicated by the
red arrow
 Direct Pathways
Lateral and anterior corticospinal
tract, which are responsible for
movement below the head. Lines in
the inset indicate levels of section
 Indirect Pathways
Examples of indirect pathways:
rubrospinal and reticulospinal tracts.
Lines in the inset indicate levels of
section
 MODIFYING AND REFINING MOTOR ACTIVITIES
1. Basal nuclei are important in planning, organizing, and
coordinating motor movement and posture
2. The cerebellum has three parts:
a. The vestibulocerebellum controls balance and eye
movement
b. The spinocerebellum functions to correct discrepancies
between intended movements and actual movements
c. The cerebrocerebellum can “learn” highly specific
complex motor activities
 Cerebellar Comparator Function

Motor Cortex 7

1 Thalamus

Spinal cord 2
Skeletal
muscle 3 5
6

Red nucleus Cerebellum

Lower motor neuron 4
Proprioception

1. The motor cortex sends action potentials to lower motor neurons in the spinal
cord
 Cerebellar Comparator Function

Motor Cortex 7

1 Thalamus

Spinal cord 2
Skeletal
muscle 3 5
6

Red nucleus Cerebellum

Lower motor neuron 4
Proprioception

2. Action potentials from the motor neuron inform the cerebellum of the
intended movement
 Cerebellar Comparator Function

Motor Cortex 7

1 Thalamus

Spinal cord 2
Skeletal
muscle 3 5
6

Red nucleus Cerebellum

Lower motor neuron 4
Proprioception

3. Lower motor neurons in the spinal cord send action potentials to the
skeletal muscle, causing them to contract
 Cerebellar Comparator Function

Motor Cortex 7

1 Thalamus

Spinal cord 2
Skeletal
muscle 3 5
6

Red nucleus Cerebellum

Lower motor neuron 4
Proprioception

4. Proprioceptive signals from the skeletal muscles and joints to the

cerebellum conveys information concerning the status of the muscle and
the structure being moved during contraction
 Cerebellar Comparator Function

Motor Cortex 7

1 Thalamus

Spinal cord 2
Skeletal
muscle 3 5
6

Red nucleus Cerebellum

Lower motor neuron 4
Proprioception

5. The cerebellum compares the information from the motor cortex to the
proprioceptive information from the skeletal muscles and joints
 Cerebellar Comparator Function

Motor Cortex 7

1 Thalamus

Spinal cord 2
Skeletal
muscle 3 5
6

Red nucleus Cerebellum

Lower motor neuron 4
Proprioception

6. Action potentials from the cerebellum to the spinal cord modify the
stimulation from the motor cortex to the lower motor neuron
 Cerebellar Comparator Function

Motor Cortex 7

1 Thalamus

Spinal cord 2
Skeletal
muscle 3 5
6

Red nucleus Cerebellum

Lower motor neuron 4
Proprioception

7. Action potentials from the cerebellum are sent to the motor cortex, which
modify its motor activity
 BRAIN WAVES AND SLEEP

EEG showing brain waves

(a) EEG tracing when a person is awake and during four stage of sleep.
(b) Atypical night’s sleep pattern in a young adult. The time spent in REM sleep
is labeled and shown by dark bars
 MEMORY
1. Sensory memory
 Very short-term retention of sensory input received by the brain while
something is scanned, evaluated, and acted on.
 Lasts less than a second

2. Short term memory

 If a given piece of data held in sensory memory is considered
valuable enough, information is retained for a few second to a few
minute
 This memory is limited by the number of bits of information (usually
about seven, telephone number) that can be stored at one time,
although the amount varies from person to person. More bit can be
stored when the number are grouped into specific segments separated
by the spaces, such as when adding an area code. This memory will
be eliminated when a new information is given

3. Long-term memory………..
3. Long-term memory
a. Explicit or declarative memory
 Involves the retention of facts, such names, dates, and places
 Explicit memory is accessed by part of temporal lobe called the
hippocampus and amygdaloid nucleus. The hippocampus is involved
in receiving the actual memory, such as recalling a person’s name;
and the amygdala is involved in the emotional overtones of that
memory, such as feelings of like or dislike, and recollection of good
or bad memories associated with that person.
 A lesion in the temporal lobe affecting the hippocampus can prevent
the brain from moving information from short-term memory.
b. Implicit or procedural memory or reflexive memory……..
b. Implicit or procedural memory or reflexive memory……..
 Involves the development of skills like riding a bicycle or playing
piano
 Implicit memory is stored primarily in the cerebellum and the
premotor area of the cerebrum
 Conditioned, or Pavlovian, reflexes are also implicit and can be
eliminated in experimental animal by producing cerebellar lesions in
animal
 Only a small amount of implicit memory is lost through the time
 Long-term potentiation
 Long-term potentiation is a process that facilitates future
transmission of action potentials from short-term to long-term
memory
 The amount transmitter glutamate produced and released by
the presynaptic neuron increases
 The receptor of glutamate in the postsynaptic membrane
increases and the reaction of the postsynaptic neuron to
glutamate is potentiated
 Long-term memory storage in a single neuron also involves
calcium influx into the postsynaptic cell.
 Calcium ions associate with and activate calmodulin
 A whole series of neuron and their pattern of activity, called a
memory engram, or memory trace
 Cellular Mechanism of Long-Term Potentiation

1. The amount of the neurotransmitter glutamate produced by the presynaptic

neuron increases
2. The amount of glutamate released by the presynaptic neuron also increase
 Cellular Mechanism of Long-Term Potentiation

3. The number of glutamate receptors on the postsynaptic neuron membrane

increases
4. Ca2+ channel in the postsynaptic membrane open, allowing Ca2+ enter the cell
 Cellular Mechanism of Long-Term Potentiation

5. The Ca2+ that enters the cell associates with the intracellular molecule
calmodulin
6. Activated calmodulin activates a cAMP second messenger, which stimulates
synthesis of specific proteins
 Cellular Mechanism of Long-Term Potentiation

7. The cellular effect may involve structural changes in the cell

Cerebral Medullary
Tracts

Decussatio
Pyramidalis
 Limbic System

1. Fornix 1 8
2. Anterior 2
9
thalamic
3
nucleus
4 10
3. Anterior
commissure 11
5
4. Septal nucleus 6 12
5. Olfactory bulb 7
6. Olfactory 13
Cortex
7. Mammillary
body 9. Corpus callosum

8. Cingulate 10. Habenular nucleus

gyrus 11. Dentate nucleus + 12 Fimbria = Hippocampus
13. Amygdaloid nucleus
 Limbic System
1. The limbic system includes parts of the cerebral cortex, basal
nuclei, thalamus, hypothalamus, and the olfactory cortex
2. The limbic system controls visceral function through the
autonomic neurons system and the endocrine system and is
also involved in emotion and memory
 Cranial Nerves

1. Cranial nerves perform sensory, somatic motor,

prorprioceptive, and parasympathetic function
2. N. I (olfactory) and II (optic) are involved in sense of smell
and vision
3. N. III (oculomotor) innervates four of six extrinsic eye
muscles and the upper eyelid. The N. III also provides
parasympathetic supply to the iris and lens of the eye
4. N. IV (trochlear) controls an extrinsic eye muscle
5. …..
 Cranial Nerves

5. N. V (trigeminal) supplies the mastication muscles, as well as

middle ear muscle, a palatine muscle, and two throat muscle.
Has the greatest sensory distribution of the cranial nerve. Has
three branches, two of them innervate teeth
6. N. VI (abducens) control an extrinsic eye muscle
7. N. VII (facial) supplies the muscles of the facial expression,
an inner ear muscle, and two throat muscles. It is involved in
the sense of taste. It’s parasympathetic to two set of salivary
glands and to the lacrimal glands
8. N. VIII (vestibulocochlear) is involved in the sense of hearing
and balance
9. ………..
9. N. IX (glossopharyngeal) in involved in taste and supplies
tactile sensory innervation from the posterior tongue, middle
ear, and pharynx. It’s also sensory for receptors that monitor
blood pressures and gas level in the blood. N. IX is
parasympathetic to the parotid salivary glands
10. N. X (vagus) innervates the muscles of the pharynx, palate,
and larynx. It’s also involved in the sense of taste. N. X is
sensory for pharynx and larynx and for receptors that monitor
blood pressure and gas level in the blood. N. X. is sensory
for thoracic and abdominal organs. N. X provides
parasympathetic innervation to the thoracic and abdominal
organs
11. …….
11. N. XI (accessory) has a cranial and a spinal component.
The cranial component joins the vagus nerve. The spinal
component supplies the sternocleidomastoid and trapezius
muscles.
12. N. XII (hypoglossal) supplies the intrinsic tongue muscles,
three of four extrinsic tongue muscles, and two throat
muscles.
Assignment
1. What are the major components of the medulla oblongata, pons, midbrain,
and reticular formation? What are the general functions of each region?
2. What are the major region of the cerebellum? Describe the major
functions of each?
3. Name the four main components of the diencephalon
4. What are the functions of the thalamus and hypothalamus? Explain why
the hypothalamus is an important link between the nervous system and the
endocrine system
5. List the general functions of the subthalamus. Name the parts of the
epithalamus and give their functions
6. Define the terms gyri and sulci. What structures do the longitudinal
fissure, central sulcus, and lateral fissure separate?
7. …………..
7. Define the terms cerebral cortex and cerebral medulla
8. Name five lobes of the cerebrum, and describe their location and function
9. List categories of nerve tracts in the cerebral medulla
10. List the basal nuclei and their general function
11. List the parts of the limbic system
12. What are the three major functions of the cranial nerves?
13. Which cranial nerve are sensory only? With what sense is each of these
nerves associated?
14. Name cranial nerves that are somatic motor and proprioceptic only. What
muscles or muscles group does each nerve supply?
15. The sensory cutaneous innervation os the face is provided by what cranial
nerve? How is this nerve important in dentistry? Name the muscles that
would not function if this nerve was damaged
16. Which four cranial nerves have a parasympathetic function? Describe the
function of each these nerves
17. Name the cranial nerves that control the movement of the eyeball.