Central

Nervous
THE BRAIN
System
 The Human Brain
 Complex
 1.4 kg in weight
 Pre frontal cortex
 2% of body weight
 20% of oxygen
 15% of our cardiac input
 10% of all energy
MAJOR LAND MARKS OF THE BRAIN
FOREBRAIN
(prosencephalon)

– the anterior part of the brain, including the

cerebral hemispheres, the thalamus, and the
hypothalamus.
– Separates into telencephalon and diencephalon
Telencephalon (Cerebrum)

– subdivision of the forebrain

– comprised of the cerebral cortex, the hippocampus,
amygdala, olfactory bulb, and basal ganglia. The cerebral
cortex is the wrinkled outer covering of the brain.
Functions of the Cerebrum

1) conscious thought process

2) intellectual functions
3) memory storage and processing
4) conscious and subconscious regulation of
skeletal muscle contractions.
 Left and Right Hemisphere
–Hemispheric
Lateralization

Figure 8-20
PARTS OF THE
TELENCEPHALON
Cerebral cortex
– The cerebral cortex is the “gray matter” of your brain,
and is comprised of the fissures and gyri. Most
information processing occurs in the cerebral cortex.
– plays a key role
in memory, attention, perception, cognition, awareness, t
hought, language, and consciousness.
 White and Gray Matter
– Gray Matter – Absence of myelin in masses of neurons accounts for the gray matter
of the brain – Cerebral Cortex
– White Matter - Myelinated neurons gives neurons a white appearance
What are the Functions of the Cerebral Cortex?

Primary motor cortex (precentral gyrus)

– Directs voluntary movement

Primary sensory cortex (postcentral gyrus)

– Receives somatic sensation (touch, pain, pressure,
temperature)
Association areas
– Interpret sensation
– Coordinate movement
4 Lobes of the Cerebral
Cortex
Frontal lobe
- Located at the front of both cerebral
hemispheres
- Complex Functioning – personality,
judgement, insight, reasoning, problem
solving, abstract thinking and working
memory
Parietal lobe
– Located behind frontal lobe
– The parietal  lobe is in charge of somatosensory
processing (touch)
– Spatial orientation, perception and
comprehension of language function recognising
objects by touch
Occipital lobe 

– Located at the medial surface of left

cerebral hemisphere.
– The occipital lobe processes visual
memory, and is associated with migraine
headaches.
Temporal lobe 
– Located et each side of the brain
– Auditory and language processing occurs
in the temporal lobe; about 90% on the
left side.
 Corpus callosum 

– The white matter in the brain that connects the

left and right hemispheres. Split brain occurs
when the connection in the corpus callosum is
severed.
Limbic system 

– The limbic system is the collective name for the parts

of the brain that control emotion, motivation, and
emotional association with memory
– includes the hippocampus, cingulate cortex,
mammillary bodies, amygdala, fornex and septum.
Parts of the Lymbic System
Hippocampus
– The hippocampus is associated with short and long term
memory indexing (moves memories in and out), and is one of
the first parts of the brain affected in Alzheimer’s.
– Damage to the hippocampus can cause amnesia, preventing the
formation of new memories (anterograde amnesia), as well as
recollection of old ones (retrograde amnesia). Abnormalities in
development of the hippocampus are associated with
schizophrenia.
Anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) 

– In Post Traumatic Stress Disorder, there is lower activity and

fewer neurons in the anterior cingulate cortex.
– It appears to play a role in a wide variety
of autonomic functions, such as regulating blood
pressure and heart rate.
– It is also involved in certain higher-level functions, such
as attention allocation, reward anticipation, decision-making,
ethics and morality, impulse control (e.g. performance
monitoring and error detection), and emotion.
Amygdala 
– Located on the fatter end of the hippocampus. It is
responsible for emotional processing, and associated
with conditioned learning, especially fear, anger, rage.
– Dysfunction of the amygdala is linked to anxiety, autism,
depression, post-traumatic stress disorder, phobias and
binge drinking.
Olfactory bulb 
– Sense of smell, connected to the amygdala, which is why
smells are strong sources of memories.
 Diencephalon
– division of the forebrain (embryonic prosencephalon), and
is situated between the telencephalon and the midbrain
(embryonic mesencephalon)
– containing the epithalamus, thalamus, hypothalamus, and
ventral thalamus and the third ventricle.
 Parts of the Diencephalon
•Thalamus – The thalamus has 2 lobes, and is responsible for sensory relay in
your brain.

•Hypothalamus – The hypothalamus controls motivated behavior by regulating

the release of hormones from the pituitary gland. It is responsible for the 4 F’s:
Fighting, fleeing, feeding and sex.

•Pituitary gland – Small pea-sized gland of the endocrine system, often called
the “Master Gland.” The pituitary gland hangs from the hypothalamus.

•Pineal gland – Small gland of the endocrine system that controls melatonin (a
hormone that affects the modulation of wake/sleep patterns and seasonal
functions) production that’s sometimes referred to as the “third eye.”
Midbrain
(mesencephalon)

–  located within the brainstem and between the two other

developmental regions of the brain, the forebrain and
the hindbrain
– The midbrain serves important functions in motor movement,
particularly movements of the eye, and in auditory and visual
processing.
– composed of the tectum and tegmentum
 Tectum

– makes up the rear portion of the midbrain

– formed by two paired rounded swellings, the superior and inferior colliculi.
– superior colliculus receives input from the retina and the visual cortex and
participates in a variety of visual reflexes, particularly the tracking of objects
in the visual field.
–  inferior colliculus receives both crossed and uncrossed auditory fibres and
projects upon the medial geniculate body, the auditory relay nucleus of
the thalamus.
 Tegmentum
– located in front of the tectum
– It consists of fibre tracts and three regions distinguished by their colour—the red
nucleus, the periaqueductal gray, and the substantia nigra.
– The red nucleus is a large structure located centrally within the tegmentum that is
involved in the coordination of sensorimotor information. Crossed fibres of the
superior cerebellar peduncle (the major output system of the cerebellum) surround
and partially terminate in the red nucleus. Most crossed ascending fibres of that
bundle project to thalamic nuclei, which have access to the primary motor cortex. A
smaller number of fibres synapse on large cells in caudal regions of the red nucleus;
those give rise to the crossed fibres of the rubrospinal tract, which runs to the spinal
cord and is influenced by the motor cortex.
Red Nucleus
– a large structure located centrally within the tegmentum that is involved in
the coordination of sensorimotor information. Crossed fibres of the
superior cerebellar peduncle (the major output system of the cerebellum)
surround and partially terminate in the red nucleus. Most crossed
ascending fibres of that bundle project to thalamic nuclei, which have
access to the primary motor cortex. A smaller number of fibres synapse on
large cells in caudal regions of the red nucleus; those give rise to the
crossed fibres of the rubrospinal tract, which runs to the spinal cord and is
influenced by the motor cortex.
Substantia nigra
– a large pigmented cluster of neurons that consists of
two parts, the pars reticulata and the pars compacta.
– Cells of the pars compacta contain the dark
pigment melanin; these cells synthesize dopamine and
project to either the caudate nucleus or the putamen,
both of which are structures of the basal ganglia and
are involved in mediating movement and motor
coordination.
Periaqueductal gray
– made up of gray matter (neural tissue with relatively few
axons covered in myelin) and surrounds the cerebral
aqueduct
– a short canal that runs between the third and fourth
ventricles of the brain.
– appears to function primarily in pain suppression, a
result of its naturally high concentrations of endorphins.
Hindbrain
(rhombencephalon)

–  region of the developing vertebrate brain that is

composed of the medulla oblongata, the pons, and
the cerebellum
– The hindbrain coordinates functions that are
fundamental to survival, including respiratory rhythm,
motor activity, sleep, and wakefulness
 Medulla Oblongata Brain Stem Cerebellum
transmits signals between regulates alertness, sleep, and enriched with Purkinje cells and
the spinal cord and the higher parts wakefulness. The medulla likewise granule cells
of the brain houses a portion of the reticular
formation.

it also controls autonomic functions Purkinje cells are large neurons that
such as heartbeat and respiration serve a critical role in coordinating
motor activity.

Granule cells, in contrast, are very

small neurons; their function is
unclear, though they are thought to
have an important role in motor
learning.
Meninges
– The brain and spinal cord are covered and protected by
three layers of tissue called meninges. From the outermost
layer inward they are: the dura mater, arachnoid mater, and
pia mater.
Dura mater
–  is a strong, thick membrane that closely lines the inside
of the skull; its two layers, the periosteal and meningeal
dura, are fused and separate only to form venous
sinuses. The dura creates little folds or compartments.
There are two special dural folds, the falx and the
tentorium. The falx separates the right and left
hemispheres of the brain and the tentorium separates
the cerebrum from the cerebellum.
Arachnoid mater
–  is a thin, web-like membrane that covers the
entire brain. The arachnoid is made of elastic
tissue. The space between the dura and
arachnoid membranes is called the subdural
space.
Pia mater
–  hugs the surface of the brain following its folds
and grooves. The pia mater has many blood
vessels that reach deep into the brain. The space
between the arachnoid and pia is called the
subarachnoid space. It is here where the
cerebrospinal fluid bathes and cushions the brain.
Ventricles
– Four hallow spaces located in the middle of
the brain.
– Connected to each other
– Filled with fluid called cerebrospinal fluid
 Cerebrospinal Fluid
– a clear, colorless body fluid found in the brain and spinal cord.
– produced by the specialized ependymal cells in the choroid
plexuses of the ventricles of the brain, and absorbed in
the arachnoid granulations. There is about 125mL of CSF at any one
time, and about 500mL is generated every day. CSF
– acts as a cushion or buffer for the brain, providing basic mechanical
and immunological protection to the brain inside the skull.
– CSF also serves a vital function in cerebral
autoregulation of cerebral blood flow.
• Choroid Plexus- makes clear colorless cerebrospinal fluid
• Foramen of Monro- are channels that connect the paired lateral
ventricles with the third ventricle at the midline of the brain.
• Aqueduct of Sylvius- also known as the aqueductus
mesencephalic, contains cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), and connects
the third ventricle in the diencephalon to the fourth
ventricle within the region of
the mesencephalon and metencephalon
• Arachnoid villi- microscopic projections of the arachnoid into
some of the venous sinuses
Blood Supply
Cranial Nerves
–  nerves that emerge directly from
the brain (including the brainstem), in contrast
to spinal nerves (which emerge from segments of
the spinal cord).
The Roman numeral, name, and main function of the twelve cranial nerves:
  Number Name Function

I olfactory smell

II optic sight

III oculomotor moves eye, pupil

IV trochlear moves eye

V trigeminal face sensation

VI abducens moves eye

VII facial moves face, salivate

VIII vestibulocochlear hearing, balance

IX glossopharyngeal taste, swallow

X vagus heart rate, digestion

XI accessory moves head

XII hypoglossal moves tongue

Cells of the brain
 Nerve cells

– There are many sizes and shapes of

neurons, but all consist of a cell body,
dendrites and an axon. The neuron conveys
information through electrical and chemical
signals.
Glia cells
– Glia (Greek word meaning glue) are the cells of the brain that provide neurons with
nourishment, protection, and structural support.
– There are about 10 to 50 times more glia than nerve cells and are the most common type of
cells involved in brain tumors.
•Astroglia or astrocytes
- caretakers
- they regulate the blood brain barrier, allowing nutrients and molecules to interact with neurons.

•Oligodendroglia cells
- create a fatty substance called myelin that insulates axons; allowing electrical messages to
travel faster.

•Ependymal cells
- line the ventricles and secrete cerebrospinal fluid (CSF).

•Microglia
- brain’s immune cells, protecting it from invaders and cleaning up debris. They also prune
synapses.
Neurotransmitters

– can influence the function of a neuron through a

remarkable number of mechanisms
– There are two kinds of neurotransmitters ;
INHIBITORY and EXCITATORY.
 Inhibitory Excitatory

 typically located on the shafts synapses are typically located on

or the spines of dendrites a cell body

synapses have round synaptic  vesicles of synapses are

vesicles flattened

Has larger synapse Has smaller synapse

Acetylcholine (ACh)
• Cholinergic pathways

• thought to be involved in cognition (esp. memory)

and our sleep/wake cycle
• parasympathetic nervous system regulating bodily
functions such as heart rate, digestion, secretion of
saliva and bladder function
• Alzheimer’s disease and myathesia gravis
(weakness of skeletal muscles)
• Anti-cholinergic effects
Norepinephrine (NE)

• attention, alertness and arousal

• NE levels fluctuate with sleep
and wakefulness and changes in
attention and vigilance
• mood, affective states and
anxiety
• antidepressant
Dopamine(D)
• complex movement and cognition
• Emotional responses such as
euphoria or pleasure (seen in
amphetamine/cocaine use).
•Significant role in motor control
•EPSE’s
Serotonin (5HT)
• Great influences on behaviour.
• Low serotonin activity is associated with
aggression, suicide, impulsive eating and dis-
inhibited sexual behaviour
• modulating general activity levels of the CNS,
particularly the onset of sleep
• depression and anxiety disorders
• delusions, hallucinations (LSD)
• negative symptoms of schizophrenia
 Glutamate
 Glutamate is found in all cells of the body
 control the opening of ion channels that
allow calcium to pass into nerve cells
producing impulses
 Blocking of glutamate receptors produces
( eg. By PCP) schizophrenic like symptoms
 Over exposure of neurons to glutamate
cause cell death seen in stroke and
Huntington’s disease (PN).
Gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA)

 Inhibitory and its pathways are only found within

the CNS.
 control excitatory neurotransmitters in the brain
and controlling spinal and cerebral reflexes.
 anxiety disorders
 decreased GABA can lead to seizure activity
 Benzodiazepines and barbiturates sedative
medication act on GABA
Integrative Functions of the
Brain
 Memory

– a complex process that includes three phases:

encoding (deciding what information is important),
storing, and recalling.
 Types of Memory
– Short-term memory, also called working memory, occurs in the prefrontal
cortex. It stores information for about one minute and its capacity is limited to
about 7 items.
– Long-term memory is processed in the hippocampus of the temporal lobe and
is activated when you want to memorize something for a longer time. This
memory has unlimited content and duration capacity. It contains personal
memories as well as facts and figures.
– Skill memory is processed in the cerebellum, which relays information to the
basal ganglia. It stores automatic learned memories like tying a shoe, playing
an instrument, or riding a bike.
 Language
–  left hemisphere of the brain is responsible for language and speech and is called the
"dominant" hemisphere.
– Broca’s area: lies in the left frontal lobe. If this area is damaged, one may have difficulty moving the
tongue or facial muscles to produce the sounds of speech. The person can still read and understand
spoken language but has difficulty in speaking and writing (i.e. forming letters and words, doesn't write
within lines) – called Broca's aphasia. 

– Wernicke's area: lies in the left temporal lobe. Damage to this area causes Wernicke's aphasia. The
individual may speak in long sentences that have no meaning, add unnecessary words, and even create
new words. They can make speech sounds, however they have difficulty understanding speech and are
therefore unaware of their mistakes.
 Sleep
• REM Sleep
- a kind of sleep that occurs at intervals during the night and is
characterized by rapid eye movements, more dreaming and bodily movement,
and faster pulse and breathing.
• Slow Wave Sleep(SWS
- often referred to as deep sleep, consists of stage three (combined
stages 3 and 4) of non-rapid eye movement sleep.
Emotions
– Emotions, like fear and love, are carried out by the limbic system, which
is located in the temporal lobe. While the limbic system is made up of
multiple parts of the brain, the center of emotional processing is the
amygdala, which receives input from other brain functions, like memory
and attention.
Cognition

– It is the set of mental abilities or processes that are part of nearly every human
action while we are awake.
– Cognitive abilities are brain-based skills we need to carry out any task from the
simplest to the most complex. They have more to do with the mechanisms of
how we learn, remember, problem-solve, and pay attention, rather than with
any actual knowledge.
– Cognitive abilities or skills are supported by specific neuronal networks.
Sensation
– Detection of sensations allow the human body to be aware of
changes (or stimuli) that occur in the environment or inside the
body.
– These senses permit the central nervous system to produce
reactions for the stimuli and maintain body homeostasis.
– All senses are detected by sensory receptors, and after
integration and processing being dong done in the central
nervous system, motor nerves produce a response.
Somatic senses
– Somatic senses ("soma" means body) detect
touch, pain pressure, temperature, and tension
on the skin and in internal organs.
Special senses
– detect the sensations of taste, smell, hearing,
equilibrium, and sight, only in special sense organs in the
head region (a phenomenon known as “cephalization").
All senses are detected by sensory receptors, and after
integration and processing being dong done in the central
nervous system, motor nerves produce a response.
Motor Control
– The primary motor cortex, or M1, is one of the principal brain areas involved
in motor function.
– M1 is located in the frontal lobe of the brain, along a bump called the
precentral gyrus.
– The role of the primary motor cortex is to generate neural impulses that
control the execution of movement.
– Signals from M1 cross the body’s midline to activate skeletal muscles on the
opposite side of the body, meaning that the left hemisphere of the brain
controls the right side of the body, and the right hemisphere controls the left
side of the body.
Motor Homunculus

– a distorted representation of the human

body, based on a neurological "map" of
the areas and proportions of the human
brain dedicated to processing
motor functions, or sensory functions,
for different parts of the body.
 Quiz

I. Enumeration
1-3 –the three parts of the brain
4-6- the three basic units of the brain
7- 10 –the four lobes of the cerebral cortex
11-13- hemispheres of the brain
II. Identification

1. Forebrain is also called as____________

2. Midbrain is also called as____________
3. Hindbrain is also called as___________
4. White matter that connects the left and right hemispheres
5. Tissue that covers and protects the brain and spinal cord
6. Often called as the “master gland”
7. Referred as the “third eye”
8. Controls motivated behavior by regulating the release of hormones from the pituitary gland.