SCIENTIFIC METHODS OF

DETECTING DECEPTIONS
 CHAPTER 1
HISTORY OF POLYGRAPHY
From the time when Adam and Eve disobeyed God from eating the forbidden fruit, the act of Deception was born.

From the time when Adam and Eve disobeyed

God from eating the forbidden fruit, the act
of Deception was born.
Judgement of Solomon
METHODS OF DETECTING
DECEPTION
● EARLY METHODS OF DETECTING
DECEPTIONS
● SCIENTIFIC METHODS OF
DETECTING DECEPTIONS
EARLY METHODS OF LIE
DETECTION
As civilization evolves, mankind has
been seeking ways to distinguish truths
from lies among individuals suspected
of criminal wrongdoing. Various
techniques were used for the
verification of truth and the detection
of deception over the centuries – many
of which being ridiculous and cruel.
 EARLY METHODS OF DETECTING
DECEPTIONS
● TRIAL BY COMBAT - a method to settle
accusations in the absence of witnesses or a
confession, in which two parties in dispute
fought in single combat.
● TRIAL BY ORDEAL - a judicial practiced by
which the guilt or innocence of the accused is
determined by subjecting them to an
unpleasant, usually dangerous experience or in
the present term would mean an employment of
“3rd degree”. The word “ordeal” was derived
from the Medieval Latin word “Dei Indicum”
which means “a miraculous decision”.
TYPES OF ORDEAL
●ORDEAL OF HEAT AND FIRE
●ORDEAL OF HOT WATER
●ORDEAL OF BOILING OIL
●RED HOT IRON ORDEAL
●ORDEAL OF COLD WATER
●ORDEAL OF RICE CHEWING
●ORDEAL OF RED WATER
●ORDEAL OF THE CROSS
●DONKEY’S TAIL (ASH TAIL) ORDEAL
●THE TEST OF THE AXE
●THE TEST OF THE CANDLE
●THE “HEREDITARY SIEVE”
 TYPES OF ORDEAL
■ ORDEAL OF HEAT AND FIRE - in this
test the suspect walked a certain distance,
usually nine feet, over red-hot plowshares
or holding a red-hot iron.
■ ORDEAL OF HOT WATER - this test
requires that the water had to be boiled,
and the depth from which the stone had to
be retrieved was up to the wrist for one
accusation, and up to the elbow for three or
more accusations.
■ ORDEAL OF BOILING OIL - this ordeal
was practiced in villages of India and
certain parts of West Africa.
● RED HOT IRON ORDEAL - the accused
will be required to touch his tongue to an
extremely hot metal nine (9) times
(unless burned sooner), Once his tongue is
burned, he will be adjudged guilty. In
some country instead of hot iron, they
used a hot needle to tease the lips and
once the lips bleed it is an indication of
guilt.
● ORDEAL OF COLD WATER - this ordeal
has a precedent in the Code of
Ur-Nammu and the Code of Hammurabi
under which a man accused of sorcery
was to be submerged in a stream and
acquitted if he survived.
- in 16th and 17th centuries, ordeal by
water was associated with the
witch-hunts. Floating is an indication
of witchcraft.
● ORDEAL OF RICE CHEWING - a method
of detecting deception whereby an
accused will be required to take rice (to
clergy bread or cheese).If the accused
failed to swallow even a single grain of
concentrated rice he/she will be adjudged
guilty.
● ORDEAL OF RED WATER - (Food and
Drink Ordeal) - in this method the accused
will be required for fasting for twelve (12
hours), take a cap of rice and drink a dark
colored water (as much as one gallon).
● ORDEAL OF THE CROSS - the accused
and the accuser stood on either side of a
cross and stretched out their hands
horizontally. The one to first lower his
arms lost.

● DONKEY’S TAIL (ASH TAIL) ORDEAL

- a method of ordeal where all accused
persons will be instructed to select a
cage with a donkey, using a donkey’s tail
they will strike the donkey and whichever
cries first will be adjudged guilty.
● THE TEST OF THE AXE - in Greece, a
suspended axe was spine in the center of a
group of suspects, when the axe stopped,
whosoever was in line with the blade was
supposed to be the guilty as pointed by
divine providence.
● THE TEST OF THE CANDLE - this
ordeal was used in Burma, the accuser and
accused were each given identical candles
and were lighted at the same time. The
candle that burns the longest determines
which the truth.
■ THE “HEREDITARY SIEVE” - Dr. Hans
Gross mentioned this Ordeal in his famous
book on Criminal Investigation in which
beans were thrown into a sieve as the
name of each suspect was called. The
deception criteria were described as
follows--- “If the bean jumps out of the
sieve, the owner of the name pronounced
is innocent, if the bean remains in the
sieve, the person named is the thief.
TYPES OF ORDEAL
●ORDEAL OF HEAT AND FIRE
●ORDEAL OF HOT WATER
●ORDEAL OF BOILING OIL
●RED HOT IRON ORDEAL
●ORDEAL OF COLD WATER
●ORDEAL OF RICE CHEWING
●ORDEAL OF RED WATER
●ORDEAL OF THE CROSS
●DONKEY’S TAIL (ASH TAIL) ORDEAL
●THE TEST OF THE AXE
●THE TEST OF THE CANDLE
●THE “HEREDITARY SIEVE” 2A 020822
2B 020822
IMPORTANT PERSONALITIES IN
POLYGRAPHY AND THEIR GREAT
CONTRIBUTIONS
The polygraph, or most commonly known
as lie detector, has been in existence in
police science many, many years ago. Tracing
back its beginning, one may find out that
there are several persons instrumental in the
development of the polygraph instrument as
we know it today - recording changes in
respiration, galvanic skin response (GSR) or
electrodermal activity (EDA) and
cardiovascular activity.
Daniel Defoe
In 1730, a year
before Daniel Defoe
died; he wrote an
essay entitled “An
Effectual Scheme
for the Immediate
Preventing of the
Street Robberies
and Suppressing All
Other Disorders of the Night” where
he suggested the use of the pulse to
detect deception. Defoe’s essay called
upon the attention of many scientists to
employ medical science in the fight
against crime.
Angelo Mosso
In 1878, science
came to the aid of
the truth seeker
through the
research of an
Italian psychologist
Angelo Mosso. He
made use of an
instrument called
“plethysmograph” in
his research on emotion and fear and
its influence on the heart and
respiration. Mosso also found out that
the variation in blood pressure and the
circulation of blood in the brain during
fear is far greater than those
resulting from the effect of mere
noises and sounds.
Mosso’s ‘human circulation balance’, used to
measure cerebral activity during resting and
cognitive states.
Cesare Lombroso
In 1895, Cesare
Lombroso, an Italian
criminologist and
tutor of Angelo
Mosso, published
the second edition
of his book entitled
L’Homme Criminel
where he related
the use of
plethysmograph and
sphygmograph during interrogation of
suspects. He made a modification of
the plethysmograph resulting in the
hydrosphygmograph. Lombroso applied
the blood pressure pulse test in actual
criminal suspects. The suspect’s fist
would be immersed in a water-filled
tank then sealed across the top of the
tank by a rubber membrane. The
pulsations of blood in the fist were
transferred to the water and the
changes in water level were carried over
an air-filled tube which will be recorded
on the revolving smoked drum.
Francis Galton
Francis Galton
introduced the
word association
test in 1879. A
group of words
would be presented
to a patient with
intervals long
enough to allow the
patient to utter his
first thought on
each word. Several irrelevant questions
were inserted in every question
relevant to the crime committed.
Guilty examinee, when confronted with
a relevant word, will suffer from an
inner conflict which may be manifested
either by a delay in reaction, more
rapid reaction time, repetition of
relevant word, blocking of response or
uncoordinated physical movements.
Sticker
Sticker believed that the origin
of the galvanic skin phenomenon was
under the influence of the exciting
mental impressions and that the will
has no effect upon it. Sticker made
the earliest application of
psychogalvanometer to forensic
problems.
Sir James Mackenzie
Sir James Mackenzie,
an English clinician and
cardiologist,
constructed the clinical
polygraph in 1892, an
instrument once used in
medical examinations
with the capability to
simultaneously record
undulated line tracings
of the vascular pulses
(radial, venous and arterial), by way of a
stylus onto a revolving drum of smoked
paper.
Veraguth
He is said to be the first person to
use the term psychogalvanic reflex.
Veraguth was the first scientist to use
the word association test with
galvanometer. In 1907, he described his
observation on galvanic phenomena and
emotions that there was an ascending
galvanometer curve during the
presentation of relevant stimuli versus
the rest of the curve on non-crucial
stimuli.
Vittorio Benussi
In March 1913, Vittorio Benussi
presented a paper before the second
meeting of the Italian Society for
Psychology in Rome. In his paper, he
described how he recorded the
subject’s breathing pattern using a
Marey Pneumograph, noting the changes
in inspiration-expiration ratio during
deception. In addition to respiration, he
also included the recording of heart
rate and blood pressure curve in
detection of deception and probably
the first person to record more than
one physiological response.
Dr. William M. Marston
Marston was credited as the creator
of the systolic blood-pressure test
used. In 1915, he employed it in an
attempt to detect deception during
questioning, using a standard blood
pressure cuff and stethescope. It
required repeated inflation of the
pressure cuff to obtain readings at
intervals during examination, which
became one component of the modern
polygraph. This was called
discontinuous technique. Marston's
wife – Elizabeth Holloway Marston,
was also involved in the development
of the systolic blood-pressure test.
According to Marston’s son, it was his
mother Elizabeth who suggested to
him that when she got mad or excited,
her blood pressure seemed to climb.
Harold Burtt
In 1918, Burtt suggested that the
changes in respiration were an
indication of deception. He was able to
determine that the changes in
respiration were of less value in the
detection of deception than the
changes in blood pressure. The results
obtained by Benussi were partially
confirmed by Burtt.
John A. Larson
John Larson’s interest was captured by
William Marston’s studies in detecting
deception using the discontinuous
method. Encouraged by Berkeley Police
Chief August Vollmer, he attempted to
use a deception test in actual criminal
investigations. He examined a variety of
instruments and methodologies that
were available at that time. He selected
an Erlanger Sphygmomanometer to
produce permanent recordings of blood
pressure using a smoked drum and
kymograph. His first apparatus, which he
referred to as a Cardio-Pneumo
Psychogram, consisted of a modification
of an Erlanger Sphygmomanometer. The
modification was done by Earl Bryant for
Dr. Robert Gesell of the Department of
Physiology of the University of
California. The first instrument Larson
used in his experiments was borrowed
from Dr. Gesell.
In 1921, Earl Bryant made another
instrument for John Larson, which was
being used at the Berkeley Police
Department. It is believed that this
second instrument was a duplication of
the first. This was the instrument that
brought fame to Larson’s experiments
and that drew the young Leonarde
Keeler into the field of detection of
deception. He used a breadboard as a
base for the instrument, and because
of that it became known in the
industry as the Breadboard Polygraph.
His instrument
differed from Marston’s as it provided
continuous readings, rather than
discontinuous readings. He also
replaced the blood pressure technique
used by Marston with an occlusion
Sphygmomanometer Plethysmograph
that measured relative blood pressure
and blood volume. The instrument was
therefore able to continually and
simultaneously record respiration and
cardiovascular changes. Due to this,
John Larson was considered as the
Father of Scientific Lie Detection for
being the first person to verify the
truth and detect deception in a more
scientific way. He is also considered as
the Father of Polygraphy.
Leonarde Keeler
Leonarde Keeler,
above all others, was
the most involved in
the history of
modern polygraphy
and can be
considered as one of
its founders. While
in high school, he
worked at the
Berkeley Police
Department under Chief August
Vollmer. He assisted John Larson
during his early polygraph work. John
Larson’s instrument was Leonard
Keeler’s first instrument. In 1926, he
developed an improvement of Larson’s
instrument. Keeler’s instrument, like
Larson’s instrument, it records changes
in blood pressure, pulse rate and
respiration patterns. However, he
developed metal bellows (tambours)
which was connected by a mechanical
device. The volume changes within the
blood pressure arm cuff and
pneumograph tube circling the chest of
the subject were transmitted in heavy
walled rubber going to the tambours.
Keeler also designed the kymograph
that pulled a chart paper at a constant
speed under recording pens from a roll
of chart located inside the instrument.
In 1938, Keeler included the
Psychogalvanometer (PGR), the third
measuring component of his instrument
which was also known as Galvanograph
invented by Italian Physiologist Galvani
in 1791. The PGR measures person’s
skin resistance to electricity by
transmitting a constant minute
electrical current through the skin of
the selected fingertips.
Ruckmick
In 1936, the term psychogalvanic
reflex used by Veraguth was
repudiated by Ruckmick and
proposed the term electrodermal
response. However, Veraguth believed
that the electrodermal phenonema
was attributable not to vascular
changes in the skin but to the activity
of the sweat glands.
John E. Reid
Reid was an attorney, polygraph
examiner and former member of the
Chicago Police Scientific Crime
Detection Laboratory and Director of
John E. Reid and Associates. In 1950,
he developed the control question
which consisted of a known lie and
incorporated it into the
relevant-irrelevant technique.
Therefore, Reid is considered as
Father of Controls.
Cleve Backster
Backster, a polygraph expert born in
1924, developed the so called Backster
Zone Comparison Technique in 1960.
He incorporated in the said technique
the relevant and irrelevant questions,
Reid’s control question and symptomatic
question (which he first introduced) in
order to identify the outside issue that
might interfere with the test. Backster
developed the psychological set theory
and the anticlimax dampening concept.
He also developed and introduced the
quantification system of chart analysis
which permits the examiner to score
the charts numerically according to
standard rules.
Richard O. Arther
In 1965, Richard O. Arther, Chief
Associate of John E. Reid and
Associates from September 1951 to
August 1953, introduced the Arther
II polygraph instrument which
contains a stimulus marker. The
instrument is capable of recording the
beginning and ending of question and
the moment the examinee answered.
 CHAPTER 2
POLYGRAPHY: ITS NATURE AND
CONCEPT
Scientific method of detecting
deception
● Use of Truth Serum
● Use of Narco-analysis or
Narcosynthesis
● Use of Hypnotism
● Use of Word Association Test
● Use of Psychological Stress Evaluator
● Use of Alcoholic Beverages
● Polygraph Examination
TRUTH SERUM
● The term “ truth serum” is a misnomer.
The procedure does not make someone tell
the truth and the thing administered is
not serum but actually a drug.
● In the test, HYOSCINE HYDROBROMIDE
is given hypodermically in repeated doses
until a state of delirium is induced. When
the proper point is reached, the questioning
begins and the subject fells a compulsion to
answer the questions truthfully.
Narco Analysis / Narcosynthesis
● This method of deception detection is
practically the same as that of
administration of truth serum. The only
difference is the drug used. Psychiatric
sodium amytal or sodium penthotal is
administered to the subject. When the
effects appear, questioning starts.
● It is claimed that this drug causes
depression of the inhibitory mechanism
of the brain and the subjects talk
freely.
HYPNOSIS
● It is the alteration of consciousness and
concentration in which the subject
manifests a heightened of suggestibility
while awareness is maintained. Not all
persons are susceptible to hypnotic
induction.
● Subjects who are compulsive-depressive
type, strong-willed like lawyers,
accountants, physicians and other
professionals are usually
non-hypnotizable.
WORD ASSOCIATION TEST
● A list of stimulus and non-stimulus
words are read to the subject who is
instructed to answer as quickly as
possible.

● The answer to the questions may be a

“yes” or a “no”. Unlike the lie detector ,
the time interval between the words
uttered by the examiner and the
answer of the subject is recorded.
Psychological Stress Evaluator

● When the person is under stress as when

he is lying, the micro tremor in the voice
utterance in moderately or completely
suppressed. The degree of suppression
caries inversely to the degree of
psychologic stress in the speaker.

● The psychological stress evaluator (PSE)

detects, measures, and graphically
displays the voice modulations that we
cannot hear.
INTOXICATION

● The ability of alcohol to reveal the real

person behind the mask which all of us
are said to wear (“mask of sanity’) is
reflected in the age-old maxim, IN
VINO VERITAS (“in wine there is
truth”).

● The person whose statement is to be

taken is allowed to take alcoholic
beverages to almost intoxication.
Scientific method of detecting
deception
● Use of Truth Serum
● Use of Narco-analysis or
Narcosynthesis
● Use of Hypnotism
● Use of Word Association Test
● Use of Psychological Stress Evaluator
● Use of Alcoholic Beverages
● Polygraph Examination
“Any rule that impedes the
discovery of truth in a court of
law impedes as well the doing of
justice.”
JUSTICE POTTER STEWART
UNITED STATES COURT