Neuropsychology of Human Behavior

Lecturer: 05
 Neuropsychology

 Neuropsychology is a branch of psychology which is concerned with how a

person's cognition and behavior are related to the brain and the rest of the
nervous system. 

 Psychological researchers study genetics in order to better understand the

biological basis that contributes to certain behaviors. While all humans share
certain biological mechanisms, we are each unique. And while our bodies
have many of the same parts brains and hormones and cells with genetic codes
these are expressed in a wide variety of behaviors, thoughts, and reactions.
The Nervous System:
 The most complicated system in human body where billions of
interconnected cells radiate all over the body.

 Specialized cells of nervous system include:

 Receptor cells: embedded in sense organs, (seeing – hearing –

smelling – tasting – touching). Receive various types of stimulation
from environment, which are then transmitted to the brain.
 Effector cells: Brain sends motor signals to the effector cells embedded in

muscles and glands.

 Neurons: communicate information with one another by sending

electrochemical messages from neuron to neuron(connect receptor cells to

effector cells). They are the basic building blocks of the central nervous

system.

 Nerve: long, fibrous parts of many neurons bundled together, and run

through the bodies.

Structure of Neuron Cell:
Structure of Neuron Cell:
 1. Cell body: The life support center of the cell. The nucleus of the is located

in the soma which controls and regulates the activities of the cell (e.g.,
growth and metabolism) and carries the genes, structures that contain the
hereditary information. 

 2. Dendrites: Branch-like structures extending away from the cell body,

and their job is to receive messages from other neurons and allow those
messages to travel to the cell body.
Structure of Neuron Cell:

 3. Axons: also called nerve fibre, portion of

a nerve cell (neuron) that carries nerve

impulses away from the cell body. Axons
ends at multiple terminal buttons. The
terminal buttons contain synaptic vesicles
that house neurotransmitters, the chemical
messengers of the nervous system.
CONT..
 Synapse is the chemical junction between the axon terminals of one
neuron and the dendrites of the next. It is a gap where specialized
chemical interactions can occur, rather than an actual structure.
 Types of Neuron
 1-Sensory neurons:Carry information form
sense organs to the brain & spinal cord.

 2-Motor neurons: Carry signals from brain

and spinal cord to muscles and glands.

 3-Inter-neurons: Connect neuron to other

neurons.
Division of nervous system:
 1- Central Nervous System (CNS): consists of brain and spinal cord.

 2-Peripheral Nervous System (PNS): Branching out from the CNS and leading to all
parts of the body.

  Neurons from PNS convey signals from receptor cells to the spinal cord and brain
(afferent pathway).

 Neurons transmit messages from brain and spinal cord to effectors cells (efferent
pathway).
Efferent pathway has two divisions:

1. Somatic nervous system: it controls actions that are under voluntary control.

2. Autonomic nervous system: control muscles of internal organs ( the heart, intestine,

blood vessels) and glands, usually automatic or involuntary.

Autonomic nervous system has two divisions:
(opposite effects).

A. Sympathetic Nervous System:

It is involved in preparing the body for stress-related activities. It controls the body's "fight or

flight" responses, or how the body reacts to perceived danger. Increase heartbeat, breathing,

muscle contracts and pupil dilates. In emergency situations as meeting a snake, lead to

increase blood sugar, heart rate and blood pressure, and inhibiting digestion.
B. Parasympathetic Nervous System:

It is associated with returning the body to routine, day-to-day operations. Involved in

maintaining homeostasis and also, permits the rest and digest response. Reduces heartbeat,

breathing, muscles relaxes, and pupil contracts.

Parts of Brain
1. Forebrain
Largest part of the brain. A large part of it is the cerebrum which
contains two hemisphere and lobes of the brain and is
responsible for receiving and giving meaning to information
from sense organs as well as controlling the body. The outer
layer of the cerebrum is called the cerebral cortex. The other
structures in the forebrain (the thalamus, the hypothalamus,
amygdala and hippocampus) are found just underneath the
cerebrum.
 Forebrain
Cerebral Cortex: The cortex is composed of two hemispheres on the
left and right sides of the brain that are connected by the corpus
callosum. Each hemisphere is divided into four lobes:
I. Frontal Lobe: is located at the front of the brain and is associated
with reasoning, motor skills, higher level cognition, problem solving,
planning and expressive language. This area of the brain receives
information from various lobes of the brain and utilizes this information
to carry out body movements. Damage to the frontal lobe can lead to
changes in sexual habits, socialization, and attention as well as
increased risk-taking.
 Forebrain
 II. Parietal Lobe: is located in the middle section of the brain and is associated
with processing tactile sensory information such as pressure, touch, and pain.
The parietal lobe is also involved in consciousness and paying attention. If you
are paying attention to what you are reading, your parietal lobe is activated.
 III. Temporal Lobe:  is located on the bottom section of the brain. This lobe is
also the location of the primary auditory cortex, which is important for
interpreting sounds and the language we hear. The hippocampus is also located
in the temporal lobe, which is why this portion of the brain is also heavily
associated with the formation of memories. For example, if you are trying to
keep in memory the images that are shown, then your temporal lobe is
involved. The temporal lobe also matches new things you see to what you have
retained in visual memory. Damage to the temporal lobe can lead to problems
with memory, speech perception, and language skills.
 Forebrain
 IV. Occipital Lobe:  is located at the back portion of the brain and is
associated with interpreting visual stimuli and information. It is
associated with visual processing. The primary visual cortex, which
receives and interprets information from the retinas of the eyes, is
located in the occipital lobe. The occipital lobe contains numerous
visual areas, each specialized to analyze specific aspects of a scene,
including color, motion, location, and form. When you go to pick
strawberries, your occipital lobe is involved in helping you find the red
strawberries in between the green leaves. Damage to this lobe can cause
visual problems such as difficulty recognizing objects, an inability to
identify colors, and trouble recognizing words.
Forebrain
 The amygdala plays an important role in emotion as well, especially in anger
and aggression. Damage to (lesions in) or removal of the amygdala can result in
maladaptive lack of fear.
 The hippocampus plays an essential role in memory formation. People who have
suffered damage to or removal of the hippocampus still can recall existing
memories for example, they can recognize old friends and places but they are
unable to form new memories (relative to the time of the brain damage).
 Thalamus Regulates sleep, wakefulness and alertness. When the thalamus
malfunctions, the result can be pain, tremor, amnesia, impairment of language,
and disruptions in waking and sleeping.
 Hypothalamus involved in temperature regulation, appetite control, endocrine
function.
2. Midbrain
 Connects forebrain with hindbrain.

 The midbrain is relatively small.

 It is found just above the pons, and surrounded by the forebrain.

 The midbrain helps to control eye movement and coordination.

3. Hindbrain

 The medulla oblongata controls heart activity and largely controls breathing,
swallowing, and digestion. The medulla is also the place at which nerves from the
right side of the body cross over to the left side of the brain and nerves from the
left side of the body cross over to the right side of the brain.

 Pons: Above the medulla is the pons, which is important for the control of
attentiveness, as well as the timing of sleep. At this point, the major nerve tracts
coming up from the spinal cord cross over so that the right side of the brain is
connected to the left side of the body, and the left side of the brain is connected to
the right side of the body.
Hindbrain

 Cerebellum: (from Latin, “little brain”) Attached to the rear of the

brainstem slightly above the medulla is a convoluted structure called the
cerebellum, which is concerned primarily with the coordination of
movement. Damage to the cerebellum results in jerky, uncoordinated
movements.
Neurotransmitters

Chemical substances manufactured

in the neuron, aid in the

transmission of information

throughout the body.

 Neurotransmitters and Drugs
 There are several different types of neurotransmitters released by different neurons.
Much of what psychologists know about the functions of neurotransmitters comes from
research on the effects of drugs in psychological disorders. Psychologists who take a
biological perspective and focus on the physiological causes of behavior assert that
psychological disorders like depression and schizophrenia are associated with
imbalances in one or more neurotransmitter systems. In this perspective, psychotropic
medications can help improve the symptoms associated with these disorders.
Psychotropic medications are drugs that treat psychiatric symptoms by restoring
neurotransmitter balance.
 Major Neurotransmitters

 1- Dopamine: Control of complex  3- Epinephrine (adrenaline): Controls

movements, motivation, cognition, and fight-or-flight response in anxiety
regulation of emotional responses. disorders.

 2- Nor-epinephrine(Noradrenalin): plays
a role in changes in attention, learning and
 4- Serotonin: Control of
memory, sleep and wakefulness, and mood
sleep ,wakefulness, emotions and sexual
regulation.
behavior.
Cont..

 5- Gamma-Amino Butyric Acid

(GABA): Increase GABA function used
to treat anxiety and induce sleep.

 6- Acetylcholine: affect the sleep/wake

cycle and to signal muscles to become
active.