Journal of Asia-Pacific Biodiversity 16 (2023) 96e117

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Journal of Asia-Pacific Biodiversity

journal homepage: http://www.elsevier.com/locate/japb

Original Article

Ethnobotany and diversity of medicinal plants used among rural

communities in Mina, Iloilo, Philippines: A quantitative study
Cecilia S. Cordero a, b, *, Ulrich Meve c, Grecebio Jonathan D. Alejandro a, d
a
The Graduate School, University of Santo Tomas, España Boulevard, 1015 Manila, Philippines
b
Division of Biological Sciences, College of Arts and Sciences, University of the Philippines Visayas, 5023 Miagao, Iloilo, Philippines
c
Department of Plant Systematics, University of Bayreuth, Bayreuth, Germany
d
College of Science and Research Center for the Natural and Applied Sciences, University of Santo Tomas, España Boulevard, 1015 Manila, Philippines

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The Philippines has a long history of using medicinal plants in ethnomedicine; however, this information
Received 16 August 2022 is under-documented in many rural communities. This study aims to document the medicinal plants
Received in revised form used in rural barangays in Mina, Iloilo. Semi-structured interviews were conducted to elicit the indig-
9 December 2022
enous knowledge of medicinal plants. A total of 111 medicinal plants distributed in 98 genera and 49
Accepted 11 December 2022
Available online 22 December 2022
families were used to address 82 ailments in 17 disease-categories. Of the 109 plants identified up to the
species level, 74% are non-native, 26% are native, and 7% of the native species are endemic in the
Philippines. Ninety-nine percent are not assessed, least concern, and with data deficient in IUCN Red List
Keywords:
Diversity
while only 1% is near threatened status. Five values were used to evaluate the plant importance: use
Ethnobotany value, relative frequency citation, relative importance, informant consensus factor, and fidelity level.
Iloilo Curcuma longa had the highest use value and relative importance, Coleus amboinicus had the highest
Philippines relative frequency citation, and Chrysophyllum cainito had the highest fidelity level. The highest was
Rural barangays recorded in the sleepewake disorders category. The results of this study will serve as a basis for further
pharmacological investigation and awareness of preserving traditional knowledge and biological
diversity.
Ó 2022 National Science Museum of Korea (NSMK) and Korea National Arboretum (KNA), Publishing
Services by Elsevier. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).

Introduction
Traditional medicine has been acknowledged to have an
important role in the healthcare delivery system and one of the
most common forms of practice is the use of medicinal plants
(World Health Organization, WHO 2015). Medicinal plants are
widely employed in primary healthcare services worldwide
because they are cost-effective, safe, and efficient in promoting and
maintaining good health (WHO 2018).
In the Philippines, the use of medicinal plants in traditional
medicine has been practiced for centuries and has been extensively
utilized and accepted in rural areas (Lazarte 2020). The use of
medicinal plants by the Filipinos started way back before the
Spanish colonization and could be influenced by Chinese traders
* Corresponding author. Tel.: þ63 9494134533
E-mail address: ces.cordero84@gmail.com (CS Cordero)
Peer review under responsibility of National Science Museum of Korea (NSMK) and
Korea National Arboretum (KNA).
(Eusebio and Umali 2004). The very first records on the medicinal
plants in the country were written by Spanish missionaries, such as
Father Francisco Ignacio Alcina and Fray Jose de Valencia in 1669,
and Father Pablo Clain in 1712 (Bantug 1954). A book published in
the 19th century titled “Plantas Medicinales de Filipinas” (Pardo de
Tavera 1892) serves as a practical manual of about 212 medicinal
plants and their uses. In the mid-20th century, a three-volume work
titled “Useful Plants of the Philippines” by Dr. Henry William
Brown, an American plant physiologist who devoted his scientific
writings mostly to Philippine plants and forests, was published.
Another scholarly book, “Medicinal Plants of the Philippines”
(Quisumbing 1951) documented around 850 medicinal plants
throughout the country. Extensive documentation was done by the
University of the Philippines-Los Baños in 766 barangays from 12
regions of the country recorded about 1,687 medicinal plants used
by the local traditional healers. In the past few decades, there
has been scattered research on different medicinal plants con-
ducted by state colleges and universities in different regions of
the country (Eusebio and Umali 2004). And in recent years,
numerous publications were done on the medicinal plants used

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.japb.2022.12.003
pISSN2287-884X eISSN2287-9544/Ó 2022 National Science Museum of Korea (NSMK) and Korea National Arboretum (KNA), Publishing Services by Elsevier. This is an open
access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
 CS Cordero et al. / Journal of Asia-Pacific Biodiversity 16 (2023) 96e117
Figure 1. Location of the study site in shade: A, Iloilo in Panay Island of the Philippine archipelago; B, Municipality of Mina in the Province of Iloilo; C, Brgy. Agmanaphao, Dala, and
Singay in the Municipality of Mina.
by the different indigenous peoples groups and local inhabitants
nationwide.
The inventory of medicinal plants for most countries is still
incomplete. Traditional knowledge of their uses is held by indige-
nous peoples and by rural communities, whose very existence is
threatened by many cultural, social, and economic factors. Only a
portion of this information has been documented comprehensively
and systematically (WHO 1993). Communities in the rural areas
prefer traditional medicine because of the accessibility of the
traditional healers and availability of medicinal plant resources.
Traditional healers share their indigenous knowledge on the home-
based medicinal plant preparations such as decoctions and poul-
tices for essential health care with their patients (WHO 2002). This
traditional knowledge is verbally passed down through generations
among kin members but diminishing due to the lack of interest of
younger generations. Furthermore, the gradual introduction of
Western medicine accompanied with modernization adds up the
risk of extinction (Aziz et al. 2018). The documentation of medicinal
plants used in traditional and complementary medicine is very
important not only to preserve cultural practices but also to ex-
change knowledge within and across communities and countries
forming a network of knowledge (Miguéis et al. 2019). With the
alarming increase of habitat destruction coupled with the over-
exploitation of medicinal plants in the wild, making it vulnerable
and threatened (Mbuni et al. 2020). Moreover, information from
ethnobotanical studies will also provide baseline information for
further phytochemical and pharmacological research and in-
vestigations for potential sources of safe, effective, and affordable
medicines to benefit mankind. Further, it is essential in the
assessment of the distribution and conservation of medicinal plant
resources.
Most of the ethnobotanical research works have been under-
taken in many different indigenous and non-indigenous groups
throughout the country, but there is still much to be considered and
discovered. On Panay Island in Western Visayas, there were several
ethnobotanical studies conducted on the medicinal plants used by
the indigenous peoples such as the Ati/Negritos (Ong and Kim
97
2015; Cordero et al. 2020; Cordero and Alejandro 2021) and
Panay Bukidnon (Cordero et al. 2022). However, only few studies
have been published (Elefan 2007; Tantiado 2012) on the medicinal
plants used in the rural communities by non-indigenous peoples.
Thus, this study aims to document, identify, and classify the me-
dicinal plants and their uses in traditional medicine in three rural
lowland barangays or communities in the municipality of Mina,
Iloilo, Philippines. Geographical distribution or endemicity and
conservation status of the medicinal plants were also investigated
in this study.
Material and methods
Study sites
The study was conducted in the municipality of Mina, Iloilo
which lies approximately 10 560 North, 122 340 East (Figure 1).
Mina is a third-class landlocked municipality located in the cen-
tral area of Iloilo Province in Panay Island, Philippines. It is
composed of 22 barangays and 20 of which are considered rural,
and the remaining two are urban. The town has a total land area of
4,340 hectares and 97% of which are classified as rural, composed
mostly of agricultural lands. The study sites are situated in the
three neighboring rural barangays of Agmanaphao, Dala, and
Singay. The three barangays have a population of around 3,236
equivalent to 13.46% of the entire population of the town as of
2020. The barangays mostly consist of flat terrains conducive to
rice farming.
Data collection and identification of medicinal plants
Fieldworks were undertaken from April to July 2021. An
informed consent was obtained prior to the conduct of the study.
The interviews were carried out using a semi-structured ques-
tionnaire that was ethically reviewed and approved by the Ethics
Review Committee of the Graduate School of the University of
98 CS Cordero et al. / Journal of Asia-Pacific Biodiversity 16 (2023) 96e117
Santo Tomas. A purposive sampling technique was used to inter-
view 71 key informants that were composed of 52 females and 19
males with the average age of 68 years old. The number of in-
formants was more than 10% of the population aged 49 years and
above in the communities of Brgy. Dala and Singay, and at least 10%
of the senior citizens (60 years old above) for the community in
Brgy. Agmanaphao. The informants were asked for an open-ended
discourse about their traditional knowledge of the medicinal plants
they used whenever they experienced any health-related prob-
lems. They were also asked for the plant parts they used, the mode
of preparation, and the form of administration.
The collections of medicinal plant specimens were carried out
with the help of the informants if the plants were available in their
yards or home gardens. The herbarium specimens were prepared
using three to five branches of medicinal plants preferably with
reproductive parts such as flowers and fruits. The specimens were
inserted in newspapers then placed inside the polyethylene bags
and poisoned with a generous amount of denatured alcohol for
several days. The poisoned plant specimens were then transferred
and inserted into new newspapers and placed in a presser for
drying. The pressed and dried specimens were mounted on the
herbarium sheets and properly labeled. The voucher specimens
were accessioned and deposited in the Herbarium of the North-
western University Luzon for future study and reference.
The identification of the medicinal plants was done using
different online databases such as Co’s Digital Flora of the
Philippines (Pelser et al. 2011 onwards), Phytoimages (Nickrent
et al. 2006 onwards), and Plants of the World Online (POWO
2022). For the verification of the family and scientific names, Tro-
picos (Tropicos, 2022), World Flora Online (WFO 2022), and Inter-
national Plant Names Index (IPNI 2022) databases were used. To
validate the geographical distribution of the medicinal plants, Co’s
Digital Flora of the Philippines (Pelser et al. 2011 onwards) and
Plants of the World Online (POWO 2022) were used.
Quantitative data analyses
Use value
(UV) was evaluated to determine the relative importance of the
medicinal plants using the formula: UVs ¼ Ui/N, where Ui is the
number of use reports, citations, or mentions by each informant for
a particular species and N is the total number of informants who
participated in the study (Phillips and Gentry 1993). High values
indicate the high number of use reports or citations from the in-
formants and low values indicate less citations or mentions. Every
time that an informant cites or mentions a medicinal plant species
being used to address any disease or purpose, it is considered as
one use-report or citation.
Relative frequency citation
Relative frequency citation (RFC) is used to assess the relative
frequency of citation or mention from the informants who partic-
ipated in the study using the formula: RFCs ¼ FCs/N, where FCs is
the number of informants who cited or mentioned a medicinal
plant species (frequency citation) and N is the total number of in-
formants (Tardío and Pardo De Santayana 2008). Values closest to 1
indicate that almost all the informants cited a particular medicinal
plant being used to treat a particular disease. Low values indicate
that only a few or sometimes only one informant mentions the use
or purpose of a medicinal plant species.
Relative importance
Relative importance (RI) was used to determine the relative
importance of the medicinal plants by the use or disease category
using the following formula: RIs ¼ [RFCs(max) þ RNUs(max)]/2,
where RFCs(max), (RFCs(max) ¼ FCs/FCmax) is the RFC of the medicinal
plant species and is obtained by dividing the frequency citation of a
particular species (FCs) by the frequency citation of the species with
the highest frequency citations (FCmax). RNUs(max), (RNs(max) ¼ NUs/
NUmax) is the relative number of the use categories and is obtained
by dividing the number of use or disease categories of a particular
species (NUS) by the number of use categories of the species with
the highest use or disease categories (NUmax) (Tardío and Pardo De
Santayana, 2008). High values suggest that a particular medicinal
plant has a high number of use-reports or citations for the treat-
ment of different diseases in multiple diseases or use categories.
Low values suggest that a medicinal plant has few uses or purposes
under few disease categories and sometimes it will only fall into
one disease category.
Informant consensus factor
Informant consensus factor (ICF) was used to evaluate the
consensus or homogeneity of the medicinal plant information from
the informants using the following formula: ICF ¼ (Nur  Nt)/
(Nur  1), where Nur is the number of use reports or citations for
each disease category and Nt is the number of species used in that
particular category (Heinrich et al. 1998).
Fidelity level
Fidelity level (FL) was used to determine the percentage of the
most preferred and valued medicinal plant for a particular disease
or use category using the following formula: FL ¼ (Np/N)  100,
where Np is the number of informants who cited or mentioned the
use of a medicinal plant for a particular disease category and N is
the total number of informants who cited that plant for any other
use or purpose (Friedman et al. 1986). High value implies that a
medicinal plant has a high number of citations and is the most
preferred species within a particular disease category. There were
17 different use or disease categories adapted and modified from
the ICD-11 (International Classification of Diseases) for Mortality
and Morbidity Statistics (WHO 2022) were used in this ethnobo-
tanical documentation. An additional disease or use category for
cultural, superstitious, and traditional beliefs is included. All sta-
tistical analyses were done using Microsoft Excel.
Statistical tools
Statistical analyses were used to measure and compare the
medicinal plant knowledge in terms of the number of medicinal
plant species mentioned by the informants when grouped ac-
cording to gender, education, occupation, age, and location/com-
munity. Shapiro Wilk’s test was used to test the normality of the
data when grouped according to gender while Levene’s was used to
test the homogeneity of variances of the data when grouped ac-
cording to education, occupation, age, and location/community.
Based on the results of the normality and homogeneity tests, the
non-parametric ManneWhitney U Test and parametric One-Way
Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) with Tukey Honestly Significant
Difference (HSD) post hoc tests were performed to test the differ-
ences at 0.05 level of significance using IBM SPSS Statistics ver. 22
(IBM Corporation 2013). For the UV, RFC, RI, ICF, and FL analyses
Microsoft Excel was used.
Results
Demographic profile of the informants
A total of 71 informants were interviewed face-to-face in this
ethnobotanical study. Out of these, 27% (19) were males and 73%
(52) were females. The informants’ ages were between 49 and 87
 CS Cordero et al. / Journal of Asia-Pacific Biodiversity 16 (2023) 96e117
years old and the majority of them (58%) were sexagenarians. Most
of them were housewives (58%), followed by farmers (17%), and
self-employed (14%) individuals. Among them, elementary and
secondary education were the highest education attainment with
41% each. Brgy. Singay had the highest number of informants with
45% (32), followed by Brgy. Dala with 38% (27), and Brgy. Agma-
naphao with 17% (12). Complete details of the informant’s de-
mographic profile are shown in Table 1.
Medicinal plant knowledge of the respondents
When the respondents were grouped according to gender, a
non-parametric ManneWhitney U Test revealed that there was
no significant difference (p ¼ 0.076) on the medicinal plants
mentioned between males (mean ¼ 14.63) and females
(mean ¼ 17.06). When grouped according to occupation, age, and
community/location, a parametric One-Way ANOVA revealed that
there was no significant difference in the medicinal plant
knowledge with p values of 0.772, 0.793, and 0.882, respectively.
Of all the respondents, 93% of them are 50 years old and above
and 99% were 60 years old and above. The evident transfer of
traditional knowledge on medicinal plants with the local people
in the rural communities is openly shared between members and
between communities regardless of the social status except for
the education. When grouped according to educational attain-
ment, respondents with high school level have the lowest mean
in the number of plants mentioned (14.52), followed by
elementary (17.14), and college (19.00). All respondents with
elementary education are senior citizens whose empirical
knowledge on medicinal plants is extensive and is supported by
the higher number of plants mentioned in their group than re-
spondents with high school education. On the other hand, re-
spondents with college education have the highest mean of
plants mentioned which could be attributed to the additional
knowledge and information they have obtained with higher ed-
ucation, and all of them were 56 years old and above. The One-
Way ANOVA and Tukey post hoc tests revealed that there was a
significant difference in the medicinal plant knowledge between
the college and high school level respondents (p ¼ 0.040). Based
on the means, the number of plants mentioned by respondents
with college level of education were significantly higher than
respondents with only high school level of education. In contrast,
there was no significant difference in the number of plants
mentioned by respondents with high school level and elementary
level (p ¼ 0.161) and elementary level and college level
(p ¼ 0.557) of educational attainment. Although respondents with
elementary level have a higher mean than respondents with high
school level of education, the difference was not considered
Table 1. Demographic profile of the informants.
Social group Variable Study sites
Agmanaphao Dala
Gender Male 1 9
Female 11 18
Education Elementary 3 11
High school 7 10
College 2 6
Occupation Housewife 6 15
Farmer 1 8
Self-employed 5 2
Employed 0 2
Age 59 0 3
60e69 6 17
70e79 2 7
80 4 0
99
significant. The same was observed between respondents with
elementary and college levels of education.
Diversity of the medicinal plant composition
A total of 111 medicinal plant species distributed in 49 families
and 98 genera were documented in this study. The most repre-
sented families were Fabaceae, Lamiaceae, and Poaceae. The family
Fabaceae listed 11 genera and 12 species that were used for the
therapy of at least 30 various health conditions. The family is not
only used for its medicinal purposes but also consumed as vege-
tables (Phaseolus lunatus L., Vigna radiata (L.) R.Wilczek, and Vigna
unguiculata (L.) Walp.) and fruits (Tamarindus indica L., and Pith-
ecellobium dulce (Roxb.) Benth.). Some of them are invasive species
(Mimosa pudica L., and Leucaena leucocephala (Lam.) de Wit), form
hedges and source of fuel (Gliricidia sepium (Jacq.) Kunth), and
ornamental (Clitoria ternatea L.). Family Lamiaceae recorded seven
genera and eight species used for the treatment of 20 different
diseases. Species under this family are cultivated in home gardens
as medicinal plants and ornamentals. Family Poaceae noted six
genera and six species used to address 21 medical concerns.
Species from this family are generally used as staple food (Oryza
sativa L. and Zea mays L.) spice (Cymbopogon citratus (DC.) Stapf),
and a major source of sugar (Saccharum officinarum L.) in the area.
Perennial grass Bambusa spinosa Roxb. is also used to build houses,
furniture, and fences in the community. There were 29 families
with only one genus each and there were 25 genera with also one
medicinal plant species each. Information on the plant families
with a high number of genera and species are presented in
Figure 2.
The medicinal plants documented were composed mostly of
trees (40%), followed by herbs (35%), shrubs (18%), and climbers (7)
(Figure 3). These medicinal plants can be cultivated in the home or
backyard gardens, growing along the barangay roads or irrigation
canals, on the rice paddy dikes, and some are sold in the municipal
public market.
Endemicity and conservation status
Of the 109 medicinal plants identified up to the species level, 81
species (74%) are not native, 28 species (26%) are native, and two
(Areca catechu L. and Ficus pseudopalma Blanco) of which are
endemic (7%) in the Philippines. A. catechu is one of the ingredients
of the betel quid that is habitually chewed by elderly people
especially in rural areas. It is usually seen growing in settled areas
around the communities. F. pseudopalma is commonly growing
along with other shrubs in sparsely dense areas of the studied
sites.
Fifty-three species (49%) are not assessed/no result, 47 species
(43%) are least concern, and eight species (7%) with data deficient in
the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red List
of Threatened Species (IUCN 2022). Medicinal plants that are not
assessed/no result in the IUCN are mostly introduced species that
Singay
are usually used as vegetables, ornamentals, and some are noxious
9 weeds. The least concern species are mostly non-native and native
23
15
trees and shrubs. Species with data deficient are mainly cultivated
12 herbs under the family Zingiberaceae and naturalized trees under
5 the family Anacardiaceae. Only one species (Swietenia mahagoni (L.)
20 Jacq.) is listed as near threatened. S. mahagoni is a prevalent tree
3
planted along the community roads in the studied areas. None of
7
2 the species documented in this study was included in the National
2 List of Threatened Philippine Plants and their Categories (DENR
17 2017).
9 The detailed information on the medicinal plants is summarized
4
in Appendix A. The family, scientific, and local names are listed
100 CS Cordero et al. / Journal of Asia-Pacific Biodiversity 16 (2023) 96e117

Figure 2. Medicinal plants with a high number of genera and species.

Figure 4. Medicinal plant parts used.

Figure 3. Medicinal plant growth forms. dropping (1%) sap onto the affected area, and scraping or grating
(1%) parts were the least practiced in the communities. The form of
preparations and mode of administration of the medicinal plants
together with the plant part/s used, diseases or uses, methods of
preparation, and forms of administration. The UV, RFC, and RI
values as well as the geographical distribution or endemicity and
conservation status are also presented in Appendix A.

Medicinal plant part and form of preparation and administration

There were 11 different plant parts used to prepare the medic-

inal plant remedies. The most frequently used plant parts were the
leaf (68%), followed by fruit (7%), and rhizome (6%). Flower, bark,
seed, stem, and roots were also used occasionally but not as regu-
larly (Figure 4). The least used parts were sap and bulb with at least
1% frequency and followed by petiole with less than 1%.
There were nine different preparations for the medicinal plants
and the most common forms were decoction (39%) which was used
for drinking, washing, bathing, and body steaming, followed by
crushing or pounding (27%) plant parts first before applying and by
applying plant parts directly (12%) into the affected area (Figure 5).
Eating, chewing, and drinking (8%), soaking (6%), and heating,
grilling, and burning (3%) were also done less often. Preparations
like cooking or blanching (3%) for oral consumption, rubbing or Figure 5. Medicinal plants form of preparation.
 CS Cordero et al. / Journal of Asia-Pacific Biodiversity 16 (2023) 96e117
also depend on the diseases or illnesses to be treated. For more
serious health conditions drinking decoction is the most common
form. Polyherbal preparations are also prevalent for the therapy of
severe illnesses. Detailed information on the medicinal plant
preparations and administration is shown in Appendix A.
Quantitative analyses
UV and RFC
Medicinal plants with the highest UV values were Curcuma
longa L. (1.14), Coleus amboinicus Lour. (0.93), and Annona muricata
L. and Blumea balsamifera (L.) DC with (0.87) values each. C. longa
locally known as kalawag is used to address 14 different diseases in
ten different disease or use categories. The high number of citations
or use-reports were recorded for suppressing fever and treating
sinda and dizziness by pounding the rhizome alone or with other
medicinal plants and rubbing the extract on the body. Drinking the
rhizome’ extract and applying the poultice on the forehead was also
practiced for the therapy. C. amboinicus also known as oregano is
used to treat four diseases (cough, fever, rheumatoid arthritis, and
tuberculosis) in four different disease or use categories. More than
90% of the citation or mention is used for treating cough by
crushing the leaves and taking the extract for oral consumption or
by drinking leaf decoction or eating leaf apical meristem.
A. muricata or babana in the local dialect is used to treat 15 different
diseases in ten different disease or use categories. It is commonly
used to treat urinary tract infection (UTI), cancer, and kidney stones
by drinking the leaf decoction or soaking the young leaves in warm
water and then drinking. B. balsamifera known locally as alibhon is
used in ten different diseases or purposes in seven different disease
or use categories. Most of its citations are for treating cough, fol-
lowed by UTI, and fever by drinking the leaf decoction, or soaking it
in warm water then drinking, or crushing the leaf and drinking its
extract, and or pounding and rubbing extract on the head. There are
21 taxa of medicinal plants with single citation or use-report having
the lowest UV value (0.01) recorded in this study.
Medicinal plants with the highest RFC values were C. amboinicus
(0.90), followed by B. balsamifera (0.80), and C. longa (.77). Ninety
percent of the informants mentioned C. amboinicus being used to
treat at least four different diseases. There are 23 medicinal plant
taxa documented with the lowest RFC (0.01) value and only one
informant mentions its use or purpose for each species (Appendix A).
Relative importance index
The RI was used to determine the multiplicity of uses of the
medicinal plants by the use or disease category. Medicinal plants
with the highest RI values were C. longa (0.88), Moringa oleifera
Lam. (0.77), and B. balsamifera (0.76). As mentioned above, C. longa
has the highest number of uses or purposes which is also equivalent
to the highest UV value. It is used to address 14 different diseases or
purposes in ten different disease or use categories.
C. longa is used in the following disease categories: certain in-
fectious or parasitic diseases (tetanus, flu, covid); diseases and
symptoms or signs involving the nervous system (dizziness,
headache); diseases of the circulatory system (hypertension); dis-
eases and symptoms or signs of the respiratory system (cough);
diseases of the musculoskeletal system or connective tissue
(rheumatoid arthritis); diseases and symptoms or signs involving
the digestive system or abdomen (abdominal pain); diseases of the
skin (skin lesion, Pityriasis rosea); diseases and symptoms or signs
of the genitourinary system (UTI), general symptoms, signs or
clinical findings (fever), and other cultural uses (sinda). C. longa was
culturally preferred and valued by many informants being used to
treat a wide variety of diseases in multiple disease categories.
101
M. oleifera also known as balunggay is used to treat 12 different
diseases in 11 different disease categories: diseases of the blood or
blood-forming organs (anemia); endocrine, nutritional or meta-
bolic diseases (diabetes); diseases and symptoms or signs involving
the nervous system (paralysis, headache); diseases of the visual
system and ear or mastoid process (conjunctivitis); diseases of the
circulatory system (hypertension); diseases and symptoms or signs
of the respiratory system (cough); diseases of the musculoskeletal
system or connective tissue (rheumatoid arthritis); diseases and
symptoms or signs involving the digestive system or abdomen
(toothache); diseases of the skin (skin lesion); general symptoms,
signs or clinical findings (fever); injury, poisoning or certain other
consequences of external causes (cuts/wounds). Most of the use
report is for the treatment of cuts/wounds and cough.
B. balsamifera is used in ten diseases or purposes in seven
different use or disease categories: certain infectious or parasitic
diseases (flu); diseases and symptoms or signs involving the ner-
vous system (dizziness); diseases and symptoms or signs of the
respiratory system (cough, pneumonia); diseases and symptoms or
signs of the genitourinary system (kidney stone, UTI), pregnancy,
childbirth or the puerperium (postpartum care and recovery);
general symptoms, signs or clinical findings (fever), and other
cultural uses (bughat, pasmo). Medicinal plants with the highest
number of disease categories, UV, RFC, RI values are shown in
Table 2.
Informant consensus factor
ICF was used to assess the culturally important medicinal plants
used by many informants within the same use or disease category.
This study documented 82 diseases or purposes under 17 different
disease categories (Appendix B). The highest ICF value was recor-
ded in the sleepewake disorders (1.0) with insomnia as a recorded
disease and Cymbopogon citratus (DC.) Stapf as the preferred me-
dicinal plant taxa. Even though it has the highest ICF value, the
number of citations is low. The next highest value is in diseases and
symptoms or signs of the respiratory system with asthma, cough,
lung problem, pneumonia, throat disease, and tonsillitis as the
recorded diseases with 34 different medicinal plants used. The
most cited medicinal species is C. amboinicus used for the treat-
ment of cough. The next highest value is in diseases and symptoms
or signs of the genitourinary system (0.84) with kidney stone,
prostate problem, and UTI as recorded diseases with 28 different
plant taxa used. The most preferred medicinal species in this dis-
ease category is also C. citratus or commonly known as tanglad,
used for the remedy of UTI. The lowest ICF value (0.53) was in the
diseases of the musculoskeletal system or connective tissue and
listed muscle swelling and rheumatoid arthritis as reported dis-
ease. There are 24 species used and the most cited by the in-
formants was Peperomia pellucida (L.) Kunth for the treatment of
rheumatoid arthritis.
Fidelity level
FL was used to evaluate the relative importance of a medicinal
plant species within each disease or use category. The medicinal
plants with the highest FL values were Chrysophyllum cainito L.
(96%), C. amboinicus (95%), and Citrus maxima (Burm.) Merr. (89%)
(Appendix B). C. cainito is the most recommended medicinal plant
species for the treatment of diarrhea under the category of diseases
and symptoms or signs involving the digestive system or abdomen.
C. amboinicus is the most cited and preferred species for the
treatment of cough while C. maxima is highly suggested for its
effectiveness for postpartum care and recovery under the preg-
nancy, childbirth or the puerperium disease or use category. The
lowest FL value (6%) was for C. citratus which is used for the remedy
of insomnia under the sleepewake disorders disease category.
102 CS Cordero et al. / Journal of Asia-Pacific Biodiversity 16 (2023) 96e117

Table 2. Medicinal plants with the highest number of disease categories, UV, RFC, and RI.

Rank Medicinal plant No. of disease Medicinal plant UV Medicinal plant RFC Medicinal plant RI
category

1 Moringa oleifera 11 Curcuma longa 1.14 Coleus amboinicus 0.9 Curcuma longa 0.88
2 Mimosa pudica 11 Coleus amboinicus 0.93 Blumea balsamifera 0.80 Moringa oleifera 0.77
3 Curcuma longa 10 Annona muricata 0.87 Curcuma longa 0.77 Blumea balsamifera 0.76
4 Annona muricata 10 Blumea balsamifera 0.87 Artemisia vulgaris 0.52 Annona muricata 0.74
5 Averrhoa bilimbi 9 Moringa oleifera 0.79 Annona muricata 0.51 Coleus amboinicus 0.68
6 Cymbopogon citratus 8 Cymbopogon citratus 0.73 Cymbopogon citratus 0.51 Mimosa pudica 0.68
7 Carica papaya 8 Carica papaya 0.65 Moringa oleifera 0.49 Cymbopogon citratus 0.64
8 Euphorbia hirta 8 Mimosa pudica 0.62 Carica papaya 0.48 Carica papaya 0.63
9 Zingiber officinale 8 Vitex negundo 0.58 Coleus scutellarioides 0.48 Euphorbia hirta 0.57
10 Psidium guajava/Eleusine indica 8 Artemisia vulgaris 0.56 Momordica charantia 0.48 Zingiber officinale 0.55

Though the sleepewake disorders disease category had the highest
ICF (1.00), only two informants mentioned C. citratus used for the
treatment of insomnia.
Comparison of different quantitative indices
The ranking of the medicinal plants with the highest number of
disease or use categories, UV, RFC, and RI values is shown in Table 2.
Medicinal plants with the highest UV, RFC, and RI values are the
most valued and culturally important in the communities. They are
evaluated using the number of use-reports, frequency of mentions
or citations from the informants, and the multiplicity of uses or
purposes in different disease categories. The top ten medicinal
plants in the three indices are almost the same except for some
minor differences such as the inclusion of Vitex negundo L. in the
UV, Coleus scutellarioides (L.) Benth. in RFC, and Euphorbia hirta L.
and Zingiber officinale Roscoe in RI. Though Z. officinale and E. hirta
are included in the top ten medicinal plants with multiple disease
categories. The inclusion of V. negundo in the top ten highest UV
implies the pronounced number of use-reports recorded especially
for treating cough and followed by UTI. The number of informants
citing its uses is not quite as high and it only covers four disease
categories. On the other hand, C. scutellarioides has somewhat high
frequency citations from the informants but its UV is somewhat low
compared to others and it also covers only four diseases. E. hirta and
Z. officinale have a high number of disease categories (multiple
uses) but their UV and frequency citations are not quite as high.
Low UV, RFC, and RI values imply that a particular medicinal plant
species have low use-report, frequency citation, and disease cate-
gory. There are 20 medicinal plants with the lowest UV (0.01), RFC
(0.01), and RI (0.05) values and this implies that only one informant
for each taxon mentions their use or purpose. For example, Sta-
chytarpheta jamaicensis (L.) Vahl has 0.01 UV, 0.01 RFC, and 0.0f RI
values. This means that it is only used for one purpose (treatment
for cuts/wounds) under one disease or use category (injury,
poisoning or certain other consequences of external causes) and
cited by one informant for its medicinal value.
In summary, C. longa is the most culturally preferred, valued,
recommended, and important medicinal plant in the three rural
communities because of its high UV (use-reports), citations from
the informants, and multiplicity of uses within different disease
categories.
Discussion
Of the 109 medicinal plant species identified up to the species
level, most of the medicinal plants (99%) are not assessed/no result
or least concern in the IUCN Red List. The result is comparable with
other ethnobotanical studies conducted in the nearby town
(Cordero et al. 2022), other regions of the country (Suba et al. 2019;
Dapar et al. 2020) and other parts of the world (Sakkir et al. 2012;
Faruque et al. 2018; Rudra et al. 2022). Most of the medicinal plants
used by the rural communities were cultivated in their home gar-
dens that also serve as food and ornamentals. Harvesting these
plant resources will decrease the pressure on the wild species
especially the vulnerable, endangered, and threatened ones. The
cultivation or domestication of cosmopolitan medicinal plants will
also help in the conservation and sustainable harvesting of the
overexploited medicinal plants in the wild (Maundu et al. 2006).
Only one species (S. mahagoni) was recorded as near threatened
(IUCN 2022). S. mahagoni is regarded as an invasive species of
natural forests in the Philippines and was introduced in the country
in 1911 (Baguinon et al. 2005).
There are 28 native medicinal plant species (26%) recorded in
this study and two (Areca catechu L. and Ficus pseudopalma
Blanco) of which are endemic to the Philippines. A. catechu is
generally cultivated throughout the country and mostly found in
the settled areas (Pelser et al. 2011 onwards). It has data deficient
conservation status (IUCN 2022). F. pseudopalma can be found in
lowland and medium elevation forests (Pelser et al. 2011 on-
wards) and its conservation status is not assessed or undeter-
mined (IUCN 2022). The apparent preference of the local people
to non-native (74%) species is parallel with other ethnobotanical
studies done in the country (Dapar et al. 2020; Cordero et al.
2022) and other studies conducted abroad (Cadena-González
et al. 2013; Hart et al. 2017). Non-native species can be easily
cultivated in a wide range of geographical locations and readily
accessible when needed. They also treat more diseases than the
native species (Hart et al. 2017). The inefficacy of native species to
treat certain conditions may also lead to the experimentation and
utilization of the introduced species (Cadena-González et al.
2013). Additionally, the studied communities have no forest
nearby and the surrounding land is highly utilized for agricultural
crops such as rice farming. Residents tend to rely on the available
medicinal plants in the area.
Most of the medicinal plant’s growth forms are trees and shrubs
and the most represented families with high numbers of genera
and species are Fabaceae, Lamiaceae, and Poaceae. Fabaceae as the
most preferred family is parallel to other ethnobotanical studies
conducted in the rural (Elefan 2007; Tantiado 2012) and indigenous
(Cordero et al. 2022) communities in Iloilo and the neighboring
province of Antique (Cordero and Alejandro 2021) in Panay Island.
Its ethnobotanical importance has been acknowledged in other
urban and indigenous communities around the world (Morales and
Ladio 2011). The family is generally used by the informants to treat
certain infectious or parasitic diseases involving the digestive sys-
tem or abdomen. It contains bioactive compounds with antibacte-
rial, antifungal, antioxidant, and insecticidal activities (Wanda et al.
2015).
 CS Cordero et al. / Journal of Asia-Pacific Biodiversity 16 (2023) 96e117
The use of leaves as the most utilized medicinal plant parts for
the remedy of any health-related concerns is similar to other
studies conducted in other rural communities in the country
(Morilla and Demayo 2013; Tindowen et al. 2017). Leaves are
readily accessible plant part and are always available in times of
emergency especially in tropical countries like the Philippines.
Harvesting leaves is more sustainable than other plant parts
because they can regenerate and grow easily.
The most common form of preparation is decoction by boiling
the medicinal plant parts in water and later used for drinking,
bathing, washing, or body steaming. Sometimes decoction is done
with multiple species of medicinal plants, especially for the treat-
ment of postpartum and recovery for mothers who recently gave
birth. The use of multiple species of plants for postpartum care and
recovery is an evident practice in other rural and indigenous
communities in Panay Island (Cordero et al. 2020; Cordero and
Alejandro 2021; Cordero et al. 2022).
Curcuma longa had the highest UV and RI values among the
recorded medicinal plant species and this suggests that it is the
most valued and preferred medicinal plant to treat a wide range of
medical health conditions in multiple disease categories. Curcumin
as a major component of C. longa has enormous biological activity
such as anti-inflammatory, antioxidant properties, anticancer and
anti-tumor, antimicrobial, antifungal, anti-diabetic, and wound
healing activities (Niranjan and Prakash 2008). It has been widely
used in India and China for thousands of years. It is not only used as
spice but also as part of religious activities. In the last three decades,
there are more than 3,000 publications about its uses in comple-
mentary medicine. It is also widely cultivated in the tropical regions
of the world and is known by different names (Prasad and Aggarwal
2011).
Coleus amboinicus has the highest RFC value and is the most
cited species by almost all informants. It is the most recommended
taxa for the treatment of cough. It is a fast-growing plant that can
be found naturally in the tropical regions of Asia, Africa, and South
America. It contains bioactive compounds that have antimicrobial,
antibacterial, antifungal, antiviral, and anti-inflammatory proper-
ties. It is used for the treatments of respiratory disorders, digestive
diseases, antiepileptic activity, effects against skin diseases, animal
and insect bites, and wound healing activities (Arumugam et al.
2016). The highest value for the ICF is in the diseases and symp-
toms or signs of the respiratory system (0.90) with C. amboinicus as
the most preferred and valued species especially for treating cough.
The medicinal plant with the highest FL (96%) is Chrysophyllum
cainito used for treating diarrhea under the diseases and symptoms
or signs involving the digestive system or abdomen category. It is a
tropical tree native to Central America and grown as an orchard or
ornamental. It contains phytochemicals that have antioxidants,
antidiabetic, anti-inflammatory, anticancer, and antihypertensive
activities (Doan and Le 2020).
The constant exchange of information on medicinal plants be-
tween members and between communities in rural areas revealed
that there were no significant differences in medicinal plant
103
knowledge regardless of social variables except for education. Re-
spondents with tertiary level of educational attainment have more
knowledge on the medicinal plants which is attributed with their
higher education. This implied that aside from the indigenous in-
formation they acquire from their families and communities,
exposure to higher education adds up to their knowledge.
Conclusion
Traditional medical practices used by the rural communities are
greatly influenced by their experiences, cultural and spiritual be-
liefs transmitted through oral communications and handed down
through generations. Modern or western medicine is gradually
paving its way into rural communities, thus making indigenous
practice vulnerable and at risk. The lack of interest in younger
generations and the accessibility of over-the-counter drugs fueled
the continuing disappearance of folkloric practices. Senior citizens
or elderly people whose empirical knowledge of the use of me-
dicinal plants in ethnomedicine is valued and respected should be
properly documented. They have rich traditional knowledge and
documentation of this knowledge has provided novel information
and create additional treatment options for different ailments.
There is notable diversity of medicinal plants in the area even
though most of the lands are used for agricultural monocropping.
People used their backyards or home gardens to plant preferably
non-native cosmopolitan species that are not only used for food
and ornamentals but also for medicinal purposes. Most of these
medicinal plants are not assessed/evaluated or with least concern
in the IUCN Red list. The value of plants to humans is innumerable
and has a great potential for drug discovery. Hence, the results of
this ethnobotanical study will serve as a basis for further phar-
macological investigations, especially for the most cited, preferred,
valued, and important medicinal plants. This will also serve as
awareness for preserving medicinal plants used as a safe and
effective alternative means to be incorporated into primary health
care services.
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing
financial interests or personal relationships that could have
appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgments
The authors would like to thank the residents of Barangay
Agmanaphao, Dala, and Singay in Mina, Iloilo, especially the senior
citizens who willingly partake their traditional knowledge on the
use of medicinal plants in ethnomedicine. The first author would
like to thank the Commission on Higher Education-Scholarship for
Graduate Studies Local (K-12) for the scholarship and the second
and third authors for the Digital Cooperation Fellowship PHL
1132010 GF-P from the Alexander von Humboldt Foundation.
104 CS Cordero et al. / Journal of Asia-Pacific Biodiversity 16 (2023) 96e117

Appendix A. Medicinal plants used among the rural

communities in Mina, Iloilo, Philippines.

Family Scientific name & Local Part Disease or Preparation and administration UV RFC RI Endemicityy
voucher number name used purpose* & IUCNz

Acanthaceae Justicia gendarussa Bunlaw Leaf Fever Apply on the forehead with crushed 0.38 0.31 0.4 N, NA
Burm.f. HNUL0020981 C. longa; pound with P. carruthersii
and apply on the forehead; apply
with P. carruthersii on the forehead;
pound with V. unguiculata then add
warm water and rub the extract on
the body
Leaf Dizziness Apply on the forehead; pound with
P. carruthersii and apply on the
forehead; bath the decoction
Leaf Headache Apply on the forehead; pound alone
or with with P. carruthersii and
C. longa then apply on the forehead;
pound and rub the extract on the
forehead
Leaf Postpartum care and Boil with B. spinosa, and C. maxima
recovery then bath the decoction; boil with
B. spinosa, B. balsamifera,
P. carruthersii, Canarium sp., and
H. ellipticum then drink half a glass
of decoction then use the rest for
steaming and bathing; boil with
H. ellipticum, B. spinosa, and
A. bilimbi then bath the decoction
Leaf Sinda Apply with P. carruthersii and
C. longa on the forehead
Leaf Typhoid fever Apply with P. carruthersii and
C. longa on the forehead
Acanthaceae Pseuderanthemum Pasaw Leaf Fever Apply alone or with J. gendarussa on 0.32 0.28 0.43 NN, NA
carruthersii (Seem.) the forehead; pound alone or with
Guillaumin J. gendarussa and apply on the
HNUL0020982 forehead; apply around the head
Leaf Dizziness Pound alone or with J. gendarussa
then apply on the forehead; apply
directly to the forehead
Leaf Headache Apply the fresh or heated leaves on
the forehead; pound with
J. gendarussa and C. longa then rub
the extract on the body; pound and
rub the extract on the forehead
Leaf Flu Apply on the forehead
Leaf Sinda Apply with J. gendarussa and
C. longa on the forehead
Leaf Typhoid fever Apply with J. gendarussa and
C. longa on the forehead
Leaf Postpartum care and Boil with B. spinosa, B. balsamifera,
recovery J. gendarussa, Canarium sp., and
H. ellipticum then drink half a glass
of the decoction then use the rest
for steaming and bathing
Acoraceae Acorus calamus L. Labigan Leaf Fever Pound and apply on the forehead 0.11 0.06 0.17 N, LC
HNUL0020983
Leaf Cough Pound and apply on the forehead
Leaf, Rheumatoid arthritis Pound leaf and apply to the affected
rhizome area; infuse rhizome in whisky and
rub on the affected area
Amaryllidaceae Allium fistulosum L. Sibuyas Leaf Body pain Crush and rub the extract on the 0.14 0.07 0.18 NN, NA
HNUL0020984 dahon chest
and back
Leaf Anemia Eat the fresh leaves
Leaf Flu Eat the fresh leaves
Amaryllidaceae Allium sativum L. Ahos Bulb Hypertension Eat or chew; pound then add warm 0.13 0.11 0.24 NN, NA
HNUL0020985 water and drink; soak in warm
water then drink
Bulb Covid Pound then soak in water then
drink
Bulb Toothache Rub on the gums
Bulb Rabies Rub on the bitten area
 CS Cordero et al. / Journal of Asia-Pacific Biodiversity 16 (2023) 96e117 105

(continued )

Family Scientific name & Local Part Disease or Preparation and administration UV RFC RI Endemicityy
voucher number name used purpose* & IUCNz

Anacardiaceae Anacardium occidentale Kasoy Leaf Mouth ulcer Drink the decoction 0.11 0.06 0.17 NN, LC
L.
HNUL0020986 Leaf Urinary tract infection Drink the decoction
(UTI)
Bark Diabetes Drink the decoction
Anacardiaceae Mangifera indica L. Paho Leaf Cough Crush young leaves and drink the 0.08 0.08 0.18 NN, DD
HNUL0020987 extract; drink the decoction of
young leaves; soak the young leaves
in one glass of hot
water then drink
Leaf Skin lesion Burn with A. heterophyllus and mix
the ash with C. nucifera’s oil then
apply to the affected area
Leaf Bughat Boil for body steaming
Anacardiaceae Mangifera Indian Leaf Cough Drink the decoction 0.01 0.01 0.05 NN, DD
indica cv. ‘Alphonso’ mango
HNUL0020988
Annonaceae Annona muricata L. Babana Leaf UTI Drink the decoction; soak in warm 0.87 0.51 0.74 NN, LC
HNUL0020989 water then drink
Leaf, fruit Cancer Drink the leaf or fruit decoction
Leaf Kidney stone Drink the decoction; soak in warm
water then drink
Leaf, fruit Diabetes Drink the leaf decoction; eat the
fresh ripe fruit
Fruit, leaf Hypertension Eat the fresh ripe fruit; drink the
leaf decoction
Leaf Fever Apply on the forehead; pound with
J. gendarussa and P. carruthersii then
rub the extract on the head
Leaf Rheumatoid arthritis Drink the decoction
Leaf Dizziness Apply on the forehead
Leaf Cough Drink the decoction; apply on the
throat area
Leaf Bloated stomach Drink the decoction
Leaf Abdominal pain Drink the decoction
Leaf Headache Apply on the forehead
Leaf Leukemia Drink the decoction
Leaf, fruit Gastrointestinal Drink the leaf or immature fruit
cleansing decoction
Leaf Cuts/wounds Crush and apply
Annonaceae Annona squamosa L. Atis Leaf Anemia Drink the decoction; crush the 0.27 0.17 0.37 NN, LC
HNUL0020990 young leaves and drink the extract
Leaf Diarrhea Crush and drink the extract; chew
the young leaves and drink the
extract
Leaf Dandruff Crush and rub extract on the scalp
Leaf Helminthiases Drink decoction
Leaf Body pain Apply heated leaves
Leaf Cough Crush the heated leaves and
drink the extract
Apiaceae Daucus carota L. Karot Root Cough Eat 0.01 0.01 0.05 NN, LC
HNUL0020991
Apocynaceae Alstonia scholaris (L.) Bita Bark Diarrhea Drink the decoction 0.03 0.03 0.06 N, LC
R.Br. HNUL0020992
Apocynaceae Catharanthus roseus (L.) Rosas Flower, UTI Drink the decoction 0.10 0.08 0.27 NN, NA
G.Don HNUL0020993 de leaf, root
baybayon
Leaf Rheumatoid arthritis Drink the decoction
Leaf Cancer Drink the decoction
Leaf Cyst Drink the decoction
Leaf Body pain Drink the decoction
Apocynaceae Plumeria rubra L. Kalachuchi Sap Boils Apply sap 0.01 0.01 0.05 NN, LC
HNUL0020994
Apocynaceae Tabernaemontana Alibotbot Leaf Kidney stone Drink the decoction 0.06 0.04 0.11 N, LC
pandacaqui Poir.
HNUL0020995 Leaf UTI Drink the decoction
Sap Boils Apply the sap to the affected area
Araceae Alocasia cv. Badyang Leaf Fever Apply fresh or heated leaf on the 0.11 0.10 0.24
HNUL0020996 (itom) forehead
Leaf Stomachache Apply to the stomach
Leaf Abdominal pain Apply to the stomach
Petiole Toothache
(continued on next page)
106 CS Cordero et al. / Journal of Asia-Pacific Biodiversity 16 (2023) 96e117

(continued )

Family Scientific name & Local Part Disease or Preparation and administration UV RFC RI Endemicityy
voucher number name used purpose* & IUCNz

Mix decaying petiole with grated

C. nucifera’s meat then apply to the
jaw area
Leaf Inaswang Apply to the stomach
Leaf Dizziness Put under the bed
Araceae Alocasia macrorrhizos Badyang Leaf Inaswang Apply to the stomach 0.04 0.04 0.11 NN, NA
(L.) G.Don
HNUL0020997
Leaf Toothache Apply on the jaw area
Araceae Homalomena Talos Leaf Bruise Apply to the affected area 0.01 0.01 0.05 N, NA
philippinensis Engl.
HNUL0020998
Araliaceae Heptapleurum Kalangkang Leaf Postpartum care and Apply on the abdomen; boil alone 0.10 0.08 0.18 N, LC
ellipticum (Blume) recovery or
HNUL0020999 with B. spinosa, and C. maxima then
bath
the decoction; boil with B. spinosa,
B. balsamifera, P. carruthersii,
Canarium
sp., and J. gendarussa then drink half
a
glass of the decoction then use the
rest
for steaming and bathing; Boil with
C. maxima, B. spinosa, J. gendarussa,
and A. bilimbi then bath decoction
Leaf Dizziness Apply on the forehead
Leaf Bloated stomach Apply to the stomach area
Arecaceae Areca catechu L. Bunga Seed Stomachache Chew betel nut; pound with slaked 0.04 0.04 0.07 NeE, DD
HNUL0021000 lime, P. betle, Z. officinale, and
V. unguiculata
then apply on the stomach
Seed Abdominal pain Pound and apply to the abdomen
Arecaceae Cocos nucifera L. Niyog Fruit UTI Drink the water 0.08 0.07 0.18 N, NA
HNUL0021001
Fruit Skin lesion Process into oil then mix ash of
M. indica and A. heterophyllus then
rub on the
affected area
Fruit Toothache Mix grated meat with decaying
petiole
of Alocasia cv. then apply to the jaw
area
Asparagaceae Cordyline fruticosa (L.) Baston ni Leaf Fever Apply on the forehead directly 0.06 0.06 0.21 NN, LC
A.Chev. san Hosep
HNUL0021002 Leaf Skin lesion Apply to the affected area
Leaf Bughat Bath the decoction
Leaf Dizziness Apply on the forehead directly
Asteraceae Artemisia vulgaris L. Artamisa Leaf Cough Crush and drink the extract; crush 0.56 0.52 0.47 NN, NA
HNUL0021003 heated leaves and rub the extract
on
the head, chest, and back
Leaf Fever Pound and apply on the forehead;
pound and rub the extract on the
head
or the body; pound and drink the
extract; crush with B. balsamifera
and
rub the extract on the head
Leaf Headache Crush and rub the extract on the
forehead or the head and on the
body; crush and rub the extract on
the chest and back
Leaf Dizziness Crush and apply on the forehead;
crush
and drink the extract
Leaf Bruise Crush and apply to the affected area
Asteraceae Blumea balsamifera (L.) Alibhon/ Leaf Cough Drink decoction; soak in warm 0.87 0.80 0.76 N, LC
DC. HNUL0021004 sambong water then drink; crush and drink
extract; pound and rub extract on
the head
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(continued )

Family Scientific name & Local Part Disease or Preparation and administration UV RFC RI Endemicityy
voucher number name used purpose* & IUCNz

Leaf UTI Drink the decoction

Leaf Fever Drink the decoction; crush with
A. vulgaris and rub the extract on
the forehead
Leaf Kidney stone Drink the decoction
Leaf Pneumonia Drink the decoction
Leaf Dizziness Pound and rub extract on the head
Leaf Pasmo Apply crush heated leaves on the
affected area
Leaf Flu Crush and apply on the forehead
Leaf Postpartum care and Boil with B. spinosa, P. carruthersii,
recovery Canarium sp., H. ellipticum, and J.
gendarussa then drink half a glass of
decoction then use
the rest for steaming and bathing
Leaf Bughat Drink the decoction
Asteraceae Chromolaena odorata Hagonoy Leaf Cuts/wounds Crush and apply 0.01 0.01 0.05 NN, NA
(L.) R.M. King & H. Rob.
HNUL0021005
Asteraceae Helianthus annuus L. Sunflower Seed Stomach ulcer Eat seeds 0.03 0.01 0.10 NN, LC
HNUL0021006
Flower Cough Drink the decoction
Balsaminaceae Impatiens balsamina L. Solangga Flower Cuts/wounds Crush and apply to the affected area 0.21 0.13 0.34 NN, NA
HNUL0021007
Leaf Fever Drink the decoction; crush and
drink the extract
Leaf Dizziness Crush and drink the extract; drink
the decoction
Flower Dizziness Soak in hot water and drink
Flower Antibacterial Soak in hot water and drink
Flower Pasmo Soak in hot water and drink
Flower UTI Soak in hot water and drink
Basellaceae Basella alba L. Alugbati Leaf Boils Soften or crush leaf and apply to the 0.10 0.10 0.24 N, NA
HNUL0021008 affected area
Leaf Hypertension Cook as vegetable then eat
Leaf Rheumatoid arthritis Cook as vegetable then eat
Leaf Lactation support Cooked with C. papaya then eat
Bignoniaceae Crescentia cujete L. Miracle Fruit Diabetes Drink the decoction 0.03 0.03 0.11 NN, LC
HNUL0021009 fruit
Fruit Cancer Drink fruit juice
Bixaceae Bixa orellana L. Istiwitis Leaf Dizziness Apply fresh or crush leaves on the 0.23 0.18 0.28 NN, LC
HNUL0021010 forehead
Seed Heart disease Soak in hot or tap water then drink
Leaf Fever Crush and apply on the forehead
Leaf Headache Apply fresh or crush leaves on the
forehead
Boraginaceae Cordia dichotoma Anonang Leaf Postpartum care and Drink the decoction 0.01 0.01 0.05 NN, LC
G.Forst. recovery
HNUL0021011
Boraginaceae Heliotropium Elepante Leaf Skin lesion Heat over the flame and mix extract 0.10 0.08 0.18 NN, NA
indicum L. with coconut oil and apply on the
HNUL0021012 affected area; heat leaves then
crush and rub extract; pound and
rub on the affected area
Leaf Conjunctivitis Crush and drop extract into the eyes
(may add breastmilk)
Leaf Bughat Soak in water then drink
Bromeliaceae Ananas comosus (L.) Pinya Fruit Indigestion Eat ripe fruit 0.06 0.03 0.11 NN, NA
Merr. HNUL0021013
Fruit Constipation Eat ripe fruit
Fruit Prostate problem Eat ripe fruit
Fruit Gallbladder problem Eat ripe fruit
Burseraceae Canarium sp. Salong Sap Postpartum care and Boil with B. spinosa, B. balsamifera, 0.03 0.03 0.11
HNUL0021014 recovery P. carruthersii, H.ellipticum, and
J. gendarussa then drink half glass of
decoction then use the rest for
steaming and bathing
Sap Headache Drink the decoction
Caricaceae Carica papaya L. Kapayas Leaf Dengue Pound or crush and drink extract 0.65 0.48 0.63 NN, DD
HNUL0021015 (may add honey); drink decoction;
crush and rub extract on the body
Leaf Skin lesion Crush or pound and rub the extract
on the affected area
(continued on next page)
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(continued )

Family Scientific name & Local Part Disease or Preparation and administration UV RFC RI Endemicityy
voucher number name used purpose* & IUCNz

Fruit, stem, leaf Rabies Rub fruit sap; grill stem and apply
on the affected area; crush leaf and
drink the extract
Fruit Constipation Eat ripe fruit
Leaf Stomach ulcer Drink decoction
Leaf Wart Crush and apply the extract
Stem Dizziness Scrape inner part of the stem then
mix with V. unguiculata and rub
extract on the head
Stem Headache Crush and rub the extract on the
head
Leaf Eczema Pound and apply
Leaf Cuts/wounds Crush and apply the extract
Leaf Burns Wash the decoction on the affected
area
Fruit Indigestion Eat ripe fruit
Stem Flu Crush a young leaf and rub extract
on the body; crush and drink
extract
Stem Fever Scrape the inner part of the stem
and drink extract
Leaf Pityriasis rosea Crush and apply the extract
Fruit Lactation support Cook with B. alba then eat
Clusiaceae Garcinia mangostana L. Mangosten Fruit, Bark Cancer Drink the decoction 0.01 0.01 0.05 NN, NA
HNUL0021016
Combretaceae Terminalia catappa L. Talisay Leaf Body pain Apply to the affected area 0.01 0.01 0.05 N, LC
HNUL0021017
Convolvulaceae Ipomoea batatas (L.) Kamote Leaf Anemia Cook or blanch and eat 0.04 0.04 0.11 NN, DD/LC
Lam. HNUL0021018 (red)
Leaf Hemorrhage Blanch and eat; drink the decoction
Crassulaceae Kalanchoe pinnata Maritana Leaf Boils Crush and apply 0.01 0.01 0.05 NN, NA
(Lam.) Pers.
HNUL0021019
Cucurbitaceae Cucumis sativus L. Kukumber Fruit Kidney stone Eat fresh fruit 0.06 0.06 0.12 NN, NA
HNUL0021020
Fruit Lung problem Eat fresh fruit
Cucurbitaceae Luffa aegyptiaca Mill. Patola Leaf, stem Anemia Drink the decoction 0.07 0.04 0.16 NN, NA
HNUL0021021
Leaf Liver disease Drink the decoction
Seed Helminthiasis Eat seeds
Cucurbitaceae Momordica charantia L. Amargoso Leaf Cough Crush and drink the extract 0.48 0.48 0.45 N, NA
HNUL0021022
Fruit Anemia Cook as vegetable then eat
Leaf Flu Crush and add sugar then drink
extract
Leaf Diabetes Drink the decoction
Euphorbiaceae Euphorbia hirta L. Tawa-tawa Leaf Dengue Drink decoction; crush and drink 0.49 0.38 0.57 NN, NA
HNUL0021023 extract
Leaf Conjunctivitis Crush and drop extract into the eyes
Leaf Fever Boil and bath or drink decoction
Leaf Bughat Drink decoction
Leaf Typhoid fever Use decoction as a spongebath
Leaf Cheilitis Crush and drop extract
Leaf Cancer Drink the deoction
Leaf UTI Drink the deoction
Leaf Rheumatoid arthritis Drink the deoction
Leaf Stomachache Drink the deoction
Leaf Flu Drink the deoction
Euphorbiaceae Jatropha curcas L. Kasla Bark, leaf Fracture Apply fresh or heated leaves or bark 0.38 0.32 0.45 NN, LC
HNUL0021024 to the affected area
Bark Bughat Scrape inner bark then crush and
drink the extract
Leaf Headache Apply fresh or heated leaves on the
forehead
Leaf Pasmo Apply the heated leaves to the
affected
area
Bark Diarrhea Scrape the inner bark and drink the
extract
Leaf Bruise Crush and apply to the affected area
Sap Toothache Drop the sap into the decaying
tooth
Bark Rabies Scrape the inner bark and apply
Leaf Dizziness Apply on the forehead
 CS Cordero et al. / Journal of Asia-Pacific Biodiversity 16 (2023) 96e117 109

(continued )

Family Scientific name & Local Part Disease or Preparation and administration UV RFC RI Endemicityy
voucher number name used purpose* & IUCNz

Euphorbiaceae Manihot esculenta Balinghoy Leaf Hepatitis Cook as vegetable 0.07 0.06 0.12 NN, NA
Crantz HNUL0021025
Leaf Skin lesion Pound and rub extract
Leaf Stomach ulcer Cook as vegetable
Fabaceae Adenanthera pavonina Uyangya Leaf Cough Crush and drink extract (may add 0.03 0.03 0.06 NN, LC
L. HNUL0021026 sugar)
Fabaceae Clitoria ternatea L. Blue Flower, leaf Stomach ulcer Soak flower in hot water then 0.30 0.15 0.31 Not native
HNUL0021027 ternate drink;
chew leaves and drink extract;
drink leaf decoction
Leaf Diabetes Soak in hot water then drink
Flower UTI Soak in hot water then drink; drink
decoction
Flower Hypertension Soak in hot water then drink
Flower, leaf Cancer Drink flower decoction; soak leaf in
warm water then drink
Fabaceae Gliricidia sepium (Jacq.) Madre Leaf Postpartum care and Apply to the abdomen 0.11 0.11 0.29 NN, NA
Kunth HNUL0021028 de kakaw recovery
Leaf Body pain Apply the poultice to the affected
area
Leaf Skin lesion Bath or wash the decoction
Leaf Rheumatoid arthritis Apply to the affected area
Leaf Pityriasis rosea Crush and rub the extract
Leaf Headache Apply on the forehead
Fabaceae Indigofera tinctoria L. Tagum Leaf Hypertension Crush and drink the extract 0.03 0.03 0.06 NN, NA
HNUL0021029
Fabaceae Leucaena leucocephala Agho/ Seed Helminthiasis Eat the immature seeds 0.08 0.08 0.14 NN, NA
(Lam.) de Wit Ipil-ipil
HNUL0021030
Leaf Diarrhea Drink the decoction
Fabaceae Mimosa pudica L. Huya-huya Leaf UTI Drink the decoction 0.62 0.32 0.68 NN, LC
HNUL0021031
Leaf Kidney stone Drink the decoction
Leaf Liver disease Drink the decoction
Leaf, root Pasmo Drink the decoction
Leaf Skin lesion Pound and rub the extract; crush
and apply to the affected area
Leaf Stomach ulcer Crush and apply on the stomach
area; drink the decoction
Leaf Cough Drink the decoction
Leaf Hypertension Drink the decoction
Leaf Rheumatoid arthritis Drink the decoction
Stem Fever Drink the decoction
Stem, leaf Tuberculosis Drink the decoction
Leaf, root Cancer Drink the decoction
Leaf Dengue Drink the decoction
Leaf Diabetes Drink the decoction
Leaf Bughat Drink the decoction
Leaf Asthma Drink the decoction
Leaf Bloated stomach Bath or drink decoction
Fabaceae Phaseolus lunatus L. Patani Leaf Mumps Apply the poultice on the jaw area 0.04 0.04 0.11 NN, LC
HNUL0021032
Leaf Headache Pound and apply poultice on the
forehead
Fabaceae Pithecellobium dulce Kamunsil Leaf Cuts/wounds Crush and apply 0.01 0.01 0.05 NN, LC
(Roxb.) Benth.
HNUL0021033
Fabaceae Senna alata (L.) Roxb. Palotsina Leaf Pityriasis rosea Crush and apply the extract 0.04 0.03 0.11 NN, LC
HNUL0021034
Leaf Pityriasis versicolor Crush and apply the extract
Fabaceae Tamarindus indica L. Sambag Leaf Cough Drink the decoction; crush in hot 0.23 0.23 0.22 NN, LC
HNUL0021035 water then drink; crush or pound
leaves
and drink the extract (may add
sugar); crush with M. charantia then
drink the extract
Leaf Flu Drink the decoction; crush and
drink theextract
Fabaceae Vigna radiata (L.) Monggo Seed Measles Pound and soak in water then drink 0.03 0.01 0.05 NN, LC
R.Wilczek
HNUL0021036
Seed Chicken pox Pound and soak in water then drink
(continued on next page)
110 CS Cordero et al. / Journal of Asia-Pacific Biodiversity 16 (2023) 96e117

(continued )

Family Scientific name & Local Part Disease or Preparation and administration UV RFC RI Endemicityy
voucher number name used purpose* & IUCNz

Fabaceae Vigna unguiculata (L.) Latoy/hantak Seed Fever Pound with J. gendarussa then add 0.03 0.03 0.11 NN, NA
Walp. HNUL0021037 warm water and rub the extract on
the body
Seed Stomachache Pound with slake lime, P. betle, and
Z. officinale and apply to the
stomach
Lamiaceae Clerodendrum Salin- Leaf Abdominal pain Apply to the abdomen 0.07 0.06 0.12 N, LC
quadriloculare (Blanco) uwak
Merr. HNUL0021038
Leaf Stomachache Apply to the stomach area
Leaf Inaswang Apply to the stomach area
Lamiaceae Coleus amboinicus Lour. Oregano Leaf Cough Crush and drink the extract; crush 0.93 0.9 0.68 NN, NA
HNUL0021039 in hot water then drink; eat leaf
buds;
drink the decoction
Leaf Fever Crush and drink the extract
Leaf Rheumatoid arthritis Crush and apply to the affected area
Leaf Tuberculosis Crush and drink the extract
Lamiaceae Coleus scutellarioides Rapunaya Leaf Cough Crush and drink the extract; add 0.52 0.48 0.45 N, NA
(L.) Benth. C. nucifera’s vinegar in leaf extract
HNUL0021040 and
drink extract; crush in hot water
then drink; crush and rub the
extract on the shoulder or back area
Leaf Fracture Crush and apply to the affected area
Leaf Bruise Crush and apply to the affected area
Leaf Cuts/wounds Crush and apply to the affected area
Leaf Fever Crush and drink the extract
Lamiaceae Hyptis capitata Jacq. Sampok- Leaf Hemorrhage Apply on the abdomen; crush and 0.01 0.01 0.05 NN, NA
HNUL0021041 sampok drink extract
Lamiaceae Mentha arvensis L. Herba Leaf Fever Crush and drink the extract; crush 0.27 0.20 0.38 NN, LC
HNUL0021042 buena and apply on the forehead
Leaf Cough Crush and drink the extract; drink
the decoction; apply to the throat
area
Leaf Dizziness Crush and drink the extract; apply
on
the forehead
Leaf Headache Crush and apply on the forehead
Leaf Ear problem Crush and apply to the ear
Leaf Diarrhea Crush and drink the extract
Leaf Bughat Drink the decoction
Lamiaceae Premna odorata Agdaw/ Leaf Cough Drink the decoction 0.07 0.07 0.13 N, LC
Blanco HNUL0021043 Argaw
Leaf Toothache Apply on the jaw area
Lamiaceae Vitex negundo L. Lagundi Leaf Cough Drink the decoction; crush and 0.58 0.45 0.43 NN, LC
HNUL0021044 drink
the extract; boil with M. charantia
and
drink the decoction
Leaf UTI Drink the decoction
Leaf Fever Drink the decoction
Leaf Flu Drink the decoction
Lamiaceae Orthosiphon aristatus Balbas pusa Leaf UTI Soak in hot water then drink 0.08 0.04 0.07 N, NA
(Blume) Miq.
HNUL0021045
Leaf Kidney stone Soak in hot water then drink
Lauraceae Persea americana Mill. Abokado Leaf Diarrhea Drink the decoction 0.20 0.15 0.31 NN, LC
HNUL0021046
Leaf UTI Drink the decoction
Leaf Stomachache Drink decoction; soak in warm
water
then drink
Leaf Toothache Boil and use the decoction as
mouthwash; drink the decoction
Leaf Amoebiasis Drink the decoction
Leaf Cough Drink the decoction
Leaf Skin lesion Boil and bath the decoction
Lythraceae Lagerstroemia speciosa Banaba Leaf Diabetes Drink the decoction 0.07 0.03 0.15 N, NA
(L.) Pers. HNUL0021047
Leaf Kidney stone Drink the decoction
Leaf Gallbladder problem Drink the decoction
Leaf UTI Drink the decoction
 CS Cordero et al. / Journal of Asia-Pacific Biodiversity 16 (2023) 96e117 111

(continued )

Family Scientific name & Local Part Disease or Preparation and administration UV RFC RI Endemicityy
voucher number name used purpose* & IUCNz

Malvaceae Abelmoschus esculentus Okra Fruit Diabetes Drink the decoction; soak in tap or 0.14 0.11 0.20 NN, NA
(L.) Moenc warm water then drink
HNUL0021048
Leaf Cough Drink decoction; soak in water then
drink
Seed Heart disease Soak roasted seeds in hot water
then
drink
Malvaceae Ceiba pentandra (L.) Duldol Leaf, bark Diarrhea Apply leaves on the stomach; 0.03 0.03 0.06 NN, LC
Gaertn. HNUL0021049 drink bark decoction
Malvaceae Hibiscus rosa-sinensis L. Gumamela Leaf Boils Apply to the affected area 0.01 0.01 0.05 NN, NA
HNUL0021050
Malvaceae Hibiscus rosa-sinensis Tapuranga Flower Boils Crush and apply to the affected area 0.01 0.01 0.05 NN, NA
var. HNUL0021051
Malvaceae Urena lobata L. Dalupang Flower Boils Crush and apply to the affected area 0.01 0.01 0.05 N, LC
HNUL0021052
Meliaceae Azadirachta indica Neem Tree Leaf Insect bite Crush and rub the extract to the 0.01 0.01 0.05 NN, LC
A.Juss. HNUL0021053 affected area
Meliaceae Sandoricum koetjape Santol Bark Diarrhea Drink the decoction 0.01 0.01 0.05 N, LC
(Burm.f.) Merr.
HNUL0021054
Meliaceae Swietenia mahagoni (L.) Mahogani Seed, bark Diarrhea Eat a seed; drink the bark decoction 0.13 0.10 0.24 NN, NT
Jacq. HNUL0021055
Seed Stomachache Eat a seed
Root Birth control Drink the decoction
Seed Hemorrhage Eat a seed
Bark Flu Drink the decoction
Menispermaceae Tinospora crispa (L.) Manunggal Sap Toothache Drop the sap into the eyes; insert a 0.17 0.17 0.32 N, NA
Hook.f. & Thomson piece of stem in the affected area
HNUL0021056
Stem Skin lesion Boil and apply the decoction as
sponge bath, bath or wash
Stem, leaf Stomachache Drink the leaf or stem decoction
Leaf Rheumatoid arthritis Apply to the affected area
Stem Dizziness Rub stem extract on the pulse
points
Stem Birth control Drink the decoction
Moraceae Artocarpus camansi Kamansi Leaf Hernia Drink the decoction 0.03 0.01 0.10 NN, NA
Blanco HNUL0021057
Leaf Rheumatoid arthritis Drink the decoction
Moraceae Artocarpus Mangka Leaf Fever Drink the decoction 0.13 0.07 0.27 NN, NA
heterophyllus Lam.
HNUL0021058
Leaf Cough Drink the decoction
Leaf Stomach ulcer Drink the decoction
Fruit Amoebiasis Eat the ripe fruit
Leaf Skin lesion Burn with M. indica then mix the
ash
with C. nucifera’s oil and apply to
the affected area
Moraceae Ficus pseudopalma Niyog- Leaf Diabetes Drink decoction; soak in hot water 0.37 0.18 0.24 NeE, NA
Blanco HNUL0021059 niyog then drink; soak in water for 72 hrs
then
drink
Leaf Kidney stone Drink the decoction; soak in hot
water
then drink
Leaf UTI Drink the decoction
Leaf Stomach ulcer Drink the decoction
Moraceae Ficus septica Burm.f. Labnog Leaf Dizziness Apply the fresh or heated leaves on 0.14 0.13 0.25 N, LC
HNUL0021060 the forehead
Leaf Fever Apply on the forehead
Leaf Flu Apply on the forehead
Leaf Rheumatoid arthritis Apply to the affected area
Leaf Muscle swelling Apply on the affected area
Moringaceae Moringa oleifera Lam. Balunggay Leaf Cuts/wounds Crush or pound and apply to the 0.79 0.49 0.77 NN, LC
HNUL0021061 affected area
Leaf Cough Crush and drink the extract; drink
the decoction; soak in warm water
then
drink
Seed Paralysis Drink the decoction
(continued on next page)
112 CS Cordero et al. / Journal of Asia-Pacific Biodiversity 16 (2023) 96e117

(continued )

Family Scientific name & Local Part Disease or Preparation and administration UV RFC RI Endemicityy
voucher number name used purpose* & IUCNz

Leaf Rheumatoid arthritis Crush the leaves with salt then rub
the extract of the affected area;
drink the decoction
Leaf Conjunctivitis Crush and drop the extract into the
eyes
Leaf Headache Pound/crush and drink the extract
Leaf Skin lesion Crush and rub the extract
Leaf Hypertension Crush and rub the extract
Leaf Diabetes Cook as vegetable then eat
Leaf Anemia Cook as vegetable then eat
Leaf Fever Crush and drink extract
Leaf Toothache Crush and drop extract on
the affected tooth
Muntingiaceae Muntingia calabura L. Sarisa Bark, leaf Diarrhea Drink the decoction 0.21 0.15 0.22 NN, NA
HNUL0021062
Leaf Stomachache Drink the decoction
Root Diabetes Drink the decoction
Fruit Diabetes Eat ripe fruits
Fruit, bark Rheumatoid arthritis Drink the bark decoction
Musaceae Musa Saging saba Leaf Fever Apply a 0.10 0.10 0.28 N, LC
acuminata  balbisiana young
HNUL0021063 leaf to the forehead
Flower Conjunctivitis Crush then drop extract into the
eyes
Fruit High uric acid Eat ripe fruits
Leaf Dizziness Apply on the forehead
Stem Cuts/wounds Apply decaying stem on the
affected
area
Myrtaceae Psidium guajava L. Bayabas Leaf Cuts/wounds Boil and apply decoction as wash 0.44 0.32 0.54 NN, L
HNUL0021064
Leaf Skin lesion Use decoction as a wash
Leaf Tuberculosis Chew young leaves and drink
extract
Leaf Canker sore Chew leaves; crush and drink
extract
Leaf Postpartum care and Boil and bath decoction
recovery
Leaf Diarrhea Drink the decoction; crush and
drink the extract
Leaf Cough Eat the young leaves
Leaf Stomach ulcer Drink the decoction
Leaf Stomachache Drink the decoction
Leaf UTI Drink the decoction
Leaf Halitosis Chew and use as mouthwash
Leaf Anemia Drink the decoction
Myrtaceae Syzygium cumini (L.) Lumboy Leaf, bark Diabetes Drink the decoction 0.25 0.17 0.32 NN, LC
Skeels HNUL0021065
Bark, leaf Anemia Drink the bark or leaf decoction
Leaf, bark Hemorrhage Drink the leaf or bark decoction
Leaf or bark Diarrhea Drink the decoction
Fruit, leaf Rheumatoid arthritis Eat fruit; drink leaf decoction
Bark Abdominal pain Drink the decoction
Oxalidaceae Averrhoa bilimbi L. Iba Leaf Skin lesion Crush and rub the extract; boil 0.32 0.24 0.54 NN, NA
HNUL0021066 and use the decoction as bath or
wash
Leaf Fever Boil and drink decoction or use as
bath
Flower Throat disease Soak in warm water and use as
mouthwash
Flower Mouth ulcer Soak in warm water and use as
mouthwash
Fruit Convulsion Eat fruit
Leaf Flu Drink the decoction
Leaf Dizziness Drink the decoction
Leaf Stomach ulcer Soak in water then drink
Leaf Pasmo Apply to the affected area
Leaf Muscle swelling Apply to the affected area
Leaf Postpartum care and Boil with H. ellipticum, B. spinosa,
recovery and J. gendarussa then bath the
decoction
Oxalidaceae Averrhoa carambola L. Garangan Leaf Fever Crush and drink the extract 0.06 0.04 0.11 NN, NA
HNUL0021067
Leaf Bloated stomach Drink the decoction
Leaf Indigestion Drink the decoction
Leaf Stomach ulcer Drink the decoction
 CS Cordero et al. / Journal of Asia-Pacific Biodiversity 16 (2023) 96e117 113

(continued )

Family Scientific name & Local Part Disease or Preparation and administration UV RFC RI Endemicityy
voucher number name used purpose* & IUCNz

Pandanaceae Pandanus amaryllifolius Pandan Leaf Hypertension Drink the decoction 0.06 0.04 0.11 NN, NA
Roxb. ex Lindl.
HNUL0021068
Leaf UTI Drink the decoction
Phyllanthaceae Antidesma bunius (L.) Bugnay Fruit, leaf Covid Blend/crush and drink the juice; 0.07 0.06 0.08 N, LC
Spreng HNUL0021069 drink the leaf decoction
Leaf Chicken pox Drink decoction; mix with
muscovado sugar and burn as
incense
Leaf Measles Mix with muscovado sugar and
burn as incense
Piperaceae Peperomia pellucida (L.) Sinaw- Leaf UTI Eat fresh; cooked as vegetable; 0.45 0.32 0.50 NN, NA
Kunth HNUL0021070 sinaw drink decoction; crush and drink
extract
Leaf Rheumatoid arthritis Drink the decoction; blanch and eat
Leaf Diabetes Drink the decoction
Leaf High uric acid Drink the decoction
Leaf Hypertension Drink the decoction
Leaf Cough Drink the decoction
Leaf Fever Drink the decoction
Leaf Cyst Drink the decoction
Piperaceae Piper betle L. Buyo Leaf Cough Crush the fresh or heated leaves 0.20 0.14 0.31 N, NA
HNUL0021071 and rub extract on the back of the
body
Leaf Flu Apply the fresh or heated leaves on
the back
Leaf Dizziness Apply on the forehead
Leaf Bloated stomach Crush the heated leaves and apply
them to the stomach area
Leaf Muscle swelling Crush the heated leaves and apply
them on the affected area
Leaf Stomachache Pound with slake lime, P. betle,
Z. officinale, and V. unguiculata, and
apply on the stomach
Poaceae Bambusa spinosa Roxb. Kawayan Stem UTI Drink the decoction 0.11 0.11 0.15 N, NA
HNUL0021072
Leaf Postpartum care and Boil with J. gendarussa and C.
recovery maxima then bath decoction; boil
with J. gendarussa, B. balsamifera,
P. carruthersii, Canarium sp., and
H. ellipticum then drink half glass of
decoction then use the rest
for steaming and bathing; boil with
H. ellipticum, J. gendarussa, and
A. bilimbi then bath decoction
Poaceae Cymbopogon citratus Tanglad Leaf UTI Drink the decoction 0.73 0.51 0.64 NN, NA
(DC.) Stapf
HNUL0021073
Leaf Hypertension Drink the decoction
Leaf Insomnia Drink the decoction
Leaf Rheumatoid arthritis Boil and rub the decoction on the
affected area
Leaf Diabetes Drink the decoction
Leaf, root Cough Drink the decoction
Leaf Kidney stone Drink the decoction
Leaf Muscle swelling Pound and apply on the affected
area
Root Gastrointestinal Drink the decoction
cleansing
Leaf Dizziness Drink the decoction
Leaf Headache Drink the decoction
Leaf Stomachache Drink the decoction
Poaceae Eleusine indica (L.) Plagtiki Leaf Fever Drink the decoction 0.46 0.31 0.54 N, LC
Gaertn. HNUL0021074
Leaf Pasmo Bath or drink the decoction
Leaf UTI Drink the decoction
Leaf Hypertension Drink the decoction
Leaf Rheumatoid arthritis Drink the decoction
Leaf, root Stomachache Drink the decoction
Leaf Cancer Drink the decoction
Leaf Diabetes Drink the decoction
Root Diarrhea Drink the decoction
(continued on next page)
114 CS Cordero et al. / Journal of Asia-Pacific Biodiversity 16 (2023) 96e117

(continued )

Family Scientific name & Local Part Disease or Preparation and administration UV RFC RI Endemicityy
voucher number name used purpose* & IUCNz

Poaceae Oryza sativa L. Paray Seed Rabies Chew and apply 0.01 0.01 0.05 NN, NA
HNUL0021075
Poaceae Saccharum officinarum Tubo Stem UTI Chew the peeled stem and drink 0.10 0.07 0.13 NN, NA
L. HNUL0021076 the extract
Stem Good for gums Chew the peeled stem and drink
extract
Poaceae Zea mays L. Mais Flower UTI Drink the decoction 0.14 0.04 0.11 NN, LC
HNUL0021077
Flower Stomach ulcer Drink the decoction
Flower Gallbladder problem Drink the decoction
Flower Kidney stone Drink the decoction
Rubiaceae Morinda citrifolia L. Anino Leaf Kidney stone Drink the decoction 0.01 0.01 0.05 N, NA
HNUL0021078
Rutaceae Citrus maxima (Burm.) Kabugaw Leaf Postpartum care and Boil alone or with B. spinosa and 0.15 0.13 0.21 NN, LC
Merr. HNUL0021079 recovery J. gendarussa then bath and drink
decoction; boil with H. ellipticum,
J. gendarussa, and A. bilimbi then
bath decoction
Fruit Flu Eat fruit; drink the decoction
Leaf Dizziness Apply on the forehead
Rutaceae Citrus microcarpa Bunge Suha Fruit Cough Add juice to warm water then drink 0.01 0.17 0.18 NN, NA
HNUL0021080
Fruit Flu Mix the juice in tap or warm water
then drink; remove seeds then boil
and drink decoction
Rutaceae Citrus  limon Lemon Leaf, fruit Cough Mix the juice in hot water and 0.13 0.08 0.27 NN, NA
HNUL0021081 drink;
drink juice
Fruit Dandruff Rub rind on the scalp
Fruit, bark Tonsilitis Soak bark in water then drink;
drink the fruit juice
Leaf Fever Soak in hot water and drink
Fruit UTI Drink the fresh juice
Sapotaceae Chrysophyllum cainito L. Star Apple Leaf Diarrhea Drink the decoction; pound and 0.38 0.35 0.33 NN, LC
HNUL0021082 drink
the extract; apply the young leaves
on
the stomach
Bark Diarrhea Drink the decoction; boil with
P. angulata then drink the decoction
Leaf Diabetes Drink the decoction
Leaf Flu Apply on the forehead
Leaf Bloated stomach Drink the decoction; apply on
the stomach area
Solanaceae Capsicum annuum L. Katumbal Leaf Skin lesion Crush and rub the extract 0.15 0.11 0.29 NN, LC
HNUL0021083
Leaf Cuts/wounds Crush and apply; crush with salt
and
apply
Leaf Caterpillar dermatitis Crush with salt and apply on the
affected area, crush and apply
Leaf Rheumatoid arthritis Crush and rub extract on the
affected area
Leaf Toothache Crush and insert the affected tooth
Seed Tonsilitis Soak in warm water then rub on
the throat area
Solanaceae Physalis angulata L. Tino-tino Leaf Diarrhea Crushed and apply to the stomach; 0.23 0.24 0.41 NN, LC
HNUL0021084 boil with C. cainito’s bark and drink
the decoction
Leaf Fever Pound and rub extract on the
forehead; pound and apply on the
forehead
Leaf Dizziness Pound and apply on the forehead
Leaf Cough Drink the decoction; crush and
drink the extract
Fruit Helminthiasis Eat fresh ripe fruit
Leaf Stomach ulcer Crush and drink the extract; drink
the decoction
Leaf UTI Drink the decoction
Solanaceae Solanum lycopersicum L. Kamatis Leaf Diarrhea Apply on the stomach 0.01 0.01 0.05 NN, NA
HNUL0021085
Solanaceae Solanum melongena L. Tarong Leaf Skin lesion Crush and rub the extract 0.06 0.04 0.16 NN, NA
HNUL0021086
Leaf Stomach ulcer Soak in hot water and drink
Leaf Liver cancer Drink the decoction
Leaf Stomachache Apply to the stomach area
 CS Cordero et al. / Journal of Asia-Pacific Biodiversity 16 (2023) 96e117 115

(continued )

Family Scientific name & Local Part Disease or Preparation and administration UV RFC RI Endemicityy
voucher number name used purpose* & IUCNz

Verbenaceae Lantana camara L. Baho-baho Flower, leaf Fever Bath the leaf or flower decoction 0.27 0.11 0.29 NN, NA
HNUL0021087
Flower Rheumatoid arthritis Bath the decoction
Leaf Skin lesion Use the decoction as wash or bath;
Crush and rub the extract
Leaf Eczema Boil and use the decoction as wash
or sponge bath
Flower Pasmo Bath the decoction
Flower Nervousness Bath the decoction
Leaf Rashes Boil and use the decoction as wash
Verbenaceae Stachytarpheta Sentimento Leaf Cuts/wounds Crush and apply 0.01 0.01 0.05 NN, LC
jamaicensis (L.) Vahl
HNUL0021088
Zingiberaceae Curcuma longa L. Kalawag Rhizome Fever Pound and rub the extract on the 1.14 0.77 0.88 NN, DD
HNUL0021089 body; pound and drink the extract;
pound and apply on the forehead;
drink the decoction
Rhizome Sinda Pound and apply on the forehead;
pound and drink the extract; pound
and rub the extract on the head and
body; apply with J. gendarussa and
P. carruthersii on the forehead
Rhizome Dizziness Pound and drink the extract; soak
in water then drink; drink the
decoction; pound and rub the
extract on the body; pound and rub
the extract on pulse points
Rhizome UTI Drink the decoction; pound and
drink the extract
Rhizome Headache Pound and drink the extract; pound
and apply the poultice on the
forehead
Rhizome Cough Pound and drink the extract; pound
and rub the extract on the body;
drink the decoction
Rhizome Tetanus Drink the decoction; pound and
drink the extract
Rhizome Flu Pound and drink the extract; pound
and rub the extract on the body
Rhizome Abdominal pain Drink the decoction
Rhizome Covid Drink the decoction
Rhizome Hypertension Drink the decoction
Rhizome Skin lesion Pound and rub the extract on the
affected area
Rhizome Pityriasis rosea Pound and rub the extract
Rhizome Rheumatoid arthritis Drink the decoction
Zingiberaceae Kaempferia galanga L. Kusol Rhizome Pasmo Pound and apply 0.10 0.10 0.24 NN, DD
HNUL0021090
Rhizome Splinter Apply on the affected area; pound
and apply
Rhizome Toothache Crush and drop extract on the
affected
area
Rhizome Muscle swelling Apply on the affected area
Zingiberaceae Zingiber officinale Luy-a Rhizome Dizziness Rub on the abdominal area; pound 0.44 0.34 0.55 NN, DD
Roscoe HNUL0021091 and
rub extract on the forehead then
apply poultice; rub extract on the
parietal area
Rhizome Cough Drink the decoction; pound and
drink the extract
Rhizome Covid Drink the decoction; add the
decoction
with C. microcarpa’s juice and drink
Rhizome Stomachache Pound and apply on the stomach;
drink decoction; pound with slaked
lime, P. betle, and A. catechu and
apply on the stomach
Rhizome Dengue Mix the decoction with
C. microcarpa’s juice then drink
Rhizome Flu Drink the decoction, chew and
drink the extract
Rhizome Pasmo Heat and apply on the affected area
Rhizome Fever Drink the decoction
(continued on next page)
116 CS Cordero et al. / Journal of Asia-Pacific Biodiversity 16 (2023) 96e117

(continued )

Family Scientific name & Local Part Disease or Preparation and administration UV RFC RI Endemicityy
voucher number name used purpose* & IUCNz

Rhizome Headache Pound and apply on the forehead;

drink the decoction
Rhizome Abdominal pain Drink the decoction
Rhizome Muscle swellung Pound and apply on the affected
area
Rhizome Hypertension Drink the decoction

* Inaswang: culturally believed that is caused by an aswang (witch), aswang is a supernatural creature that consume human body organs; sinda: caused by the charm of
spirits or unseen beings with symptoms like dizziness and fever; bughat: similar to “relapse” and sometimes accompanied with other symptoms like headache, muscle pain,
and weakness; pasmo: with symptoms like muscle pain, spasm, and fatigability especially on the extremities.
y
N ¼ native; NN ¼ not native; E ¼ endemic.
z
NN ¼ not assessed; LC ¼ least concern; DD ¼ data deficient; NT ¼ near threatened.

Appendix B. Use or disease category, disease or purpose

under each category, ICF, and FL of the most cited species.

Disease or use category Disease or purpose under Number of Use ICF FL (%) Most cited taxa Use or purpose
each category used taxa report of the most
cited taxa

Certain infectious or parasitic diseases Antibacterial (1), amoebiasis (2), boils 34 130 0.74 65 Carica papaya Dengue
(7), chicken pox (2), covid (4), dengue
(4), flu (17), helminthiasis (4), measles
(2), mumps (1), Pityriasis versicolor (1),
rabies (4), tetanus (1), tuberculosis (3),
typhoid fever (3) warts (1)
Neoplasms Cancer (8), leukemia (1), liver cancer (1) 9 20 0.58 31 Annona muricata Cancer
Diseases of the blood or blood-forming Anemia (8) 8 22 0.67 50 Annona squamosa Anemia
organs
Endocrine, nutritional or metabolic Diabetes (16), high uric acid (2) 17 53 0.69 85 Ficus pseudopalma Diabetes
diseases
Sleepewake disorders Insomnia (1) 1 2 1.00 6 Cymbopogon citratus Insomnia
Diseases and symptoms or signs Convulsion (1), dizziness (19), headache 27 111 0.76 29 Curcuma longa Dizziness
involving the nervous system (15), paralyses (1)
Diseases of the visual system and ear or Conjunctivitis (4), ear problem (1) 5 13 0.67 15 Euphorbia hirta Conjunctivitis
mastoid process
Diseases of the circulatory system Heart disease (2), hypertension (13) 13 54 0.77 53 Cymbopogon citratus Hypertension
Diseases and symptoms or signs of the Asthma (1), cough (31), lung problem 34 321 0.90 95 Coleus amboinicus Cough
respiratory system (1), pneumonia (1), throat disease (1),
tonsillitis (2)
Diseases and symptoms or signs Abdominal pain (7), bloated stomach 33 177 0.82 96 Chrysophyllum cainito Diarrhea
involving the digestive system or (6), canker sore (1), cheilitis (1),
abdomen constipation (2), diarrhea (16),
gallbladder problem (3),
gastrointestinal cleansing (2), good for
gums (1), halitosis (1), hepatitis (1),
hernia (1), indigestion (3), liver disease
(2), mouth ulcer (2), stomachache (15),
stomach ulcer (13), toothache (11)
Diseases of the skin Bruise (4), cyst (2), dandruff (2), eczema 27 58 0.54 35 Averrhoa bilimbi Skin lesion
(2), Pityriasis rosea (3), rash (1) skin
lesion (18)
Diseases and symptoms or signs of the Kidney stone (3), urinary tract infection 28 167 0.84 56 Cymbopogon citratus UTI
genitourinary system (UTI) (26), Prostate problem (1)
Pregnancy, childbirth or the Birth control (2), lactation support (2), 15 32 0.55 89 Citrus maxima Postpartum
puerperium postpartum care and recovery (11) care and
recovery
Diseases of the musculoskeletal system Muscle swelling (6), rheumatoid 24 50 0.53 48 Peperomia pellucida Rheumatoid
or connective tissue arthritis (20) arthritis
General symptoms, signs or clinical Body pain (5), hemorrhage (4), fever 39 135 0.72 44 Curcuma longa Fever
findings (30)
Injury, poisoning or certain other Burns (1), caterpillar dermatitis (1), 17 72 0.77 57 Moringa oleifera Cuts/wounds
consequences of external causes cuts/wounds (11), fracture (2), insect
bite (1)
Cultural uses Bughat (8), inaswang (3), pasmo (9), 19 50 0.63 50 Eleusine indica Pasmo
sinda (3)

Numbers in parentheses denote the number of taxa used.

 CS Cordero et al. / Journal of Asia-Pacific Biodiversity 16 (2023) 96e117 117

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