Earlier societies utilized elaborate methods of lie detection which mainly involved torture; for instance, the Middle

Ages used boiling water to

detect liars as it was believed honest men would withstand it better than liars.[5] Early devices for lie detection include an 1895 invention
of Cesare Lombroso used to measure changes in blood pressure for police cases, a 1904 device by Vittorio Benussi used to measure breathing,
and an abandoned project by American William Moulton Marston which used blood pressure to examine German prisoners of war
(POWs).[79] Marston’s machine indicated a strong positive correlation between systolic blood pressure and lying.[11]
Marston wrote a second paper on the concept in 1915, when finishing his undergraduate studies. He entered Harvard Law School and
graduated in 1918, re-publishing his earlier work in 1917.[80] Marston's main inspiration for the device was his wife, Elizabeth Holloway
Marston.[5] "According to Marston’s son, it was his mother Elizabeth, Marston’s wife, who suggested to him that 'When she got mad or excited,
her blood pressure seemed to climb'" (Lamb, 2001). Although Elizabeth is not listed as Marston’s collaborator in his early work, Lamb, Matte
(1996), and others refer directly and indirectly to Elizabeth's work on her husband's deception research. She also appears in a picture taken in
his polygraph laboratory in the 1920s (reproduced in Marston, 1938).[81][82]
Despite his predecessor's contributions, Marston styled himself the "father of the polygraph". (Today he is often equally or more noted as the
creator of the comic book character Wonder Woman.)[83] Marston remained the device's primary advocate, lobbying for its use in the courts. In
1938 he published a book, The Lie Detector Test, wherein he documented the theory and use of the device.[84] In 1938 he appeared in
advertising by the Gillette company claiming that the polygraph showed Gillette razors were better than the competition.[85][86][87]
A device recording both blood pressure and breathing was invented in 1921 by John Augustus Larson of the University of California and first
applied in law enforcement work by the Berkeley Police Department under its nationally renowned police chief August Vollmer.[6] Further work
on this device was done by Leonarde Keeler.[4] As Larson's protege, Keeler updated the device by making it portable and added the galvanic skin
response to it in 1939. His device was then purchased by the FBI, and served as the prototype of the modern polygraph.[5][6]
Several devices similar to Keeler's polygraph version included the Berkeley Psychograph, a blood pressure-pulse-respiration recorder developed
by C. D. Lee in 1936[88] and the Darrow Behavior Research Photopolygraph, which was developed and intended solely for behavior research
experiments.
A device which recorded muscular activity accompanying changes in blood pressure was developed in 1945 by John E. Reid, who claimed that
greater accuracy could be obtained by making these recordings simultaneously with standard blood pressure-pulse-respiration recordings.

A polygraph, popularly referred to as a lie detector test, is a device or procedure that measures and records several physiological indicators
such as blood pressure, pulse, respiration, and skin conductivity while a person is asked and answers a series of questions.[1] The belief
underpinning the use of the polygraph is that deceptive answers will produce physiological responses that can be differentiated from those
associated with non-deceptive answers. There are, however, no specific physiological reactions associated with lying, making it difficult to
identify factors that separate liars from truth tellers. Polygraph examiners also prefer to use their own individual scoring method, as opposed to
computerized techniques, as they may more easily defend their own evaluations.
The polygraph was invented in 1921 by John Augustus Larson, a medical student at the University of California, Berkeley and a police officer of
the Berkeley Police Department in Berkeley, California.Further work on the device was done by Leonarde Keeler. As Larson's protege, Keeler
updated the device by making it portable and added the galvanic skin response to it in 1939. His device was then purchased by the FBI, and
served as the prototype of the modern polygraph.
In some countries, polygraphs are used as an interrogation tool with criminal suspects or candidates for sensitive public or private sector
employment. US law enforcement and federal government agencies such as the FBI, NSA] and the CIA and many police departments such as
the LAPD and the Virginia State Police use polygraph examinations to interrogate suspects and screen new employees. Within the US federal
government, a polygraph examination is also referred to as a psychophysiological detection of deception (PDD) examination.
The control question test, also known as the probable lie test, was developed to overcome or mitigate the problems with the relevant-
irrelevant testing method. Although the relevant questions in the probable lie test are used to obtain a reaction from liars, the physiological
reactions that "distinguish" liars may also occur in innocent individuals who fear a false detection or feel passionately that they did not commit
the crime. Therefore, although a physiological reaction may be occurring, the reasoning behind the response may be different. Further
examination of the probable lie test has indicated that it is biased against innocent subjects. Those who are unable to think of a lie related to
the relevant question will automatically fail the test.
Polygraph examiners, or polygraphers, are licensed or regulated in some jurisdictions. The American Polygraph Association sets standards for
courses of training of polygraph operators, though it does not certify individual examiners.

History of a Polygraph Test

1730 - Daniel Defoe (British Novelist) wrote an essay called "An Effectual Scheme for the Immediate Preventing of Street Robberies and
Suppressing all Other Disorders of the Night" where he talked abvout taking the pulse of a suspect to see if they were truthful or lying

1885 - Cesare Lonbroso invented something to measure changes in blood pressure for police cases

1902 - early polygraph machine invented by James Mackenzie

1904 - Vittorio Benussi invented a device used to measure breathing

1915 - William Marston started on a project that used blood pressure and galvanic skin response to examine German prisoners of war (this is
the year he wrote a second paper on this concept)

1917 - the first polygraph examination was used for counterintelligence work during World War I

1921 - a device recording blood pressure and galvanic skin response was invented by Dr. John A. Larson where it was first applied in law
enforcement work by Berkeley Police Departmentl; more work was done by Leonarde Keeler

1921 - modern day polygraph machine invented by John Larson

1924 - started to bu used in poice interrogation and investigations (not trusted yet)

1936 - blood pressure-pulse-respiration recorder developed by C. D. Lee

1938 - C.D. Lee appeared in advertising by Gillette company claiming that the polygraphy showed Gillette razors were better than the
competition

1945 - a device which recorded muscualr activity accompanying changes in blood pressure was developed

1986 - the introduction of computerized polygraphy systems began, which has lead to today's advanced state of the art systems

The History of the Polygraph Machine

In 1902 an inadequate lie detector test was invented by a man named James McKenzie. Later on in the 20th century, 1921, a medical student
named John Larson from the University of California invented the modern polygraph instrument, which was much more accurate in its results
than the previous machine. Although it recorded several different physiological responses, it was not as advanced as the modern polygraph
instrument; it measured the subjects pulse rate, blood pressure and respiratory rate and recorded the information on a rotating drum of smoke
paper. In 1925 Leonarde Keeler refined the instrument invented by John Larson; instead of using smoke paper to record changes in the
suspects’ reactions, he incorporated ink pens in order to ensure the efficiency of the machine. In 1938 the machine was further improved by
Keeler. He added another measuring component, galvanic skin resistance. The polygraph machine continued to advance throughout the years;
a man named John Reid introduced the idea of using ‘control questions’ as a means of comparison. After many years of experimenting with
ways to improve the machine, the machine was finally computerized in 1992, this allowed the machine to record the results of the test more
efficiently.

The Polygraph (Lie Detector) is a scientific instrument capable of simultaneously recording changes in several physiological variables while
the subject is asked a series of questions pertaining to a specific issue under investigation. The charts generated during the polygraph
examination are interpreted by a polygraph examiner.

The polygraph invented by John Augustus Larson (1892-1965) of the United States of America in 1921, is considered officially one of the
greatest inventions of all time. The literal meaning of the word "polygraph" is "many writings" (Polys (Gr.) – many and Grapho (Gr.) – write).

The problem of detecting lies has always concerned humans; therefore, the history of the polygraph, also know as the lie detector, has very
deep roots. In ancient China dry rice was commonly utilized as a lie detector. The Chinese believed that salivation ceased at times of emotional
anxiety such as a strong fear. An "examiner" had a suspect hold a handful of dry rice in his mouth while he was asked a series of relevant
questions. After questioning, the rice was examined. If it was dry, the suspect was declared to be a liar. This means of deception detection was
more advanced than a subjective evaluation of a suspect by a tribe chief. As was assumed then – and is currently supported by more recent
evidence – the nervous tension created by lying slowed or blocked the flow of saliva.

Another, more informative method of detecting deception with some psychological validity, involved a donkey. Around 1500 BC Indian priests
saturated a donkey's tail with carbon residue from an oil lamp and placed the animal in a dark tent. The suspects were sent into the tent and
told that pulling the "magic" donkey's tail would reveal the liar (if a guilty man pulls his tail, the donkey will bray). When the suspects came out,
the priests examined their hands. Those with clean hands had not touched the donkey's tail. It was assumed that this was due to many
suspects’ fear of their guilt being discovered, proving they were liars. Variations of this test were also used by Chinese and Arabs.

A more rigid approach of detecting the truth was used in ancient Sparta. Before being admitted to certain schools Spartan young men were
required to pass the selection criteria. The young men were ordered to stand on the edge of a cliff, and were asked if they were afraid. The
answer was always negative; however its integrity was determined by the men’s complexion. It was concluded that the pale young men lied
and they were pushed from the cliff.

In Ancient Rome bodyguard screening was conducted using a similar method. Bodyguard candidates were asked provocative questions. Those
who blushed were selected for the job. It was believed that if a person blushed in response to provocative questions, he would not participate
in plots.
African tribes have utilized their own method of detecting a guilty person. While performing a special dance around a suspected individual, a
sorcerer intensely sniffed him. The "investigator" made a conclusion whether the suspect committed the crime based upon the intensity of his
body odor (smell).

During the Middle Ages a suspect's pulse rate readings were collected for determining his or her guilt. This method was employed for exposing
unfaithful wives and their lovers. The testing technique was very simple. A trained individual placed a finger on a wrist of a woman suspected of
infidelity, while mentioning names of the men, who could have had an intimate relationship with her. The examinee's pulse accelerated when
she heard and, consequently, reacted to the name of her lover.

In West Africa persons suspected of a crime were made to hold and pass a bird's egg to one another. The person breaking the egg was
considered guilty, based on the notion that his or her tremor-eliciting nervousness was to blame.

Only at the end of the 18th century were conditions conducive to developing technical means of detecting deception, subsequently named: lie
detector, variograph, polygraph, emotional stress monitor, deceptograph, to name a few. Currently, polygraph and lie detector are the most
widely used names in the world.

The earliest attempt at a scientific approach to the development of diagnostic instrumentation for lie detection dates circa 1875, when the
Italian physiologist, Angelo Mosso (1846-1910), began studies of fear and its influence on the heart and respiration. The fear of being detected
was considered an essential element of deception. Through his research Mosso demonstrated that blood pressure, blood volume, and pulse
frequency changed depending on changes in emotions of a tested subject. From records of pulsation, Mosso was able to distinguish persons
who were afraid from those who were tranquil. Mosso devised several types of Plethysmographs (Plethysmos (Gr.) – enlargement, increase
and Grapho (Gr.) – write, record) – instruments for measuring changes in volume within an organ or whole body (usually resulting from
fluctuations in the amount of blood or air it contains).

In 1879, the French electrotherapy specialist, Dr. Marie Gabriel Romain Vigouroux (1831-1911) was first to discover the phenomenon we now
know as Electrodermal Response - human body phenomenon in which the body, mainly the skin, involuntarily changes resistance electrically
upon the application of certain external stimuli. Dr. Vigouroux described his empirical study of electrical changes in human skin in his 1879
article "Sur le Role de la Resistance Electrique des Tissues dans l'Electrodiagnostic".

Among other distinguished scientists contributing to the electrodermal response research are: the Georgian – Ivan R. Tarchanoff (1846-1908),
the French – Charles Samson Fere (1852-1907), the German – Georg Sticker (1860-1960), and the Swiss – Otto Veraguth (1870-1944).

An American psychopathologist, psychologist and psychiatrist influential in the early 20th century, Boris Sidis (1867-1923), also played an
important role in the electrodermal response investigation. Dr. Sidis was born in Berdychiv, Ukraine on October 12, 1867, in a family of
Ukrainian Jews and immigrated to the USA in 1887. He taught psychology at Harvard University.

In 1908 Dr. Boris Sidis conducted "A Study of Galvanic Deflections Due to Psycho-Physiological Phenomena" published in the Psychological
Review for September 1908 and January 1909. The purpose of the study was to investigate the relation of emotions and physiological activities
to galvanometric deflections. They concluded that the observed galvanometric changes were caused by physiological processes concomitant
with the mental states aroused by the stimuli. On December 28, 1909 Dr. Sidis read his speech, "The Nature and Cause of the Galvanic
Phenomenon", before the American Psychological Association, Harvard University.

In 1895 an Italian physician, psychiatrist and pioneer criminologist Cesare Lombroso (1835-1909) was the first to experiment with a device,
measuring blood pressure and pulse, to detect deception in criminal suspects and noted increased blood pressure following relevant questions
when put to some subjects. He called it a Hydrosphygmograph. In 1895 Dr. Lombroso published the second edition of "L'Homme Criminel"
("The Criminal Man"). It documents his use of a plethysmograph and sphygmomanometer during the interrogation of criminal suspects. Seven
years later, in 1902, for the first time in court history, a mechanical device helped to prove the innocence of the person accused of committing a
crime.

An Italian psychologist, Vittorio Benussi (1878-1927), at the University of Graz, announced that liars are betrayed by their breathing. The work
of Benussi, reported in 1914, reflects another step toward the current technique utilizing respiration changes as a criterion of deception. His
work concerned the so-called I/E ratio (inspiration-expiration ratio). Benussi measured and recorded breathing by means of an instrument
known as the Pneumograph (Pneuma (Gr) – air, breath and Grapho (Gr.) – write, record). Benussi found that the length of inspiration (I) divided
by the length of expiration (E) was greater before telling the truth than afterward, but the I/E ratio was greater after lying than before telling
the lie.

The first polygraph (lie detector), suitable for use in criminal investigations, was invented in 1921 by John Augustus Larson (1892-1965) a
medical student at the University of California and a police officer of the Berkeley Police Department (Berkeley, California, USA). Dr. Larson,
born in Shelbourne, Nova Scotia, Canada, was the first to simultaneously record more than one physiological parameter with the purpose of
detecting deception. Dr. Larson developed and utilized the continuous method of concurrently registering changes in pulse rate, blood
pressure, and respiration.

In conjunction with his polygraph, Dr. Larson used a test/a scientific procedure originated by Dr. William Moulton Marston (1893-1947) in the
Harvard Psychological Laboratory in 1915 and applied by him to various fields of investigation during World War I. Dr. Larson modified Dr.
Marston's procedure and applied it to the police procedure at the Berkeley Police Department beginning in 1921. Larson developed an
interviewing technique, called the R/I (relevant/irrelevant) procedure. Throughout questioning, he would sprinkle questions relevant to the
crime and questions that had nothing to do with it.

The polygraph, invented by Dr. Larson in 1921, is considered officially one of the greatest inventions of all time, and is included in the
Encyclopaedia Britannica Almanac 2003’s list of 325 greatest inventions.

Leonarde Keeler (1903-1949), born in North Berkeley, California, USA, is the most prominent polygraph examiner of all times. Having
conducted over 30,000 polygraph examinations, Leonarde Keeler was one of the world's foremost scientific criminologists, whose contribution
to the stature of the field of lie detection is merely immeasurable and invaluable.

In 1925, Leonarde Keeler (a Stanford University psychology major working at the Berkeley Police Department), developed two significant
improvements to Larson's polygraph: a metal bellows (tambour) to better record changes in blood pressure, pulse and respiration patterns,
and a kymograph, which allowed chart paper to be pulled under the recording pens at a constant speed.

In 1936, Keeler added a third physiological component to his polygraph – the Psychogalvanometer – a device for measuring changes in a
person’s skin resistance. This version of Keeler's polygraph was the prototype of the modern polygraph, and Keeler himself is therefore
considered the "father of modern polygraph". In addition to improving the polygraph, Keeler is also credited with numerous contributions to
polygraph examination technique.

Leonarde Keeler invented the famous Keeler Polygraph, for which he received a patent in 1931. It became the most widely used polygraph in
the world for the next three decades. The Keeler Polygraph was actively utilized at the Scientific Crime Detection Laboratory at Northwestern
University (Chicago), which was headed by Keeler between 1936 and 1938. By 1935 Keeler had conducted polygraph examinations on
approximately 2000 criminal suspects.

In 1948 Leonarde Keeler founded the Keeler Polygraph Institute, located on Ohio Street in Chicago – the first polygraph school in the world. The
institute trained many prominent people in the field of polygraphy.

The first reference to polygraph application for protecting commercial interests dates back to 1923. American polygraph examiner, Dr. John
Larson, proved the polygraph worked when a student was suspected of shoplifting at a local store. The store owner knew that the shoplifter
lived in the dormitory but he didn't know who. Dr. Larson offered to give polygraph tests to all of the people who lived in the dormitory; 37 out
of 38 tested individuals passed the polygraph examination. The one who didn't pass the test later confessed.

In 1938 the polygraph was used for the first time with the purpose of endorsing a product – in a magazine advertisement endorsing Gillette
razor blades. Above mentioned Dr. William Marston accepted a 1938 offer from a Detroit ad agency. In the ad "New Facts about Shaving
Revealed by Lie Detector!" Dr. Marston conducted lie detector tests on a select group of people who had tried Gillette and several other razor
blade brands. Dr. Marston claimed in the ad that the vast majority preferred Gillette.

In 1944, at the Papago Park, Arizona prisoner of war camp, a captured German submarine crewman was found strangled to death.
Investigators could not solve the crime so Leonarde Keeler was called in by Colonel Ralph W. Pierce, who had heard of his work. Keeler was able
to pick out seven prisoners, all of whom were said to have then confessed to the murder and were soon executed. Impressed by the outcome,
Pierce bought the first Army polygraph for the Chicago Counter-Intelligence Corps School. This marked the first important use of the polygraph
by a division of the federal government.

Pierce, Keeler, and other polygraphists made the first use of the polygraph for government security screening purposes in August, 1945, at Fort
Getty, Rhode Island where several hundred German prisoners had volunteered for police work with occupation forces in Germany. Several
weeks of polygraph examinations screened out a third of the group as pro-Nazi or unsuitable for other reasons.

The success of the polygraph during and after WWII served as a spur to the formation of the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) Polygraph
Division in 1948. The US government made a decision to test all CIA employees on the polygraph at least once every five years. The polygraph
became an integral part of the CIA's clearance process by mid 1950s. By 1952, the CIA's polygraph program was operating on a worldwide
basis.

In 1954, officially, the polygraph was used for general security screening in only three federal government agencies. All three were hush-hush
defense agencies: the Operations Research Office (ORO), the CIA, and the National Security Agency (polygraph division founded in 1951). At
ORO, all the new employees were tested and all existing workers were polygraphed twice a year.

During the fiscal year ending June 30, 1963, the federal government carried out 23,122 polygraph tests and the government owned 525
polygraphs. Leading the way in ownership was the Army (261 polygraphs), the Navy (86), the Air Force (72) and the FBI (48). There were 656
authorized polygraph operators in the employ of the government. At that time 24 agencies permitted the use of the polygraph. The figures did
not include the use and ownership of the instruments by the CIA (who declined to reveal the numbers), which may have been the most prolific
user.

The number of polygraph examiners practicing in the United States has steadily increased over the years: 3000 (1966), 4000 (1979), 6000
(1982), 10000 (1985). Approximately one million Americans were given polygraph tests in 1982. According to the Council of Polygraph
Examiners 30 percent of all applicants were rejected by polygraph testing during pre-employment screening in 1967.

American John E. Reid (1910-1982), educated as an attorney, is one of the world's most renowned polygraph examiners and interrogators, and
the author of several world-renown books on these subjects. In 1945, Reid developed the Reid Polygraph. Besides recording blood pressure,
pulse, respiration, and GSR, this new polygraph recorded muscular activity in the forearms, thighs, and feet thanks to metal bellows placed
under the arms and seat of the polygraph chair. The Reid Polygraph was the first instrument to use a movement sensor to detect subject
movement during the examination. In 1947, Reid developed a major breakthrough in polygraph technique, the Reid Control Question
Technique. He inserted a surprise controlquestion in the relevant/irrelevant technique. Reid is therefore considered the "father of controls".

The President, Director and Chief Instructor of the Backster School of Lie Detection (San Diego, USA), Cleve Backster, has made an enormous
contribution to the development of the psychophysiological detection of deception. In 1960, Backster developed the Backster Zone
Comparison Technique. He also introduced a qualification system of chart analysis, which standardized chart analysis making it more objective
and scientific than before. Backster's concepts have been widely adopted into practice in psychophysiological detection of deception
throughout the world.

Polygraph examinations are conducted by polygraph examiners in the private, law enforcement and government sectors in approximately 90
countries. The polygraph is most actively used in the United States of America, Mexico, Israel, Ukraine, Russia, South Africa, Colombia, Japan,
South Korea, Singapore, Canada, India, Romania, Hungary, Bulgaria, Slovenia, Croatia, Serbia, Poland, Czech Republic, Slovak Republic,
Lithuania, Turkey, Saudi Arabia, United Arab Emirates, Australia, Philippines, Malaysia, Indonesia, El Salvador, Panama, and Guatemala, to name
a few.

The polygraph is most actively used in the United States of America, where millions of polygraph examinations are administered on an annual
basis. The list of well known polygraph users in the USA includes: Department of Defense and its many investigative agencies of the Army, Navy,
Marines and Air Force, National Security Agency (NSA), Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), United States Secret Service, Federal Bureau of
Investigation (FBI), Internal Revenue Service (IRS), Department of Energy, Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) and numerous other
intelligence and federal law enforcement agencies. The polygraph is also used by state and local law enforcement agencies, U.S. and district
attorney offices, public defenders, lawyers, parole and probation departments, public and private companies.

Lafayette Instrument Company, located in Lafayette, Indiana, USA, dominates the international polygraph market. Lafayette Instrument
Company, founded in 1947 by Max Wastl (1915-1990), has been manufacturing polygraphs since the 1950’s, and is the unconditional
global leader in the manufacture and sale of lie detectors. Lafayette Instrument Company polygraph instrumentation is accredited by the
leading international polygraph associations and is preferred by polygraph examiners from the 90 countries using polygraphs. Under the
stewardship of the company's current owners Christopher L. Fausett, Jennifer D. Rider, and Terrance G. Echard, and past-president Roger B.
McClellan, Lafayette Instrument Company has achieved a global polygraph market share of approximately 90 percent. In addition to
polygraphs, Lafayette Instrument Company is also a world-renowned manufacturer of laboratory instrumentation.

In 1973 Lafayette Instrument Company revolutionized the lie detection market by creating the first polygraph (PGS) in the world that embodied
the wishes of all polygraph examiners. In 2007 Lafayette Instrument Company invented the first wireless computerized polygraph in the world
(LX5000-SW) and in 2008 developed the ultramodern portable lie detector (PCASS) for the Pentagon. Their currently manufactured
computerized polygraph LX4000-SW is the most reliable and popular lie detector on the planet. Moreover, under the stewardship of its
experienced scientist-polygraph examiner, dubbed by the experts "the future of lie detection", Lafayette Instrument Company heads the
creation of progressive and valid scoring algorithms.

In the USSR the research on the psycho-physiological diagnostic instrumentation methods in criminal investigations began in the 1920s. The
initiator of this research was a Soviet neuropsychologist, Alexander R. Luria (1902-1977). He used reaction time measures to study thought
processes and developed a psychodiagnostic procedure he referred to as the "combined motor method" for diagnosing individual subject's
thought processes.

In the USSR the first positive results of the motor method application in practice were published in 1927-28. However, the possibility of using
this and other methods in criminal investigations was criticized and disapproved of by Soviet authorities. As a result, the development of
polygraph methods was suspended for several decades.

The research in this field was resumed in 1960s, particularly, in two institutes of the USSR Academy of Science. Among researchers who deserve
recognition is a famous scientist-neurophysiologist, P.V. Simonov, known for developing a theory of emotions.

Around the same time several lawyers expressed in favor of polygraph application in criminal investigations. On the pages of the press in the
second half of the 1970s appeared discussions on this subject, but again their results were not in favor of the polygraph. Subsequently, all
research conducted in the Ministry of the Internal Affairs and Public Prosecution Office was suspended.

In the early 1970s, the experience of polygraph application in the West was analyzed by the KGB. The impetus for this analysis was a substantial
number of failures of one of the most powerful intelligence services of the Eastern Block – the Eastern German STASI. Even well trained agents
were exposed with the help of lie detectors. This immediately became known to the KGB. Consequently, a group for researching the psycho-
physiological processes was created in one of the research institutes.

In 1975, upon order from the head of the KGB, Yuriy Andropov, the KGB created a specialized polygraph division headed for approximately
fifteen years by Colonel Yuri Azarov and lieutenant colonel Vladimir Noskov. During this period the group proved the effectiveness of the
polygraph, trained a group of professional examiners and developed various types of polygraphs. In the mid 1980s the group created several
prototypes of a computerized polygraph.
In spite of research in the field of lie detection with use of a polygraph in the capital of the former USSR, it did not impact in any way the
development of psychophysiological detection of deception in Ukraine. This fact is confirmed by former KGB agents. Based upon the analysis of
Internet materials, and the information obtained from private sources, the year 1997 could be considered the year of birth of lie detection in
Ukraine.

According to the newspaper "Segodnya", dated October 17, 1998 (#203), on October 15, 1998, General of the Ministry of Interior of Ukraine,
Viktor A. Zubchuk, officially announced before the national media representatives that the Ukrainian police had the lie detector. The newspaper
stated that the Ministry acquired the polygraph in 1997 however, but preferred not to publicize that information immediately. The newspaper
also confirmed that the polygraph was already utilized by the Security Service of Ukraine, and by several commercial firms.

In May of 1997 Oleksandr M. Volyk was the first Ukrainian citizen to visit Lafayette Instrument Company. This initial visit led to the creation of
the Ukrainian lie detection firm, ARGO-A, and has served as the impetus for the development of Ukraine’s polygraph market. ARGO-A, founded
by Dr. Andriy M. Volyk, is the authorized representative of Lafayette Instrument Company polygraphs in Azerbaijan, Armenia, Belarus, Estonia,
Georgia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Latvia, Lithuania, Moldova, Russia, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Ukraine, and Uzbekistan. ARGO-A is Lafayette
Instrument Company's No. 1 polygraph dealer in Europe and No. 3 polygraph dealer internationally.

Currently, Dr. Andriy Volyk (PhD) – is one of the most experienced and well-known polygraph examiners in Europe, and is the most frequently
mentioned and quoted polygraph examiner by the media worldwide. Dr. Volyk has administered thousands of polygraph examinations for law
enforcement agencies, private companies, and private citizens from more than 30 countries. Dr. Andriy Volyk, in collaboration with the Indiana
Polygraph Institute (USA) and the Chicago Polygraph Institute (Chicago, USA) has trained hundreds of professional polygraph examiners from
Europe, Asia, and Africa.

Dr. Andriy Volyk is an author and the main character of numerous articles and publications on the subject of polygraphy, lie detection, and
security as a whole. Millions of radio listeners have frequently heard Dr. Volyk’s voice on well-known international radio stations, and his
sagacious comments on the subject of the polygraph (lie detection) have been read by tens of millions of readers on the pages of numerous
magazines, newspapers, and internet publications. Moreover, Ukraine’s “Lie Detector Man”, Dr. Andriy Volyk, has conducted polygraph exams
for TV shows and films on numerous politicians, stars, and celebrities.

Dr. Andriy Volyk is methodically fulfilling his ambitious dream of converting Ukraine into Europe’s center of the psychophysiological deception
detection. Thanks to the efforts of Dr. Volyk, Ukraine boasts the world’s largest collection of polygraphs and lie detectors, polygraph photo
gallery, and the most extensive polygraph library in Europe.

Polygraph examiners Dr. Andriy Volyk and Oleksandr Volyk are the first Ukrainian graduates of the Arizona School of Polygraph
Science (Phoenix, USA) and the Maryland Institute of Criminal Justice (near Washington DC, USA) respectively. These polygraph schools are
accredited by the prestigious American Polygraph Association (APA) founded in 1966, and counting over 2600 members in 32 countries. Both
polygraph examiners are members of the International League of Polygraph Examiners and are Associate Members of the APA. In addition, Dr.
Andriy Volyk is Ukraine's first graduate of the Indiana Polygraph Institute and the Chicago Polygraph Institute.

The provision of private lie detection service in Ukraine began in 1997. In 2002 three private companies actively provided services both in the
criminological and business environments. All together in 2002 there were only 16 polygraph examiners in Ukraine, and remained practically
the same during the next two years.

In 1999 five English-speaking officers from the Kyiv and L'viv Academies of Ukraine's Ministry of Internal Affairs underwent a two-month
polygraph examiner training course at the Academy of Forensic Psychophysiology in Largo, Florida, USA. This modernizing effort for Ukrainian
law enforcement was initiated by the Ukrainian American Police Association (Chicago, USA).

An American computerized polygraph has been used successfully for several years by the L'viv Law Institute of the Ministry of the Internal
Affairs of Ukraine (the first in the Western region of Ukraine). Using a polygraph has helped numerously to quickly obtain reliable information in
cases, when obtaining information any other way was extremely difficult or virtually impossible. The polygraph examiners of the institute have
helped law enforcement agencies in L'viv and neighboring regions on numerous occasions by testing individuals under criminal investigation.
Polygraph tests have demonstrated the effectiveness of polygraph application in solving complex crimes.

On February 13, 2002 political party Nova Heneratsiya (New Generation) announced its intention to propose to all leaders of political parties,
participating in the upcoming parliamentary election, to undergo a polygraph examination. On March 7, 2002 during a press conference, the
leader of New Generation, Mr. Myroshnychenko, took a polygraph test. He answered truthfully 14 out of 15 questions. Mr. Myroshnychenko
sent invitations to undergo a polygraph test to 22 political parties and 6 politicians individually. Leader of New Generation called on TV channels
to utilize polygraphs during political debates and speeches.

On May 23, 2002, in an interview with the Ukrainian Independent Information Agency (UNIAN) the Head of the Criminal Investigation
Department of the Ministry of the Internal Affairs (MIA) of Ukraine, Mr. Volodymyr Yevdokymov, stated that Ukrainian law enforcement
agencies utilized 15 lie detectors, which were actively used in the Dnipropetrovsk and Lugansk regions, Kyiv, Donetsk, Cherkasy and the Crimea.
Mr. Yevdokymov also confirmed that during the time of the experiment concerning the use of polygraph, which lasted from 2000 until the
spring of 2002, law enforcement solved 119 difficult crimes, including kidnapping of a child, 40 murders, 15 armed assaults, found six criminals
and four missing citizens.

At the end of 2004, at the pinnacle of the Orange revolution, the interest of Ukrainians in the lie detector had become more intense. The media
and politicians would not stop informing or discussing topics regarding the polygraph. Thanks to them, to a large degree, words and word
combinations such as lie detector, polygraph, lie detection, and polygraph examiner have become a permanent part of the Ukrainian
vocabulary.

During the period between 2004 and 2007 the number of polygraph examiners in Ukraine has increased from almost 20 up to nearly 200.
Currently, the Ukrainian polygraph market is one of the largest in the world. Since 2005 Ukraine has led European nations in the purchase of
the best polygraphs in the world manufactured by Lafayette Instrument Company.

Among individuals greatly contributing to the development of lie detection in Ukraine is a prominent politician and businessman, Leonid
Chernovetskiy. Mr. Chernovetskiy is one of the first Ukrainians to realize the virtues of the lie detector. He has demonstrated his
progressiveness by becoming the first major Ukrainian entrepreneur integrating psychophysiological methods of deception detection (using the
latest polygraph) in business operations of a large enterprise – his bank (Pravex-Bank).

Mr. Chernovetskiy is an unwavering advocate of using the polygraph in a battle against corruption. In April of 2005 during a press conference
Mr. Chernovetskiy offered to finance the purchase of lie detectors for every district government administration in the capital city of Kyiv in
order "to make a major contribution to fighting corruption in Kyiv". In March of 2006 Mr. Chernovetskiy, personally, underwent a polygraph
examination in front of journalists. He answered honestly several questions regarding bribes. He passed the test, demonstrating his integrity,
and stated afterward that he would demand from all Ukrainian politicians to undergo such tests. That same year Mr. Chernovetskiy initiated
(the passing of) a legislative norm for the annual testing of all government servants on the polygraph.

Frequent mentioning and contrasting remarks of the polygraph by famous politicians have also been conducive to the development of lie
detection in Ukraine. Among such politicians: Leonid Chernovetskiy, Yuliya Tymoshenko, Mykola Tomenko, Oleksandr Omelchenko, Mykhailo
Brodskiy, Volodymyr Spivachuk, Vitaliy Klychko, Stepan Poltorak, Yuriy Lutsenko, Petro Poroshenko and many others.

According to the Ukrainian information business portal "Liga" it is possible that the polygraph will be used during court questioning as well as
during the pre-court investigation. Ukrainian Member of Parliament, Volodymyr Spivachuk, deserves credit for this initiative. In 2005 Mr.
Spivachuk suggested to the Parliament to examine the bill "About the Inclusion of Amendments to Article 289 of the Civil Code of Ukraine." The
author of the bill submitted to the Parliament suggested providing law enforcement with the right to interrogate persons of 14 years of age and
older with the use of technical devices of medical nature capable of registering the emotional reaction of interrogated subjects to questions.
According to the proposed law such interrogations must be conducted only after obtaining a written consent from the interrogated subject,
and in cases of interrogation of minors, in the presence of their parents or authorities of law.

On April 15, 2006 Dr. Andrii Volyk of ARGO-A tested a Member of Parliament, Mr. Mykola Tomenko, who voluntarily agreed to undergo a
polygraph test to demonstrate publicly his integrity. Mr. Tomenko – a young, prominent politician, one of the leaders of the major political
party, Byut, answered truthfully all questions of the polygraph examiner. After the examination Mr. Tomenko declared: "Polygraph testing
could be used only with application of experience of the democratic countries. It should be the system of independent evaluation, and
exclusively upon voluntary consent of the tested person".

Ukrainian private companies have been actively integrating psychophysiological methods of deception detection into their business operations.
For instance, for the last several years, Pravex-Bank, one of the leading banks in Kyiv (Kiev) has been testing its employees’ ability to not
disclose confidential information and bank secrets using Lafayette Instrument Company polygraphs.

In his interview to the Ukrainian weekly business magazine Vlast' Deneg in August of 2005 the Vice President of Security of Pravex-Bank, Oleg
Kosenko, said that in their bank new employees are subjected to polygraph tests when work will involve bank confidentiality and/or movement
of large sums of money; that is those individuals who aspire to occupy crucial positions or those who used to be special services agents. Mr.
Kosenko also noted that the result of utilizing polygraphs had exceeded all expectations to such an extent that in 2005 Pravex-Bank purchased
additional lie detectors (model LX4000-SW) manufactured by Lafayette Instrument Company.

In April of 2005 Pravex-Bank's insurance company Pravex-Insurance paid 257,000 hryvnias (approximately $51,400) of insurance
compensation to the owner of a stolen car after testing him on the polygraph. That was the largest insurance compensation since the
beginning of Pravex-Insurance's existence. The insurance case emerged as a result of a car theft. The decision about the insurance
compensation was made after an investigation involving a polygraph belonging to Pravex-Bank. The polygraph test results provided exhaustive
answers to all questions, which were of interest to the insurance company. The polygraph examination eliminated the need for further
investigation. The information verification with the use of the polygraph has been implemented by the insurance company because the insurer
often ran into devious owners of automobiles, who orchestrated theft of their cars in order to claim sizable compensations.

The principal polygraph users and clients (private businesses) of the Ukrainian polygraph examiners are banks and insurance companies,
oil/natural gas companies, construction companies, media, jewel and diamond manufacturers, casinos and night clubs, meat processing plants
and confectionaries, retailers, restaurants and cafes, service industry companies, car dealerships and auto repair shops, security service
providers, recruiters, dating and matchmaking agencies, real estate agencies, hotels and motels, software developing companies, private
schools, law firms, transportation companies, courier service companies, and cellular service providers.

Recently Ukrainian private citizens have demonstrated a growing interest in polygraph examinations for resolving personal issues. Jealousy is
the primary reason private citizens turn to us for lie detection services. They want to prove to their spouses that they are faithful to each other,
and/or to determine instances of unfaithfulness.
As a result of a 2005 agreement between ARGO-A and the Chicago Polygraph Institute (Chicago, USA), those who desire to become polygraph
examiners (also polygraphist, polygrapher) may undergo polygraph examiner training in Kyiv (Kiev), Ukraine at ARGO-A – Chicago Polygraph
Institute's exclusive representative in Europe, Asia, and Africa.

2006 marked the establishment of the International League of Polygraph Examiners (ILPE). The ILPE is a voluntary professional polygraph
association composed of highly qualified polygraph examiners in the private, law enforcement and government sectors worldwide, including
Ukraine, USA, Israel, Mexico, Russia, etc. Dr. Andriy Volyk is President of the ILPE. The ILPE is the largest polygraph association in Europe.

ARGO-A possesses the largest polygraph library in Europe. The ARGO-A library, established in 1997, has over one thousand (1000) titles of
books, news papers, magazines, brochures, catalogs, periodicals, scientific papers, statistical data, Internet publications, and video materials
predominantly in the English, Ukrainian, and Russian languages. This is impressive not just by Ukrainian standards, considering the relatively
confidential nature of the lie detection field and a rather limited choice of polygraph literature around the world.

ARGO-A has the best collection of ink, thermal, and computerized polygraphs of different generations and brands in the world. The collection
includes historic polygraphs manufactured by Lafayette Instrument Company, Stoelting, Associated Research, B & W Associates, Thompson-
Metrigraph Instrument Company and others. ARGO-A's library and polygraph collection continue to expand.

In addition, ARGO-A owns the largest polygraph photo gallery in the world, consisting of images of polygraphs, polygraph examiners, scientists,
businessmen, law enforcement personnel, making significant contributions in the development of the instrumental psychophysiological
deception detection. Among these individuals are: John Larson, William Marston, August Vollmer, Leonarde Keeler, John Reid, Fred Inbau,
Angelo Mosso, Marie Gabriel Romain Vigouroux, Ivan Tarkhanov, Alexander Luria, Boris Sidis, Cesare Lombroso, Vittorio Benussi, Cleve
Backster, Max Wastl and others.

The ARGO-A polygraph photo gallery also includes posters of famous Hollywood films and original photos of Hollywood actors, “undergoing
polygraph examination” in movies, in which the lie detector (polygraph) was used. In addition, the ARGO-A polygraph photo gallery includes
originals and copies of images of well-known criminals, politicians, captured by photographers working for major magazines and newspapers
during high profile polygraph tests. ARGO-A's library, photo gallery, and polygraph collection continue to expand.

The field of lie detection in Ukraine continues to evolve dramatically, and interest in the polygraph is growing rapidly. For example, a press
conference, that took place at the office of ARGO-A on July 12, 2007, attracted approximately 40 representatives of Ukraine's mass-media.
Director of ARGO-A, Dr. Andriy Volyk, answered numerous questions from enthusiastic and curious journalists. During a one month period
following the press conference, Dr. Volyk appeared on 14 national TV channels, was broadcast by six national radio stations, articles about him
and on the subject of lie detection were disseminated by 12 national newspapers and magazines, all major national internet publications, and
two principal Ukrainian information agencies.

In recent years, the lie detector (polygraph) has reached unprecedented popularity in the Ukrainian society. For example, Ukraine’s renown
polygraph examiner, Dr. Andriy Volyk, has gained celebrity status in Ukraine testing famous people and politicians for popular Ukrainian
television shows, such as “Only Truth” and “Love for Survival” (TV Channel “Novy”), “Lie Detector”, “My Beloved, We Murder Children”, “Save
Our Family”, “Battle of Psychics”, and “Weighted and Happy” (TV channel “STB”), “In Black and White” (TV Channel “1+1”), “Facts of the Week”
and “Galileo” (TV channel “ICTV”), as well as participating in other programs on well known Ukrainian and foreign TV channels, including: STB,
ICTV, Tonis, First National/UT-1, K1, MAXXI TV, NTN, UBR, 24, First Business, Pravo TV, UBC, City, M1, TVI, Channel 5, TRK Kiev, TRK Ukraine,
National Television of Belarus, First National Channel (Belarus), Imedi TV (Georgia), Region TV (Georgia), Nova Television (Bulgaria), ATV
(Russia), O2TV (Russia), RTR (Russia), ORT (Russia), 1+1, Inter, MTV to name a few.

Millions of radio listeners have heard Dr. Volyk’s voice on: Radio Freedom, Radio-Era, Simply Radio, Voice of Kiev, Russian Radio, and BBC to
name a few, and his sagacious comments on the subject of the polygraph (lie detection) have been read by tens of millions of readers on the
pages of numerous magazines, newspapers, and internet publications; among which must be noted Mirror of the Week, Focus, Contracts,
Marketing Mix, Business & Security, Gazette a la Kiev, Power of Money, History of Successful Businesses and People, Truth, Status, Facts, New,
Ukrainian Truth, Ukraine’s Youth, Journal and Courier (USA), Kyiv Post, PCWEEK Ukrainian Edition, General Director, Khreshchatik, Economic
News, Invest Gazette, Voice of Ukraine, Correspondent, Commerce Man, Today, etc. Furthermore, Dr. Andriy Volyk’s name is often seen in the
messages of the leading information agencies, such as UNIAN, ITAR-TASS, and others. To a large extent, thanks to Dr. Andriy Volyk, terms such
as lie detector, polygraph, polygraph examiner, lie detection, polygraph test and others have become common and are used on a daily basis
by Ukrainians nationwide.

Dr. Andriy Volyk has conducted polygraph exams for TV shows and films on numerous politicians, stars, and celebrities, including: Laima
Vaikule, Sergey Zverev, Dmitriy Gordon, Egor Benkendorf, Svetlana Loboda, rapper Seryoga, Michail Brodskiy, Konstantin Stogniy, Victor Pavlik,
Petya Listerman, Valeriy Harchishin, Dmitriy Shepelev, Arina Domski, Django, Yuriy Falesa, Margarita Sichkar, Evgeniy Zaharov, Monro, duo
Alibi, Alexei Zalevskiy, attorney Alexei Reznikov, Vasilisa Frolova, Svetlana Vol’nova, Elena Shoptenko, Maya Migal, Anna Filimonova, Gennadiy
Viter, singer Elizabeth, Carolina Ashion, Olga Tsibul’skaya, Alexander Pedan, Dyadya Zhora, Andrey Domanskiy, Vitaliy Galai, Igor Pelyh, Anatoliy
Borsiuk, singer Lama, radio anchor Nikolai Matrosov, TV anchor Ruslan Senichkin, TV anchor Oksana Gutseit, Alexander Filatovich, Alexei
Vertinskiy, Olga Polyakova, Boris Aprel, Ivan Dorn, Anton Frindlyand, Irena Karpa, Natalia Karpa, Ekaterina Nesterenko, Evgeniy Kazantsev,
Sergey Ozeryanskiy, Yuliya Aisina, Alisa Tarabarova, Mark Savin, Vladimir Dantes, singer DIAR, Alexander Ostanin, Mariam Turkmenbaeva, Larisa
Shalyapina (Kopenkina), band “Quest Pistols», Larson, Evgeniya Vlasova, Vlada Litovchenko, Valid Arfush, Ruslana Pysanka, Vladislav Yama,
Nikolai Tomenko, and Olga Sumskaya to name a few.
The use of polygraph in law enforcement and human resource practices (pre-employment, periodic, and special polygraph evaluations of
individuals) is permitted by Ukrainian laws.