LESSON 4: EVOLUTION OF THE POLYGRAPH

1. Development of Cardiosphygmograph
It was describe in the early study of deception that researchers
employed different apparatus in monitoring the blood pressure and
pulse activity of a person.
a. Galileo
In 1581, he was the first to conduct experiments using pulsiologium, an
apparatus designed for measuring human pulse.

b. Giovani Lancisi
His study about emotion and mental functions were conceived in 1728.
Lancisi believed that emotions are produced, by thought, by more or less
forceful heart action. He concluded that the characteristics of the mind derived
from the structure and physical changes going on in the body.
c. Stephen Hales, English Clergyman
A priest who pioneered clinical physiology. In 1733, he was the first to study
the measurement of blood pressure in animals.

d. Angelo Mosso, Italian physiologist

In 1875, he used plethysmograph in his studies of emotion and fear and its
effect on the heart and respiration. Mosso also performed his study to measure
the influence of fear using a scientific cradle, an instrument designed to measure
the flow of blood in different parts of the body.

e. Cesare Lombroso
He was the first to attempt using scientific instrument for detecting deception
in criminal cases. Lombroso made use of sphygmograph, plethysmograh, and
hydrospygmograph in the interrogation and investigation of criminal suspects. In
1885, he published the reports of his successful findings about the changes in
blood volume and pulse rate attributed to truth and deception.
f. Hugo Munsterberg
In 1908, he suggested the use of blood pressure test, pulse tracings for
measuring deception in court proceedings.

g. William Moulton Marston

He developed a discontinuous systolic blood pressure test in 1915.
Marston used an ordinary sphygmomanometer to obtain periodic,
discontinuous blood pressure to test a suspected person involved in crime. In
1923, he attempted to present as evidence the result of his technique in U.S.
vs. Frye case.

h. John Augustus Larson

In 1921, John Larson constructed an instrument capable of continuously
recording blood pressure, pulse and respiration during examination.
2. Development of Pneumograph
Respiration is one of the physiological signals recorded by a
polygraph for the detection of deception. Significant researches and
experiments about the concepts and the recording instrument wer
reported throughout history.
a. Vittorio Benussi (1914)
He conducted experiments using the pneumograph for the detection of
deception. Benussi observed changes in the inspiration/expiration raio during
deception. His theory suggest that, if the length of inspiration was divided by the
length of expiration, the ratio would be greater after lying than before lying.

b. Harold Burt (1918)

He partially confirmed the theory of Benussi for detecting deception. In 1921,
he conducted study with Marston and Troland on the three methods of
determining deception: word association reaction, inspiration/expiration reaction
and systolic blood pressure method.
c. Leonarde Keeler
Keeler made significant changes in the polygraph instrument by adding
channels for recording blood - pressure pulse, respiration changes, a
galvanometer and kymograph. The instrument records breathing pattern,
galvanic skin response, heartbeat, pulse rate and strength plus changes in
mean blood pressure.

d. John E. Reid
In 1945, John E. Reid devised an instrument capable of recording
muscular activity along with changes in blood pressure, pulse, respiration,
and GSR.

e. William M. Marston
The work of William M. Marston also included experiments to record the
respiration and the time of the subject’s verbal responses.
3.) Development of Galvanic Skin Response Channel
The Galvanic Skin Response was named before Luigi Galvani, an
Italian physician and physicist, who conducted study of electricity on
animals. In his research, Galvani found out that the feet of a dead frog
twisted by placing two dissimilar metals on it. His discovery leads to
the invention of battery. GSR is an outdated term that is no longer
used in the science of psychophysiology. The recommended
appropriate term is electrodermal activity as applied in modern
polygraphy.

a. Emil Du Bois - Reymond - German physician and physiologist

In 1849, he discovered the flow of current from the two limbs by applying
chemical compound on the hands and feet. Du Bois-Reymond inferred that
the human skin is a conductor of electricity. He regarded that the observed
phenomena was influenced potentially by muscle activity.
b. Hermann and Luchsinger
In 1878, they reported their findings about the connection of sweat gland
activity and flow of current in the skin of a cat. In 1881, Hermnn discovered that
the finger and palm areas of the hands produces greater sweat compared to
other body parts.

c. Jean Martin Charcot - French neurologist

He was famous for his work on hysteria and hypnosis. Charcot laboratory
was used by Vigouroux and Fere in their research.

d. Romain Vigouroux - electrotherapist

In 1879, he conducted research on emotionally disturbed patients by
measuring the changes in skin resistance through adjusted dosages of
medications applied to them. Vigouroux suggested the vascular theory in
electrodermal activity, which associated the changes in skin resistance with
changes in blood flow.
e. Charles Fere - French neurologist
In 1888, he observed changes in resistance as responsive to
various form of stimuli using a direct current on hysterical patients. His
work leads to the discovery of exosomatic EDR recording. Fere
believed that the changes in resistance were result of vasomotor
changes.

f. Ivan Tarchanoff - Russian physiologist

In 1889, he was the first to report changes in skin potential
measurements a several sensory and physical stimulations. Tarchanoff
assumed that the electrodermal phenomena was attributed to sweat
gland activity. He proposed the secretory theory, associating the
electrodermal activity with sweat glands activity.
g. Sticker
In 1897, he was the first to suggest for the application of
psychogalvanometer to forensic problem. Sticker believed that the origin of
the galvanic skin phenomenon is under the influence of exciting mental
impressions, and that the will has no effect upon it. His conclusion was
derived from the experimental work of several predecessors.

h. Otto Veraguth
In 1907, Veraguth was one of the first to use galvanometer in his
experiment with word association. He was also considered the first to use
the term psychogalvanic reflex. Veraguth believed that the electrical
phenomena are connected with sweat gland activity. His findings
contradicted with the observation made by Fere, Tarchanoff and Muller.
i. Hugo Munsterberg
Munsterberg suggested the use of the galvanometer in measuring the
resistance of electrodermal activity in 1908. He showed the importance of
word association test in determining the guilt of criminal suspect.

j. John Larson
He introduced the psychogalvanometer on the existing two-channel
polygraph and has become a significant and standard component of all
polygraph devices.

k. William M. Marson
In 1917, he reported conducting experiments with Troland and Burt
using galvanometer while designing deception techniques for the US Army
intelligence service to address war-time problems. However, the result of
the experiments were not successfull.
l. Richter
In 1929, Richter was the first to propose that endosomatic EDA (skin
potentials) is caused by sweat gland activity and epidermal mechanism.

m. Wilson
In 1930, Wilson created a non-recording galvanometer which he used
with Keeler in the investigations of numerous criminal suspects. In 1935,
Wilson designed and built a much improved recording galvanograph.

n. Chester Darrow
In 1932, he added a skin resistance measurement to early polygraphs
and experimented with a galvanometer himself, but reportedly decided to
forego its use in favor of cardiographic-type response measurement.
o. Reverend Walter Summers
In 1936, he reported high accuracy of result on deception test both in
laboratory and limited actual case application using a pathometer, an
apparatus designed to measure skin conductivity to external current.

p. Leonarde Keeler
Keeler was credited for adding the EDR component in the existing
polygraph that records respiration, and relative blood pressure as early as
1949.