LECTURE 1 – POLYGRAPHY

HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF LIE DETECTION

1.) INTRODUCTION

In the middle of the 19th century, Dr. Hans Gross, an Austrian known as the “Father of Criminalistics”, defined search
for truth as the basis and goal of all criminal investigations. He asserted that “a large part of the criminalist’s work is nothing
more than a battle against lies. He has to discover the truth and must fight the opposite. He meets the opposite at every step.

The searches for truth and attempts at uncovering falsehood have been a universal and almost constant endeavor
dating back at ancient times. In their attempt to discover deception, primitive societies developed complex procedures founded
on magic and mysticism. The doors to the truth, divine creatures sent messages through fire, boiling water and torture. In some
instances, faith in these powerful mysticism miraculously allowed the innocent to go unscathed while the guilty bore the mark
of guilt.

Some of these rituals were based on sound physiological principles. Oriental people for example distinguished truth
form lying by having the entire accused chew dry rice and then spit it out. While this was a simple task for the honest, those
who were deceiving has difficulty in accomplishing this task and were then judged to be guilty and punished accordingly. This
practice recognized that fear slows the digestive process, including salivation. Thus, the deceptive were unable to spit out the
dry rice, while the innocent, having faith in the power of their deity to clear them of the unjust accusation, felt little fear in
contrast to the guilty who know they would be discovered.

2.) HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT

Throughout the centuries, man continued to experiment with more scientific methods in determining truth and
deception with the following scientists having contributed much in the development of the polygraph instrument:

a) Development of the CARDIOGRAPH COMPONENT

i) ANGELO MOSSO – 1895
(1) Studied fear and its influence on the hearth and his observations subsequently formed the basis for the
technique.
(2) Developed the SPHYGMAMOMANOMETER and the SCIENTIFIC CRADLE, which he used in studying fear
on the heart.

ii) CESAR LOMBROSO – 1895

(1) Employed the first scientific instrument to detect deception. This instrument known as
HYDORSPHYGMOGRAPH, measured changes in pulse and blood pressure when suspects were
questioned about their involvement in or knowledge of a specific response.
(2) Procedure on the use of the “HYDROSPHYGMOGRAPH” in detecting deception:
(a) Subject’s hand placed in a water filed tank sealed with membranes of rubber;
(b) Subject will be shown pictures connected with the crime or mention will be made to relevant facts
of the crime;
(c) Pulsation of blood in fist were recorded on smoked drum.

iii) WILLIAM MARSTON – 1915

(1) He dealt with the sphygmomanometer which was used to obtain periodic discontinuous blood
pressure readings during the course of an examination;
 (2) He also experienced with and helped to develop the pneumograph, which records breathing patterns,
and the galvanometer, which registers changes in skin resistance.
iv) JOHN LARSON – 1921
(1) Developed the polygraph, an instrument capable of continuously records blood pressure, pulse, and
respiration.
(2) The polygraph instrument which he developed was polygraphic apparatus in a portable form. Had
published more than anyone in this field.
v) LEONARD KEELER –1926
(1) Continued research and development of the polygraph. In 1949, he invented the Keeler Polygraph with
components that simultaneously recorded changes in blood pressure, pulse and respiration, as well as
the newly developed galvanic skin reflex.
(2) He devised the chart roll paper, a better method of questioning, and incorporated the kymograh.
(3) He also devised a metal bellows.

b) Development of the PNEUMOGRAPH COMPONENT.

i) VITTORIO BENUSSI – 1914
(1) Successfully detected deception with a pneumograph, an instrument that graphically measures an
examinee’s inhalation and exhalation.
(2) He demonstrated that changes in breathing patterns accompany deception.
ii) HAROLD BURTT – 1918
(1) Determined that respiratory changes were indicative of deception.
(2) Found out that changes in systolic blood pressure were of greater value in determining deception than
changes in respiration.

c) Development of the GALVANOGRAPH COMPONENT.

i) STICKER – 1897
(1) First to suggest the use of the galvanograph for detecting deception based on the work of several
predecessors.
(2) Theorized that the galvanic skin phenomena was influenced by exciting mental impressions and that
the will have no effect upon it.
ii) S. VERAGUTH – 1907
(1) First to use the term “PSYCHOGALVANIC REFLEX”.
(2) Believed that the electrical phenomenon was due to the activity of the sweat glands.

d) Development of the POLYGRAPH as known today.

i) LEONARD KEELER – 1926
(1) He devised the metal recording bellows.
(2) Devised the kymographs assembly and the rolled chart paper.
(3) Incorporated the cardiograph and pneumograph component that measures blood pressure and
respiration, respectively.
ii) QUESTIONING TECHNIQUES.
(1) Relevant-Irrelevant Test.
(a) Developed by LARSON and KEELER in 1942.
(b) Theory.
1. Guilty reacts only to relevant questions.
2. Innocent show no reaction
(2) Relevant-Irrelevant with EMBARRASSING personal question.
(a) Developed by various examiners around 1946.
(b) Theory.
1. To determine reactivity of subject.
2. To stimulate innocent subject.
(3) Relevant-Irrelevant with SURPRISE control questions.
(a) Developed by Inbau and Reid about 1948
(b) Theory.
1. To stimulate the innocent.
2. To provide contract for the guilty.
 (4) Relevant-Irrelevant with REVIEWED (known lie) and guilt complex question.
(a) Developed by Inbau and Reid about 1950-53
(b) Theory.
1. to stimulate the innocent subject
2. to identify the general nervous tension and guilt complex reactor
3. to improve contract between innocent and guilty subjects
(5) The BACKSTER ZONE COMPARISON TEST technique.
(a) Developed by Cleve Backster in 1960
(b) Theory
1. Based on the principles of psychological set
2. Provides constant monitoring of subject reactivity
3. Designed to disclose outside issues

e) THEORY OF LIE DETECTION

i) It must be recognized that there is no such thing as an instrument that will detect lies. The popular
name, Lie Detector, given to a collection of certain medical instruments, is somewhat misleading. No
collection of inanimate objects including the very finest and complicated modern computers, can
detect lies on the part of any human being.
ii) The students can understandably ask, “Well, what does this do called “lie detector” do?” The answer
to that question is that the lie detector records certain physiological activities of the body. These
activities are constantly in operation as long as the person is alive. The student should be aware that
the most common lie detectors record a breathing pattern of inspiration and expiration, a continuous
pattern of relative blood pressure and pulse rate, and a pattern of electro dermal activity.
iii) It is well known that the body adapts itself as efficiently as possible to its environment. If the
environment changes, the body will rapidly adjust itself to these changes. This is done by a complicated
system of internal checks and balance primarily involving the autonomic nervous system. This ability to
adjust is necessary if the organism if the organism or body is to survive in a constantly changing world.
Those organisms that cannot adjust rapidly die out.

f) RECENT DEVELOPMENT IN LIE DETECTION

INSTRUMENTATION

i) Since Mr. Trovillo’s article was written, there have been no great changes in lie detector
instrumentation.
ii) The consensus among lie detector operators is that present instrumentation is adequate and any
changes due must come in techniques of question formulation and chart interpretation
iii) Most people have tendency to relate lie detection strictly to police activities. It is true that the police
application have received the most publicity and the results obtained have been most spectacular,
however, it should be noted that lie detectors are used by many modern hospitals abroad to aid in the
study of mental conditions and emotionality.
iv) The most common of lie detection is in the field of business. Approximately 80% of lie detector
examinations being conducted in the United States today are related to the field of personal
employment screening (job seekers), and employee screening.
v) Obviously employers are interested in reducing their insidious drain of company’s funds and inventory
due to employees stealing of cash and property. The lie detector is being used to reduce this drain by
periodically screening employees. In other words, helping honest people to stay honest.
vi) As a rule, the results of a lie detector test are inadmissible as evidence. However, if a lie detector
subject confesses to the examiner during examination, this confession can be admitted in court subject
to the provisions of the rules of evidence.
vii) Reasons why the results of a lie detector test are inadmissible as evidence:
(a) Not standardized as to the qualifications of the examiner;
(b) Not standardized as to the test procedure; and
 (c) Not standardized as to instrumentation.

POLYGRAPHY (LIE DETECTION) IN GENERAL

1. What is Polygraphy?

It is the scientific method of detecting deception with the use of a polygraph instrument. This is the new name of LIE
DETECTION.

2. What is Polygraph?

It is a scientific diagnostic instrument used to record physiological changes in the blood pressure, pulse rate,
respiration and skin resistance of an examinee under controlled condition.

3. What is Lie Detector?

It is the popular but misleading name of the Polygraph. In Greek, Polygraph means “many writings” and the
instrument was so named because it make various ink recordings of a person’s body functions.

4. Other name of the Polygraph?

It is also called “Truth Verifier” since statistics show that is the vast majority of the instances the instrument verifies
an innocent person’s truthfulness.

5. Concepts of Polygraph Examination.

a) Used to test an individual for the purpose of detecting deception or verify the truth of statement
b) Records identifiable physiological reactions of the subject, such as; blood pressure, pulse rate, respiration and skin
resistance.
c) The effectiveness of the polygraph in recording symptoms of deceptions is based on the theory that a conscious
mental effort on the part of a normal person to deceive causes involuntary physiological changes that are in effect a
body’s reaction to an imminent danger to its well being.

6. Objective of a polygraph examination.

a) Obtain additional investigation leads to the facts of the case/offenses.

b) Ascertain if a person is telling the truth
c) Locate the fruits or tools of the crime or whereabouts of wanted persons.
d) Identify other persons involved.
e) Obtain valuable information form reluctant witnesses
f) Eliminate the innocent suspects.
7. Principal uses of the polygraph

a) Aid in investigation
b) Speeds up processing of investigation
c) Eliminates innocent suspects
d) Pre-employment screening
e) Honesty test (Periodic test)

LIE DETECTION

In every criminal investigation, the truth must be established to ensure proper prosecution of offenders. Criminal
investigators must exert all effort to determine lying not only on the part of the suspect but as well as to everyone involved in
the criminal act – witnesses, victims, etc.

In establishing the truth, criminal investigators apply various methods such as: observation; mechanical lie detection;
use of drugs that inhibits the “inhibitor”; hypnosis; and interrogation.

LIE defined:

 Any untruthful statement; Falsehood; Anything that deceives or creates false impression;
 To make untrue statements knowingly, especially with intent to deceive; To give an erroneous or misleading
impression;

LIE is synonymous to:

 Deceit; deception; fabrication; falsehood; and untruth.

DETECTION defined:

 The act of detecting, discovery, perceiving, finding, or uncovering something obscure.

KINDS OF LIE:

1. BENIGN LIE OR WHITE LIE - Used to maintain the harmony, of friendship, harmony of the home or office.
2. RED LIE - Communist propaganda; Against the Government
3. MALICIOUS LIE - Chronic Lie; To mislead justice

TYPES OF LIAR:

A. PANIC LIAR

 It is one who lies in order to avoid the consequences of a confession

 He/She is afraid of embarrassment to love ones and it is a serious blow to his / her ego.
 He/She believes that confession will just male the matter worst.

B. OCCUPATIONAL LIAR
  Is someone laid for spare years.
 This person is a practical liar and lies when it has a higher “pay off” than telling the truth.

C. TOURNAMENT LIAR

 Loves to lie and is excited by the challenge of not being detected.

 This person views an interview as another contest and wants to win.
 This person realizes that he or she will probably be convicted bur will not give anyone the satisfaction of hearing him
or her confesses.
 He wants that people will believe that the law is punishing an innocent person.

D. PSYCHOPATHIC LIAR

 The most difficult type.

 This person has no conscience. He shows no regret for dishonestly and no manifestation of guilt.

E. ETHNOLOGICAL LIAR

 Is one who is taught not to be a squealer.

*squealer – to cry or to shrill voice

 Used by underworld gang in order for their member not to reveal any secret of their organization.

F. PATHOLOGICAL LIAR

 A person who cannot distinguish right from wrong (his mind is sick.)
 Is an insane person.

G. BLACK LIAR

 A person who always pretends.

 (What he thinks of himself, what kind of person he is, and what he is.)

Historically, early human beings have their own way of determining lying or guilt on the part of the accused and accuser.
Their common method is thru the application of “ORDEAL.”

ORDEAL defined:

 A severe test of character or endurance; a trying course of experience.

 A medieval form of judicial trial in which the accused was subjected to physical tests, as carrying or walking over
burning objects or immersing the hand in scalding water, the result being considered a divine judgment of guilt or
innocence.
ORDEAL

 Is a term of varying meaning closely related in the Medieval Latin “Dei Indicum” meaning “Miraculous decision.”
 Ancient method of trial in which the accused was exposed to physical danger which was supposed to be harmless if
he was innocent.

AYUR-VEDA

o “Hindu book of health and science” The earliest known reference of the methods for detecting deception.
o Come before lie detection (seen through outside manifestation)
o Basis of the invention of polygraph machine.
o Traditional way not scientific.
EARLY METHODS OF DETECTING DECEPTION (ORDEAL):

1. Red hot iron ordeal

 Practiced on the hill tribe of Rajhmal in the North Bengal

 Accused placed his tongue to a red hot iron nine times (9) unless burned sooner.
 If burned, he is put to death.
 Not only that (licking the iron), he is also made to carry the metal into his hands.
 It is doubtful whether the ordeal is meant to determined the physiological changes occurring in description for if this
so, many false observations must have been made.

2. Ordeal by balance

 Practiced in the Institute of Vishnu, India.

 Scale of balanced is used.
 In one end of the scale, the accused is placed in the other end, a counter balance.
 The person will step out of the scale listened to a judge deliver an extortion is the balance and her back in. If he were
found to be lighter than before then he should be acquitted.

3. Boiling water ordeal

 Used in modern Africa.

 The method is that the subject will plunged their right arms into the boiling pot to the elbow and step into the other
side of the fire. All are told to undergo the test without a murmur.
 And when all are finished, they are told to return at the same tine the next afternoon.
 The one who by that time had lost some or showed blisters would prove the thief (Point out who is the one who steal
among his tribe mates).

4. Ordeal by rice chewing

 Practiced by Indians
 It is formed with a kind of rice called sathee, prepared with various incantations.
 The person on trial eats, with his face to the and then spits upon an eyeful leaf.
 If the saliva is mixed with blood or the corner of his mouth swell or he trembles, he is declared then a liar.

5. Ordeal of the red water

 Used in a wide region of Eastern Africa.

 The ordeal of the “sassy bark” or red water is used.
 The accused is made to fast for twelve hours.
 The swallow a small amount of rice.
 Then he will be imbibed in dark colored water.
 This water is actually an emetic and if the suspects ejects all the rice, he is considered innocent of the chare,
Otherwise, the accused is guilty/.

Combination of Drinks and Food Ordeal

 The accused first fasted for 12 hours and the given small amount of rice to ear followed by large amount of black
colored water.
 If the concoction was vomited, the accused was pronounced innocent; Otherwise, guilty.
 And practiced by “West African Regions”
6. Trial by Combat

 A fight between the accuser and the accused, whoever lost the battle will be the adjudged guilty.
 Originated from India and one of the examples of this: a rich man or accuser could hire somebody or bigger one to
fight the accused. After the fight the loser is adjudged guilty of crime.

7. Trial by Torture

 The accused was put into a severe physical test.

8. Drinking Ordeal

 The accused was given a decoction to drink by a priest – if innocent; no harm befalls him, but if guilty, will die.
 Practiced in:
a. Nigeria

b. Brahamic India

c. India

9. Eating Ordeal of Corsnead

 Involves partaking of food.

 Accused was given dry rice to swallow.
 Practiced in:
a. China

b. Alexandria, Egypt

10. Trial of the Eucharist

 This trial is reserved for the clergy, and administered with pomp and ceremony.
 If the accused was guilty, the Angel Gabriel will descend from heaven and prevent the accused from swallowing the
food given to him.
 Practiced in European countries.

11. Ordeal of the Bier

 The corpse was brought on a bier of boughs after which the natives would ask the corpse if it has been bewitched.
 If the victim died by witchcraft, the bier was supposed to know more and if the sorcerer show killed him was present,
the corpse will touch him.
 Practiced in Australian and European Countries.

12. Ordeal by heat and fire

 The accused was compelled to walk bare footed through a fire; if he remains unhurt then he is innocent.
 Practiced in a. East Germany - b. Early Scandinavian Countries - c. Early England

13. Ordeal of Boiling Oil or Water

 The accused was forced to dip his hands into the boiling water or oil and ask to pick up stone in it.
 If he remains unhurt then he is innocent.
  Practiced in Asian Countries.

14. Ordeal of Red hot Needle

 Red hot needle was drawn through the lips of the accused, if innocent; no blood will be seen flowing out.
 Practiced in Wanaka, East Africa.

15. Ordeal of the Tiger

 Accuser and accused were placed together in the same and a tiger set loose upon them.
 If both were spared, further elimination followed.
 With such means of redress, there were probably not very many plaintiffs.
 Practical in Siam.

16. Ordeal by Combat

 Accuser and accused report to a duel where the winner was adjudged innocent.
 Those not proficient in weapons and those who could not afford to do so could hire champions in the field to do the
fighting for them.
 This type of ordeal is vividly dramatized in the movie “Ivanhoe” based on the novel of the same title (became the only
legal ordeal)
 Practiced in England, time of “King Henry III”.

17. Test of the Cross ordeal

 The accuser and accused each were made to stand with arms crossed on their breasts.
 The one who endured the longest was deemed to have told the truth, the other, is the liar.
 Practiced in Europe.

18. Donkey’s Tail Ordeal

 Psychological theory, the donkey placed in one room alone and observed it, and if the donkey cried is a judged of
guilty of crimes, because deep in side and conscience he is guilty.

OTHER COUNTRIES WHICH PRACTICED ORDEALS:

A. Burma

 The accuser and accused were given each identical candle and both were lightened at the same time.

B. Borneo

 The accuser and accused were presented by shell fish placed on a plate.
 An irritating fluid was then poured on the shell fish and the litigant whose shell fish moved first was adjudged the
winner.

C. Greece

 A suspended axe was spun at the center of a group of suspects.

  When the axe stopped, whoever was in line with the blade as supposed to be guilty as pointed out by the divine
providence.

D. Nigeria

 The priest greased a clock’s feather and pierced the tongue of the accused. If the feather passed through the tongue
easily, the accused was deemed innocent.
 If not, the accused is guilty.
 Another Method (same country)
 Pour corrosive liquid into the eyes of the accused who was supposed to remain unharmed if innocent.
 Pour boiling oil over the hand of the accused with he usual requisites for guilt or innocence (if remain unharmed, he is
innocent).

E. Europe and Early United States (17th Century)

 Trial by water was commonly used on those accused of witchcraft.

 The accused was bound (hand and foot) and then cast into the body of water.
 If the accused sank, he was hauled to the surface half-drowned and deemed innocent.
 If the floated, he was deemed guilty and burned to death.

F. The “Hereditary Sieve” Method

 It is mentioned by Hans Gross his famous books in Criminal Investigation in which beans were thrown into a sieve
(bigao) as the name of each suspect was called.
 If the beans jump out of the sieve, the owner of the name is innocent.
 If the beans remain in the sieve, the person named is the thief.