Journal of Ethnopharmacology 148 (2013) 951–963

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Journal of Ethnopharmacology
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jep

Traditional uses of medicinal plants in Solhan (Bingöl—Turkey)

Rıdvan Polat a, Ugur Cakilcioglu b,n, Fatih Satıl c
a
Giresun University, Espiye Vocational School, Programme of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants, Espiye, Giresun 28600, Turkey
b
Fırat University, Department of Biology, Elazığ 23119, Turkey
c
Balıkesir University, Department of Biology, Balıkesir 10145, Turkey

art ic l e i nf o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Ethnopharmacological relevance: This study has identified not only the wild plants collected for medical
Received 1 February 2013 purposes by local people of Solhan District in the Eastern Anatolia Region, but also the uses and local names of
Received in revised form these plants. It tried to provide a source for researchers studying in ethnobotany, pharmacology and chemistry
27 May 2013
by comparing the information obtained from traditionally used herbs with previous laboratory studies.
Accepted 29 May 2013
Aim of the study: This study aims to identify wild plants collected for medical purposes by the local people of
Available online 14 June 2013
Solhan District located in the Eastern Anatolia Region of Turkey and to determine the uses and local names of
Keywords: these plants.
Ethnobotany Materials and methods: A field study had been carried out for a period of approximately 2 years (2011–2012).
Medicinal plants
During this period, 214 vascular plant specimens were collected. Demographic characteristics of participants,
Use value
names of the local plants, their utilized parts and preparation methods were investigated and recorded. The
Informant consensus factor
Solhan plant species were collected within the scope of the study; herbarium materials were prepared; and the
Bingöl specimens were entitled. In addition, the relative importance value of the species was determined and
informant consensus factor (FIC) was calculated for the medicinal plants included in the study. Our research
area also includes people with Kurdish and Zaza ethnic origins.
Results: 82 plants were found to be used for medical purposes before in the literature analysis of the plants
used in our study, while 9 plants were found to have no literature records. The most common families are
Asteraceae (12 plants), Rosaceae (10 plants), and Lamiaceae (9 plants). The medicinal uses of Anthriscus
cerefolium (L.) Hoffm., Arum elongnatum Steven, Astragalus lamarckii Boiss., Chaerophyllum bulbosum L.,
Crataegus atrosanguinea Pojark., Hordeum bulbosum L., Pastinaca armena Fisch. & Mey., Prunus kurdica Fenzl
ex Fritsch, Sium sisarum L. var. lancifolium (M. Bieb.) Thell. that we found were used in our study area and
recorded for the first time. No information could be obtained regarding the names of two wild plants that are
being used in Solhan. In Turkey, local plant names display differences especially due to local dialects. The plants
used in Solhan are known by the same or different local names in various parts of Anatolia.
Conclusion: In the research area, local people were found to use 82 plants from 31 families for curative
purposes. The respondents of the questionnaire are Turkish citizens, with various ethnic backgrounds. Mean
age of the respondents was 55 years. These plants are used in the treatment of many diseases. Comparison of
the data obtained in this study with the experimental data obtained in the previous laboratory studies derived
from the plants growing in Solhan proved ethnobotanical usages to a great extent. Literature review indicated
that the curative plants that grow in Solhan are used in different parts of the world for the treatment of similar
diseases. These plants, used for the treatment of various diseases, are abundantly found in this region. Drying of
the medicinal plants enabled the local people to use them in every season of the year.
Published by Elsevier Ireland Ltd.

1. Introduction
Human beings have always made use of their native flora, not
just as a source of nutrition, but also for fuel, medicines, clothing,
dwelling, and chemical production. Traditional knowledge of
n significant potential societal benefits (Bağcı, 2000).
Corresponding author. Tel.: +90 506 793 66 09; fax: +90 424 22 42795.
E-mail addresses: rpolat10@hotmail.com (R. Polat),
ucakilcioglu@yahoo.com (U. Cakilcioglu), fsatil@gmail.com (F. Satıl).
plants and their properties has always been transmitted from
generation to generation through the natural course of everyday
life (Kargıoğlu et al., 2008).
Documentation of the indigenous knowledge through ethno-
botanical studies is important for the conservation and utilization
of biological resources (Muthu et al., 2006). Therefore, establish-
ment of the local names and indigenous uses of plants has
Turkey has a very rich flora and a great knowledge of folkloric
medicines, and consequently represents a potential resource for

0378-8741/$ - see front matter Published by Elsevier Ireland Ltd.

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2013.05.050
952 R. Polat et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 148 (2013) 951–963
such studies (Hudson et al., 2000). Turkey is one of the richest
countries in the world in terms of plant diversity. To date
approximately 10,500 plant species have been identified within
her borders and 30% of these are endemic (Davis, 1965–1985;
Güner et al., 2000). Endemism is one of the most important
indicators to evaluate environmental value of an area. In Turkey,
the rate of endemism in plant species is relatively high when
compared with other European countries (Ugulu et al., 2008). Folk-
medical studies in Turkey has continued progressively since the
beginning of the Republican period in 1923 (Baytop, 1999).
East Anatolia has a rich flora, due to its variable climate and high
number of ecological zones. This diversity in flora provides a rich
source of medicinal plants, which has long been utilized by Anato-
lian cultures, and hence accounts for the accumulation of remarkable
medicinal folk knowledge in the region (Özgökçe and Özçelik, 2004).
Majority of the Turkish people living in rural areas traditionally
use plants. Generally, they use plants for nourishment and medical
purposes. In recent years, traditional use of plants for medical
purposes has drawn the attention of researchers in our country as
well (Duran et al., 2001; Düşen and Sümbül, 1999; Kandemir and
Beyazoğlu, 2002; Ertuğ, 2004; Malyer et al., 2004; Köse et al.,
2005; Türkan et al., 2006; Satıl et al., 2008, Uğurlu and Seçmen,
2008; Kargıoğlu et al., 2010; Sarı et al., 2010; Satıl et al., 2011;
Gürdal and Kültür, 2013; Tetik et al., 2013).
This study identified not only the wild plants collected for
medical purposes by local people of Solhan District in the Eastern
Anatolia Region but also the uses and local names of these plants.
2. Materials and methods
2.1. Study area
Solhan (Fig. 1) is located in the South-East of Turkey. Solhan
belongs to the Iran–Turan Plant Geography Region and falls within
the B8 grid square according to the Grid classification system
developed by Davis It is at the South-East of the Anatolian
Diagonal, which is one of the main endemism centers in Turkey
(Davis, 1965–1985).
According to the data obtained from the website of Solhan
District Administration (http://www.solhan.bel.tr//), though there
is no precise information on the history of Solhan and its vicinity,
settlement activities in this region dates back to 2000 B.C. The city
Fig. 1. Geographical location of the study area.
was seized by Urartus after the fall of Hittite Empire around 1200
B.C. and then by Assyrians in 745 B.C. In 612 B.C. Medians captured
the city, and it remained within Alexander's Empire after Alex-
ander the Great conquered Anatolia. After the death of Alexander,
Seleucids assumed the city. Later, it was seized by Romans. After
the Battle of Manzikert in 1071, the city began to be governed
Seljuks; but when Seljuks was defeated by Mongols in Kösedağ
War (1243) and as a result of constant Mongol invasions, Mongols
assumed the region. With Otlukbeli War in 1473, the region that
also contains Solhan was conquered by Ottoman Empire.
Solhan has 26 villages and 133 sub-village. Surface area of the
sub-province is 1114 km2 and is 1395 m high from sea level. It is
located on the high plateaus of Eastern Anatolian Region. The
geography of the sub-province generally consists of steep areas
and pastures. Mountains in the region exceed 2000 m. The
economy of the sub-province is based on stockbreeding to a great
extent. “Floating Island”, which is a natural wonder, is located in
this sub-province.
According to the address-based population census results con-
ducted in 2011, (http://tuikapp.tuik.gov.tr/adnksdagitapp/adnks.
zul) total population of Solhan is 33,496. Some people live a
nomadic life. Within the scope of the research, interviews were
conducted with Kurdish people and people of Zaza ethnic origin.
The Zazas are of the major ethnic group in the region. The Zazas'
native language is Zazaki, which belongs to the Iranian group of
the Indo–European family of languages. The Zazas mostly live in
the Eastern Anatolia Region of Turkey (Arakelova, 1999).
Study permit was obtained from the Solhan District Adminis-
tration and Gendarmerie for the questionnaire administered to the
citizens of the towns and villages affiliated to Solhan.
No previous floristic studies are reported to have been con-
ducted in Solhan.
2.2. Interviews with local people
Field study was carried out over a period of approximately
2 years (2011–2012). During this period, 214 vascular plant speci-
mens were collected. The plants were pressed in the field and
prepared for identification. Plants were identified using the
standard text, “Flora of Turkey and the East Aegean Islands”
(Davis, 1965–1985; Davis et al., 1988). The plants collected within
the scope of the study were identified by the authors, rendered
herbarium materials; and the plants are being kept in Altınoluk
 R. Polat et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 148 (2013) 951–963 953

Vocational School, Department of Medical and Aromatic Plants. Table 1

The names of plant families were listed in alphabetic order. Demographic characteristics of the individuals′ (n ¼145).
Scientific names of plant species were identified according to the
Demographical Number % Demographical Number %
International Plant Name Index (IPNI: http://www.ipni.org). After characteristics characteristics
the taxon names were identified, instances of endemism and
hazard categories (Ekim et al., 2000; IUCN, 2001) were specified. Age Educational level
We examined whether the plants that used in the area, have 25–30 6 4.1 Literate 19 13.1
31–40 15 10.3 Primary school 76 52.4
any literature records or not. Primarily the domestic studies and 41–50 34 23.4 Secondary school 39 26.9
then foreign studies were analyzed. 41–60 37 25.6 High school 7 4.8
61 and above 53 36.6 University 4 2.8

2.3. Plant materials

Duration of residence Residential status
10 years and less 23 15.9 Villages 87 60.0
A questionnaire was administered to the local people, through
11 years and above 122 84.1 Sub-provincial-town 58 40.0
face-to-face interviews (Appendix A). Interviews were made on
the busy hours of the common areas (bazaars, gardens, tea houses,
Sex
etc.) visited by the citizens of Solhan District. In Solhan, people Male 109 75.2
we selected from the city centers, towns, and villages were first Female 36 24.8
informed about our research and only upon their consent the
interviews took place. During these interviews, only those persons
who were observed to have knowledge regarding medicinal plants
were invited to a survey study. In order to obtain detailed above the age of 25 were interviewed. Upon the first interview
information from people who had knowledge of plants, they were conducted with randomly selected persons, it was determined
visited at least two times; and one of these visits took place that 78% of these people were of Zaza ethnic origin, whereas 17%
particularly in their houses. During the interviews, demographic were of Kurdish ethnic origin. It was observed that 41% of men and
characteristics of the study participants, and local names, utilized 18% of women who participated in the survey had knowledge of
parts and preparation methods of the plants were recorded. The the plants.
people who participated in the study were requested to indicate Demographical characteristics of individuals' according to the
the wild plants they used. results we obtained in the research are presented in Table 1.

3.2. Interviews with locals and literature review

2.4. Category of ailments
The reported ailments were grouped into 10 categories (Cardi-
ovascular, Constipation, Diabetes, Dermatological, Gastric diseases,
Hemorrhoids, Nervous system, Respiratory, Rheumatic pain, Uro-
genital) based on the information gathered from the interviewees.
2.5. Calculations
(1) Informant consensus factor (Trotter and Logan, 1986): it was
calculated according to the following formula: FIC ¼Nur−Nt/
Nur−1, where Nur refers to the number of use citations in each
category and Nt to the number of the species used.
This method is to check homogeneity of the information: FIC
values will be low (close to 0 value) if plants are chosen
randomly or if informants do not exchange information about
their use and values will be high (close to 1 value) if there is a
well-defined selection criterion in the community and/or if
information is given between the informants (Akerele, 1988;
Kloutusos et al., 2001; Abu-Irmaileh and Afifi, 2003). In other
words, the medicinal plants that are presumed to be effec-
tive in treating a certain disease have higher FIC values
(Teklehaymanot and Giday, 2007).
(2) The use value (Trotter and Logan, 1986), a quantitative method
that demonstrates the relative importance of species known
locally, was also calculated according to the following formula:
UV¼ U/N, where UV refers to the use value of a species; U to
the number of citations per species; and N to the number of
informants.
3. Results and discussion
3.1. Demographic characteristics of study participants
Demographic characteristics of the respondents were deter-
mined and recorded through face-to-face interviews. 145 persons
The experiences of the local people were recorded during the
interviews. The results of this study were compared with data
obtained in previous studies (references).
Mentha longifolia (L.) Hudson subsp. typhoides (Briq.) Harley
var. typhoides and Mentha spicata L. subsp. spicata are being
traditionally and very commonly used for colds and flu in Solhan.
The preparations including thyme extract alleviate cough follow-
ing common cold (Büechi et al., 2005) and decrease the severity
and duration of bronchitis symptoms (Gruenwald et al., 2005).
Malva neglecta Wallr., Rosa canina L. and Urtica dioica L. are
plant which are used in Turkey and across the world (Yeşilada
et al., 1999; Fernandez et al., 2003; Savo et al., 2011). Malva
neglecta Wallr. is used in our research area for abdominal pain,
anti-inflammatory, infertility, urinary inflammations, wounds and
cuts. M. neglecta was stated to have antioxidant and antiulcero-
genic activity (Gürbüz et al., 2005; Dalar et al., 2012). Rosa
canina L. is used in our research area for colds and flu, expectorant,
hemorrhoids, kidney stones. It was reported that Rosa canina L.
showed anti-diabetic effect and antioxidant activity (Özcan, 2003;
Orhan et al., 2009). The Urtica dioica L. is used in Solhan to treat
analgesic, arthritis, digestive, diuretic, genital disorders, hemor-
rhoids, hepatits, lipsotrichia, rheumatism. Previous studies showed
that Urtica dioica L. results in analgesic and antimicrobial and
antihyperglycemic activity (Bnouham et al., 2003; Gülçin et al.,
2004).
Rheum ribes L. grows naturally over hillsides in Solhan is
consumed by local people as a fruit. This plant is used in Solhan
for asthma, cardiac disorder, diabetes disease and kidney stones.
Hypoglycemic influence of the root extract of Rheum ribes L. over
healthy and diabetic mice is studied. It was found that the extract
possesses a hypoglycemic effect in diabetic animals (Özbek et al.,
2004). In the previous study, the antimicrobial activities of Rheum
ribes L. extracts growing in Elazığ were analyzed, and were found
to inhibit the growth of tested microorganisms at different
rates (Kırbağ and Zengin, 2006). It was found that the amount of
 954
Table 2
List of wild medicinal plants investigated with their related information.

No. Family Plant species, voucher Vernacular name of Plant Preparationsb Utilization Use UV Recorded literature usesd
specimen, endemism Solhan part methodc
(s) useda

1 Amaranthaceae Amaranthus retroflexus L. Leğendur Aer Dec Dgo, Raw Diarrhea, digestive, stomach-ache 0.12 Fever, flu, headache, sterility (3, 9)
RP-612
2 Anacardiaceae Pistacia terebinthus L. Sakız ağacı Bra, Fru Dec Doc Ulcer 0.06 Antiseptic, cancer, diuretic, heart disease, heat stroke, stomach
subsp. palaestina (Boiss.) ulcers, stomach-ache, urinary inflammations (12, 16)
Engler. RP-670
3 Rhus coriaria L. RP-634 Sumax, Sumak Fru Dec Dgo, Raw Antihypertensive 0.38 Antiseptic, diarrhea (14)
4 Apiaceae Anthriscus cerefolium (L.) Mende, Mendu, Lea Boi Eat Stomach-ache 0.15 Not reported
Hoffm. RP-639 Menda
5 Heracleum trachyloma Helelg, Lerg Lea Dec Dgo Asthma, bronchitis 0.05 Cancer, stomach-ache (3)
Fisch & Mey. RP-792
6 Pastinaca armena Fisch. & Elbık, Pilton, Piltan Aer In Ext Anti-inflammatory 0.10 Not reported

R. Polat et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 148 (2013) 951–963

Mey. RP-790
7 Pimpinella olivieroides Not named Aer Dec Dte Anti-inflammatory 0.02 Asthma, bronchitis, menstrual disorders (44)
Boiss. & Hausskn. RP-681
8 Sium sisarum L. var. Vınyek, Vınık, Aer Boi Eat Digestive 0.04 Not reported
lancifolium (M. Bieb.) Tırwaş
Thell. RP-789
9 Araceae Arum elongatum Steven Kardun, Kardu, Lea In Com, Doc Abdominal pain, antihypertensive, 0.08 Not reported
subsp. detruncatum (C.A. Kardı diabetes disease, guatr, rheumatism
Meyer ex Schott) H. Riedl
RP-791
10 Asteraceae Achillea biebersteinii Afan.
Waşzerık, Vılıka Flo In Dtt Anti–inflammation, rheumatism, 0.15 Against headache, diarrhea, cold, for hemorrhoids, stomach-ache,
RP-796 çeker, Gihaye çexer, hepatits, sinusitis, toothache, ulcer (31, 41, 47)
Wılazerd menstruation pain
11 Anthemis wiedemanniana Elık Fatık, Papatya Bra In Dtt Antitussive, colds and flu, stomach- 0.16 Antispasmodic, for urinary inflammations, sedative (14)
Fisch. and Mey. Endemic, ache, diabetes disease
Least concern (LC). RP-
685
12 Centaurea kurdica Tace Aer Dec Com Rheumatism 0.04 Sedative (12)
Reichardt. Endemic, Near
threatened (NT). RP-608
13 Chaerophyllum bulbosum Pueşma, Şomek, Rhi – Raw Appetite, cholesterol, diabetes disease 0.09 Not reported
L. RP-788 Şomyek
14 Gundelia tournefortii L. Kenger, Kinger, Lat, Roo Lr Raw Aphrodisiac, digestive 0.41 Catarrh, cold, diarrhea, mumps (12, 39, 42)
var. tournefortii RP-678 Geleng
15 Helichrysum plicatum DC. Sesum Flo In Dgo Diabetes disease, hepatits, kidney 0.08 Cholagogue, diabetes disease, diuretic (12)
RP-652 stones
16 Helianthus tuberosus L. Say erd, Say bin erd, Tub - Raw Antihypertensive, diabetes disease 0.10 Diabetes disease (3)
RP-787 Yer elması
17 Scorzonera mollis M. Bieb. Şing, Vıl Tub - Raw Diabetes disease 0.04 Tuberculosis (33)
subsp. szovitzii (DC.)
Chamberlain RP-797
18 Scorzonera cinerea Boiss. Şing, Vıl Tub - Raw Diabetes disease 0.07 Backache, cough, sterility (3)
RP-693
19 Tragopogon reticulatus Marşing, Sıpıng Lea - Raw Intestinal inflammation 0.05 Stomach-ache (3)
Boiss. & Huet RP-680
20 Onopordum acanthium L. Kinger heron See Dec, Ts Doc Hepatic diseases, hemorrhoids 0.27 Antipyretic, for gastric disorders, gynecological diseases (4, 31)
RP-786 (+Honey)
21 Xanthium spinosum L. RP- Gurnık Bra Dec Dpt Anti-inflammatory, cardiac disorder, 0.10 Blood depurative, chickenpox, fever, hyperglucemia, kidney
692 digestive, embolism, malfunction, measles (7, 30)
22 Boraginaceae Anchusa azurea Mill. RP- Gelazun, Gelezun Aer, Roo Dec, Boi Dgo, Eat Antihypertensive, carminative, 0.33 Diaphoretic, diuretic, rheumatism, stomach-ache (12, 32)
654 diabetes disease, digestive,
rheumatism, wound healing
23 Anchusa strigosa Labill. Guriz Aer Boi Eat, Raw Digestive 0.16 Anthelmentic, female sterility, headache, wounds (1, 23)
RP-785
24 Brassicaceae Alyssum pateri Nyar. Tevvat Aer Dec Ext Rheumatism 0.02 Vulnerary (3)
subsp. pateri Endemic,
Least concern (LC). RP-
636
25 Nasturtium officinale R.Br. Kijı, Qije, Tujik Aer In Dgo Antihypertensive, stomach-ache 0.24 Bronchitis, cold and flu, cough, expectorant (4, 8, 19)
RP-603
26 Capsella bursa-pastoris Pıronek, Puronek, Lea Lc Com, Ext Headache 0.05 Astringent, emmenagogue, hemorrhoids, wounds (5, 12, 49)
(L.) Medik. RP-733 Non mirçıkon
27 Caprifoliaceae Sambucus nigra L. RP-704 Patpatik Lea Loi Ext Rheumatism 0.09 Abscess, asthma, bronchial diseases, conjunctivitis, throat diseases
(3, 14, 24)
28 Caryophyllaceae Silene vulgaris (Moench) Masturek, Aer Dec Dot Digestive, stomach-ache 0.32 Urinary inflammations (14)
Garcke var. vulgaris RP- Masturyek
784
29 Cornaceae Cornus mas L. RP-630 Kızılcık Fru, Lea In Dot Colds and flu, urinary inflammations 0.44 Diarrhea (3)
30 Chenopodiaceae Chenopodium album L. Selmı, Sılmastık Aer Boi Eat Digestive 0.21 Diuretic, women sterility (3)
subsp. album var. album
RP-689

R. Polat et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 148 (2013) 951–963

31 Equisetaceae Equisetum ramosissimum Not name Aer Dec Dgo Anti-lipsotrichia 0.04 Cystitis, diuretic, kidney stones, stomach-ache (18, 24, 32)
Desf. RP-781
32 Fabaceae Astragalus brachycalyx Gewen Roo Dec Dgo Diabetes disease 0.06 Cancer, immumostimulant (3)
Fischer RP-641
33 Astragalus lamarckii Cuni Roo Dec, Tr Doc Ulcer 0.04 Not reported
Boiss. Endemic, Least
concern (LC). RP-660
34 Trifolium pratense L. var. Argud, Nefıl Aer – Raw Hepatits, rheumatism 0.22 Abdominal colics, analgesic, antiinflammatory, antitussive, asthma,
pratense RP-778 cough, diarrhea, emollient, expectorant, rheumatism (11, 14, 45)
35 Fagaceae Quercus petraea Balu, Bali, Mazer, Fru Hea, In Doc, Ext Diabetes, inflammatory 0.09 Astringent, for dermatitis, coagulation, hemorrhoid, ulcer (29, 32)
(Mattuschka) Liebl. Welg
subsp. pinnatiloba (C.
Koch) Menitsky RP-635
36 Quercus libani Olivier RP- Balu, Bali, Azgiller, Fru Hea Ext Wounds 0.04 Hemorrhoids (40)
777 Welg
37 Hypericaceae Hypericum perforatum L. Waş zerık Aer In Dte Abdominal ache, digestive, wound 0.27 Abrasion, anthelmintic, antiinflammatory, astringent, bronchitis,
RP-620 healing burn, demulcent, depurative, depression, diarrhea, diuretic,
dyskinesia, enterocolitis, gastric ulcer, genitourinary disorders,
hemorrhoids, hepatitis, neurosis, rheumatism, sedative, wound
healing (11, 18, 34, 45)
38 Hypericum scabrum L. RP- Waş zerık Aer In Dte Abdominal ache, digestive 0.14 Against hepatitis, diarrhea, for hemorrhoids, digestion problems,
602 stomach-ache (14, 37, 41)
39 Juglandaceae Juglans regia L. RP-774 Goz, Guaz, Ceviz Bra, Fru Dec Doc, Ext, Antifungal, anti-lubrication, 0.38 Antibacterial, anti- inflammatory, antiseptic, astringent,
Raw cholesterol, diabetes disease, depurative, purgative, rheumatism, uterine disorders, skin
hemorrhoids, psoriasis, for hair, disorders (32, 45)
psoriasis, respiratory tract problem
40 Lamiaceae Mentha longifolia (L.) Pune, Punı, Nane Lea Dec Dtt, Raw Abdominal ache, colds and flu 0.30 Antispasmodic, kidney stones, rheumatism, wound healing (14, 28)
Hudson subsp. typhoides
(Briq.) Harley var.
typhoides RP-632
41 Mentha spicata L. subsp. Pune, Punı, Nane Lea Dec Dam, Raw Appetite, colds and flu, respiratory 0.48 Colds and flu, hemorrhoids, stomach-ache (12, 26)
spicata RP-643 problem
42 Ocimum basilicum L. RP- Rıhon, Rıhan, Rehan, Lea In Dot, Raw Colds and flu 0.30 Cardiac tonic, colds and flu, depression, migraine (23, 36)
799 Reyhan
43 Origanum vulgare L. RP- Anık, Onıx, Anıx Lea In Doc Colds and flu, sedative 0.16 Colds and flu, diabetes disease, for urinary inflammations,
776 hemorrhoids (14, 28)
44 Satureja hortensis L. RP- Pungi Aer Dec, In Doc, Dot Antihypertensive, colds and flu 0.13 Aphrodisiac, emmenagogue, external antiseptic, immunostimulant,
760 resolutive (17, 48)
45 Stachys lavandulifolia Çaye qwe Bra Dec Dgo Anypnia, colds and flu, sedative, 0.10 Antipyretic, cough (3)
Vahl. var. lavandulifolia insomnia
Vahl. RP-773

955
 956
Table 2 (continued )

No. Family Plant species, voucher Vernacular name of Plant Preparationsb Utilization Use UV Recorded literature usesd
specimen, endemism Solhan part methodc
(s) useda

46 Teucrium polium L. RP- Meyremxort Lea Dec, In Dgo, Doc Antihypertensive, colds and flu, 0.17 Antipyretic, diabetes, gastrointestinal disorders, wounds (12, 32)
723 diabetes disease, diarrhea, headache,
stomach-ache
47 Teucrium chamaedrys L. Çaye qwe, Çaye çiya Aer In Dot Anypnia, colds and flu, sedative 0.12 Antispasmodic, hemorrhoids, intestinal colic (12, 18)
subsp. sinuatum (Celak.)
Rech. f. RP-661
48 Thymus kotschyanus Onıx, Anıx, Kekik Aer In Dgo Colds and flu, sedative 0.27 Abdominal ailments, antiinflammatory, backache, cancer, colds and
Boiss. & Hohen RP-601 flu, diabetes, enteralgia, high cholesterol, hypertension, vermifuge
(3, 14)
49 Liliaceae Allium sativum L. RP-771 Sir, Sirık Bul - Raw Antihypertensive 0.35 Hypertension, snake bite (13, 49)
50 Allium cepa L. RP-772 Kahar, Kar Bul Ms Raw Analgesic, bronchitis 0.21 Cough treatment, furuncles, headache, influenza, rheumatism (6,
15)
51 Asparagus acutifolius L. Cağ, Melcü, Melji, Aer Boi Eat Cardiac disorder 0.08 Blood depurative, flu, kidney stones, liver disease, urinary

R. Polat et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 148 (2013) 951–963

RP-783 Kuşkonmaz inflammations (20, 36)
52 Eremurus spectabilis Bieb. Helug, Heluk, Gullık Aer Ms, Boi Eat Diabetes disease, digestive 0.17 Gastrointestinal, rheumatism (14, 32)
RP-709
53 Malvaceae Alcea pallida Waldst. & Hiro, Hiri Flo In Dtt, Ext Antitussive, bronchitis, infertility, 0.11 Chest pain, conjunctivitis (46, 48)
Kit. RP-770 wounds and cuts
54 Malva neglecta Wallr. RP- Xemazek, Aer Dec, In, Ms Com, Doc, Abdominal pain, anti-inflammatory, 0.52 Antitussive, colds and flu, diuretic, for urinary inflammations,
769 Veraruejık, Tollık, Ext infertility, urinary inflammations, hemorrhoids (12, 27, 32)
Ebegümeci, Duelık wounds and cuts
55 Malva sylvestris L. RP-732 Xemazek, Aer Dec, In, Ms Com, Doc, Anti-inflammatory, infertility, urinary 0.27 Antitussive, colds and flu, hemorrhoids (27)
Veraruejık, Tollık, Ext inflammations,
Ebegümeci, Duelık
56 Moraceae Morus nigra L. RP-769 Tui, Dut Fru Dec, Ps Doc, Raw Eczema, hepatits 0.31 Diabetes disease, oral wounds (13, 26)
57 Plantaginaceae Plantago lanceolata L. RP- Pel hewes, Pelonbaş, Lea In Doc, Com Embolism, abscess, urinary 0.26 Stomach, suppurative (32, 35)
677 Omulwaş, Omınwaş inflammations, wound healing
58 Plantago major L. subsp. Pel hewes, Pelonbaş, Lea Dec Com Embolism, abscess, urinary 0.36 Abscess, antitussive, anti-bacterial, anti-inflammatory,
major RP-631 Omulwaş, Omınwaş, inflammations, wound healing antimicrobial, bronchitis, emollient, expectorant, wounds (32, 45)
Umınwaş
59 Poaceae Zea mays L. RP-766 Lazıt, Mısır Sty Dec, In Doc Guatr, kidney stones 0.32 Against enuresis, cholesterol treatment, gall bladder problem (10,
26, 43)
60 Hordeum bulbosum L. RP- Sirome, Siromek, Rhi Dec Doc Kidney stones 0.04 Not reported
625 Siyamo
61 Polygonaceae Polygonum cognatum Non mirçıkon Lea In Dtt Abdominal pain, anemia 0.32 Diabetes disease, diuretic, gynecological diseases (12, 26, 31)
Meissn. RP-686
62 Rheum ribes L. RP-702 Rıbes, Rıwes, Rewas, Aer, Roo In Doc, Raw Asthma, cardiac disorder, diabetes 0.43 Diabetes, for urinary inflammations (12, 32)
Kap, Işgın disease, kidney stones
63 Rumex acetosella L. RP- Tırşık Lea Dec Dgo, Raw Antihypertensive, diuretic 0.16 Analgesic, diuretic (12)
754
64 Rumex tuberosus L. RP- Tırşık Lea In Dgo, Raw Antihypertensive, diuretic 0.10 Antipyretic, constipation, diabetes disease, diuretic (3, 13, 21)
626
65 Polygonum cognatum Tırşık, Zavil Lea In Dgo, Raw Diuretic, digestive 0.10 Infected wounds, pimples (22)
Meissn. RP-763
66 Portulaceae Portulaca oleracea L. RP- Parpar, Perpar Lea, In, Dec Dat, Doc, Cardiac disorder, constipation, 0.30 Burns, diabetes, diarrhea, headache, ulcers, urinary disorders,
761 Who Raw diabetes disease wounds (12, 25)
67 Rosaceae Crataegus atrosanguinea Gunc Fru In Doc Cardiac disorder, embolism 0.09 Not reported
Pojark. RP-674
68 Crataegus aronia (L.) Bosc. Sizyer, Teli sizyer, Flo, Fru Dec, In Dat, Dpe Cardiac disorder, insomnia, joint pain, 0.05 Cardiovascular disease, diabetes, digestive, hypertension, kidney
ex DC. var. aronia (L.) Sinz, Sez, Risok, rheumatism, stres, ulcer stones, rheumatism (2, 23)
Bosc. ex DC. RP-675 Roğık
69 Crataegus szovitsii Pojark. Sinz, Sez, Risok, Flo, Fru Dec, In Doc Asthma, cardiac disorder 0.14 Cardiovascular health (39)
RP-606 Roğık
 70 Crataegus orientalis (Mill.) Sinz, Sez, Risok, Flo, Fru, In Doc Cardiac disorder, stomach-ache 0.20 Cardiovascular disease, respiratory problems (21)
M. Bieb. RP-767 Roğık Lea
71 Cotoneaster nummularia Say mirçıkon Fru Fc Raw Diabetes disease 0.21 Expectorant (14)
Fisch. & Mey. RP-671
72 Cydonia oblonga Miller Ayva, Pel bayer Lea Dec Doc Diabetes disease, respiratory tract 0.31 Abdominal ache, diabetes, diarrhea, expectorant, respiratory
RP-756 problem problems, tonsilitis (7, 36, 38)
73 Prunus kurdica Fenzl ex Lektır, Momıx, Fru In Dte, Raw Anemia 0.04 Not reported
Fritsch RP-664 Mamıx
74 Rubus sanctus Schreber Dırık, Dırkel, Tiri Roo, Lea, In Dat Asthma, bronchitis, diabetes disease, 0.31 Acne, astringent, diuretic, stomach-ache, wounds (12, 26, 27)
RP-609 Flo sedative
75 Rosa canina L. RP-753 Kuşburnu, Sırgul, Fru In Doc, Ext Colds and flu, expectorant, 0.50 Anemia, anorexia, aphrodisiac, anti-inflammatory, antiseptic,
Şilan hemorrhoids, kidney stones cardiac disorders, colds and flu, convulsive, depurative, diabetes,
diuretic, emollient, gastritis, vitaminizing (12, 45)
76 Rosa dumalis Bechst. RP- Kuşburnu, Sırgul, Fru Dec Dpt Bronchitis, colds and flu 0.16 Against itching, hemorrhoids, kidney infection, gastric ulcer (31)
631 Şilan
77 Salicaceae Salix alba L. RP-762 Söğüt, Valer Lea Dec, In Dtt, Ext Analgesic, infertility, sinusitis 0.12 Antipyretic, antineuralgic, antirheumatic (29, 46, 47)
78 Solanaceae Hyoscyamus niger L. RP- Waş dındon See Hea Inh Toothache 0.07 Toohache, against itching in the eyes, stomatitis (3)
765
79 Ulmaceae Celtis tournefortii Lam. Tee, Dardağan Fru Dec Dte Abdominal pain, colds and flu 0.27 Diarrhea (3)

R. Polat et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 148 (2013) 951–963

RP-673
80 Urticaceae Urtica dioica L. RP-764 Derzinek, Gerzinık, Aer, See In, Ts Dgo, Doc, Analgesic, arthritis, digestive, diuretic, 0.59 Anthrax, antianaemia, anti-inflammatory, antiseptic, cancers, colds
Gerzunek, Gezok, (+Honey) Ext genital disorders, hemorrhoids, and flu, digestive, rheumatism, sedative (27, 32, 45)
Gezgezok,Yağıj, hepatits, lipsotrichia, rheumatism
Yeğıç, Isırgan
81 Vitaceae Vitis vinifera L. RP-755 Engur, Rez, Üzüm Fru Ps Dte, Raw Anemia 0.31 Anemia, colds, high temperature, inflammations (22, 36)
82 Zygophyllaceae Tribulus terrestris L. RP- Gwerçal, Gerçal Fru, Lea In Doc, Dpt Asthma, cardiac disorder, kidney 0.04 Astringent, burns, cicatrizing, diarrhea, hemorrhoids, kidney
665 stones stones, scars, tension, wounds (45, 50)

a
Plant part(s) used: Aer, aerial parts; Bra, branches; Bul, bulb; Flo, flowers; Fru, fruits; Lat, latex; Lea, leaves; Rhi, rhizomes; Roo, roots; See, seeds; Sty, stylus; Tub, tuber; Who, whole plant.
b
Preparations: Boi, aerial parts boiled; Dec, decoction; Fc, the fruits are crushed; Hea, heated; In, infusion; Loi, leaves boiled; Lr, latex is removed; Lc, the leaves are crushed; Ms, mash; Ps, paste; Ts, the seeds are crushed; Tr, the
roots are crushed.
c
Utilization method: Com, compress; Dat, drink one tea glass of the plant after the meal; Dgo, drink one tea glass of the plant before the meal; Doc, drink one cup of the plant on an empty stomach in the morning; Dot, drink
one teacup after meals; Dpe, drink one cup of the plant in the evening; Dpt, drink one cup of the plant two times a day; Dte, drink one tea glass of the plant two times a day; Dtt, drink one tea glass of the plant three times a day;
Eat; Eaten as meal; Ext, externally; Inh, inhalation; Raw, the plant is eaten raw.
d
Recorded literature uses: (1) Aburjai et al. (2007); (2) Ali-Shtayeh et al. (2000); (3) Altundag and Ozturk (2011); (4) Al-Quran (2008); (5) Al-Quran (2009); (6) Ayyanar and Ignacimuthu (2011); (7) Benitez et al. (2010); (8)
Bieski et al. (2012); (9) Bussmann and Sharon (2006); (10) Cakilcioglu and Turkoglu (2007); (11) Cakilcioglu and Turkoglu (2008); (12) Cakilcioglu and Turkoglu (2010); (13) Cakilcioglu et al. (2010); (14) Cakilcioglu et al. (2011); (15)
Camejo-Rodrigues et al. (2003); (16) Cansaran and Kaya (2010); (17) Carrio and Valles (2012); (18) Cornara et al. (2009); (19) Da Silva Barbaza et al. (2012); (20) Demirci and Özhatay (2012); (21) Elçi and Erik (2006); (22) Guarrera
et al. (2005); (23) Hudaib et al. (2008); (24) Idolo et al. (2010); (25) Immanuel and Elizabeth (2009); (26) Koca and Yıldırımlı (2010); (27) Koyuncu et al. (2009); (28) Koyuncu et al. (2010); (29) Leporatti and Ivancheva (2003); (30)
Macia et al. (2005); (31) Özgen et al. (2012); (32) Öztürk and Ölçücü (2011); (33) Özüdoğru et al. (2011); (34) Pieroni and Giusti (2009); (35) Pieroni et al. (2004); (36) Polat and Satıl (2011); (37) Polat et al. (2011); (38) Sağıroğlu
et al. (2012); (39) Sarper et al. (2009); (40) Sezik et al. (2001); (41) Sezik et al. (2004); (42) Tabata et al. (1994); (43) Tangjang et al. (2011); (44) Tetik et al., (2013); (45) Tita et al. (2009); (46) Tuzlacı and Aymaz (2001); (47) Tuzlacı
and Erol (1999); (48) Tuzlacı et al. (2010); (49) Ugulu (2011); (50) Uysal et al. (2010).

957
958 R. Polat et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 148 (2013) 951–963
antioxidant vitamins in plants growing at high altitudes was
higher than in plants growing at low altitudes (Munzuroğlu
et al., 2000).
Teucrium polium L. is traditionally used in town of Solhan to
antihypertensive, colds and flu, diabetes disease, diarrhea and
headache Teucrium polium L. extract was shown to induce hypo-
glycemic, antipyretic and intestinal motility activities (Autore
et al., 1984; Yaniv et al., 1987; Gharaibeh et al., 1988; Suleiman
et al., 1988).
We recorded that residents of Kale village used the ulcer effect of
Pistacia terebinthus L. decoction. Essential oils of Pistacia species were
proved to have antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory effects and trigger
gastric and duodenal anti-ulcer activity (Al-Said et al., 1986; Magiatis
et al., 1999; Giner-Larza et al., 2001; Alma et al., 2004).
Endemic Anthemis wiedemanniana Fisch. & Mey. plant is tradi-
tionally used in Solhan for the treatment of antitussive, colds and
flu, stomach-ache, diabetes disease. Also, it was reported that
Anthemis wiedemanniana Fisch. & Mey. which is an endemic taxon
of Turkey, showed antimicrobial, antioxidant and hepatoprotective
activity (Gilani et al., 2005; Kıvcak et al., 2007; Temraz and El-
Tantawy, 2008).
Emine Akça (67), who lives in Oymapınar village, reported that
Tribulus terrestris L. is being used both in its fruits and leaves form
and in the form of infusion. She said that this plant was good for
asthma and kidney stones. Tribulus terrestris L. is also used in
Kapıdağ Peninsula in the form of aerial parts infusion for kidney
stone dropping (Uysal et al., 2010). In an ethnobotanic survey
conducted in Jordan, it is reported that Tribulus terrestris L. had
toxic effects (Al-Qura'n, 2005).
85-years-old Kemal Barlı, who lives in Solhan/Kale village, told
that he used Arum elongnatum Steven plant for the treatment of
rheumatism. This plant is reported for the first time as being used
within the scope of traditional therapies. Arum species are poiso-
nous plants which contain plenty of calcium oxalate crystals,
oxalite acid, soluble oxalates and volatile substances that display
strong local activity (Kandemir, 2008).
Nutritional and medicinal uses of plants bear importance in
terms of toxicity. Especially, high nitrate and nitride content of
wild plants should be kept in mind. Various naturally growing and
commonly consumed plants in vicinity of Samsun and Elazığ are
investigated in terms of nitrate content. It is found that nitrate
content of those plants changes in certain correlations (Tosun
et al., 2003; Cakilcioglu and Khatun, 2011). Results of those studies
show that wild plants are prominent nitrate sources. Nitrate
uptake over 8–15 g results in stomach pain, bleeding in intestine
and urinary system and syncope; lower dosages are reported to
cause dyspepsia, depression and dizziness (Okafor and Ogbonna,
2003).
Previous laboratory studies conducted in Solhan and other
parts of the world indicated the activity of some medicinal plants,
which were also reported by the current study: Achillea bieber-
steinii Afan. (antioxidant activity) (Barış et al., 2011), Anchusa
strigosa Labill. (antimicrobial activity) (Al-Salihi et al., 2009),
Anthriscus cerefolium (L.) Hoffm. (antioxidant activity) (Fejes
et al., 2000), Centaurea kurdica Reichardt. (antimicrobial activity)
(Güven et al., 2005), Hypericum scabrum L. (antibacterial activity)
(Kızıl et al., 2004), Scorzonera cinerea Boiss. (anti-inflammatory
and antinociceptive activity) (Akkol et al., 2012), Tribulus terrestris
L. (antibacterial and antifungal activities) (Al-Bayati and Al-Mola,
2008).
If a plant is used to treat the same disease in different places
across the world then its pharmacologic effect could be accepted
(Cakilcioglu et al., 2011). It has been observed that those plants,
which are being traditionally used in Solhan for various diseases,
are also being used in various places for the healing of same
diseases (Table 2).
We encountered Anthriscus cerefolium (L.) Hoffm., Arum elong-
natum Steven subsp. detruncatum (C.A. Meyer ex Schott) H. Riedl,
Astragalus lamarckii Boiss., Chaerophyllum bulbosum L., Crataegus
atrosanguinea Pojark., Sium sisarum L. var. lancifolium (M. Bieb.)
Thell., which we found out during the interviews in the present
study to be used for medical purposes, in some of floristic studies
conducted in Turkey (Türkmen and Düzenli, 1998; Türker and
Güner, 2003; Altıok and Behçet, 2005; Semiz and Çelik, 2005;
Vural and Aytaç, 2005; Selvi, 2007; Ünal and Behçet, 2007;
Cakilcioglu and Civelek, 2011).
3.3. Taxonomic identification
The family, scientific name, voucher specimen, endemism,
vernacular name, preparation and utilization methods, use cate-
gories of the medical plants used in Solhan are given in Table 2.
Interviews with the local people living in Solhan District and
villages indicated that 82 plants were used for curative purposes in
the study area. The most common families are presented in Fig. 2.
The most common families are: Asteraceae (12 plants), Rosa-
ceae (10 plants), Lamiaceae (9 plants). Asteraceae (13 plants),
Lamiaceae (9 plants), and Rosaceae (8 plants) were determined in
a study conducted in the vicinity of our area of research
(Cakilcioglu et al., 2011).
In a study carried out in İzmir, it was seen that plants belonging
to the families of Lamiaceae, Asteraceae, Fabaceae (Ugulu et al.,
2009); Asteraceae, Fabaceae, Lamiaceae in Çatalca (Genç and
Özhatay, 2006); Rosaceae, Asteraceae, Lamiaceae in Merzifon
(Ezer and Arısan, 2006) are used commonly by the people of the
regions.
Alyssum pateri Nyar. subsp. pateri, Anthemis wiedemanniana
Fisch. & Mey., Astragalus lamarckii Boiss., Centaurea kurdica Reich-
ardt. were found to be the endemic plants used for medical
purposes in Solhan (Bingöl—Turkey). According to the Red Data
Book of Turkish Plants and Red List Categories (Ekim et al., 2000;
IUCN, 2001), Centaurea kurdica Reichardt. is grouped under “near
threatened” category, whereas other three taxons are categorized
as “least concern”.
During the collection of data regarding the plants in the area of
research, Equisetum ramosissimum Desf. and Pimpinella olivieroides
Boiss. & Hausskn, which are used for medicinal purposes, were
denoted by those people who gave relevant information; yet no
information was obtained regarding the local names given to such
plants.
In the literature analysis of the plants used in our study, 82
plants were found already being used for medical purposes,
whereas 9 plants presented no literature records. The medicinal
uses of Anthriscus cerefolium (L.) Hoffm., Arum elongnatum Steven,
Astragalus lamarckii Boiss., Chaerophyllum bulbosum L., Crataegus
atrosanguinea Pojark., Hordeum bulbosum L., Pastinaca armena
Fig. 2. Most representative families.
 R. Polat et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 148 (2013) 951–963
Fisch. & Mey., Prunus kurdica Fenzl ex Fritsch, Sium sisarum L. var.
lancifolium (M. Bieb.) Thell. which were found being used in our
study area were recorded for the first time.
Urtica dioica L., Malva neglecta Wallr., Mentha spicata L., Cornus
mas L., Rheum ribes L., Gundelia tournefortii L. refers to the plants
with most use reports. Urtica dioica L. was used for analgesic,
arthritis, digestive, diuretic, genital disorders, hemorrhoids, hepa-
tits, lipsotrichia, rheumatism; Malva neglecta Wallr. was used for
abdominal pain, anti-inflammatory, infertility, urinary inflamma-
tions, wounds and cuts; Mentha spicata L. was used for colds and
flu, respiratory problem; Cornus mas L. was used for cold and flu,
urinary inflammations; Rheum ribes L. was used for asthma,
cardiac disorder, diabetes disease, kidney stones; Gundelia tourne-
fortii L. was used for aphrodisiac, digestive.
3.4. Mode of preparation—utilization method
The medicinal plant families most commonly encountered in
the study area were Asteraceae, Rosaceae, Lamiaceae, Apiaceae,
Polygonaceae, and Liliaceae; most common preparations were
decoction and infusion. Local people were recorded to make
medicinal preparations by using wild plants for curative purposes
via simple methods. The preparation methods included infusion,
decoction, aerial parts boiled, the fruits are crushed, the fruits
are crushed, heated, leaves boiled, latex is removed, the leaves
are crushed, mash, paste, the seeds are crushed, and the roods are
crushed. Local people used medical plants most frequently for the
treatment of antihypertensive and cardiac disorder (25% of use-
reports), diabetes disease (23%), digestive (20%), colds and flu (17%),
rheumatism (%9), and respiratory tract problem (7%), (Table 2).
3.5. Plant part used
Local people were recorded to use the aerial parts, branches,
bulb, flowers, fruits, latex, leaves, rhizomes, roots, seeds, stylus,
tuber and whole plant.
It was found that local people living in Solhan and in its villages
used 40% of these wild plants after drying. Drying enabled local
people to use medicinal plants during all seasons of the year.
3.6. Data analysis
According to the calculation made on the basis of the use-value
UV (Trotter and Logan, 1986); Urtica dioica L. (0.59), Malva neglecta
Wallr. (0.52), Rosa canina L. (0.50), Mentha spicata L. (0.48), Cornus
mas L. (0.44), Rheum ribes L. (0.43), Gundelia tournefortii L. (0.41),
Juglans regia L. (0.38), Plantago major L. (0.36), Allium sativum L.
(0.35), Anchusa azurea Mill. (0.33), were reported to be of the
highest use value (Table 2). Knowing the use value of a kind may
be useful in determining the use reliability and pharmacological
features of the related plant (Cakilcioglu and Turkoglu, 2010).
Conducting an activity study with these plants which are being
used by local people and the use value of which is quite high may
be beneficial.
As calculated by the use-value UV (Trotter and Logan, 1986),
Vitex agnus-castus L. (0.62), Viscum cruciatum Sieb et Boiss. (0.56),
Urginea maritima Barker (0.55), Thuja occidentalis L. (0.52), Styrax
officinale L. (0.49) and Laurus nobilis L. (0.46) were reported to be
of the highest use value. As calculated by the use-value UV
(Cakilcioglu et al., 2011), Urtica dioica L. (0.59), Mentha spicata L.
subsp. spicata (0.56), Rosa canina L. (0.55), Malva neglecta Wallr.
(0.52), Achillea wilhemsii C. Koch. (0.46), Achillea millefolium L.
(0.44), Fragaria vesca L. (0.43), Thymus haussknechtii Velen (0.41),
and Hippophae rhamnoides L. subsp. caucasica Roussi (0.39) were
reported to be of the highest use value. As calculated by the
use-value UV (Polat and Satıl, 2011), Salvia tomentosa Mill. (0.68),
959
Hypericum perforatum L. (0.66), Allium sativum L. (0.66), Origanum
onites L. and Origanum vulgare L. (0.65), Tilia argentea DC. (0.65),
Lavandula stoechas ssp. stoechas (0.58), Rosa canina L. (0.52), Cistus
sp. (0.50), and Anthemis sp. (0.46), Teucrium polium L. (0.44) were
reported to be of the highest use value.
The current use of medicinal plants as conventional and
modern drugs shows that they are actively used. There may be
some plants which are currently not used for medicinal purposes
but which may actually have medicinal effects (Kaya, 2006).
Informant consensus factor was abbreviated as “FIC” and “ICF”
in the previous articles (Al-Qura'n, 2009; Cakilcioglu and Turkoglu,
2010; Rokaya et al., 2010; Cakilcioglu et al., 2011; Upadhyay et al.,
2011).
The reported ailments were grouped into 10 categories based
on the information gathered from the interviewees. Diabetes had
the highest FIC score (0.65). Anchusa azurea Mill., Astragalus
brachycalyx Fischer, Cotoneaster nummularia Fisch. & Mey., Cydonia
oblonga Miller, Juglans regia L, Portulaca oleracea L., Rubus sanctus
Schreber, Rheum ribes L., Scorzonera sp., Teucrium polium L. etc.
were reported to be among the plant remedies indicated for this
use. Digestive was recorded to have the second highest FIC value
(0.54), colds and flu recorded by its all images like the third group
(FIC was 0.45), while the fourth level of FIC values (0.43) was
recorded antihypertensive category. Cardiac disorder, were ranked
as the fifth ailment with FIC value of 0.38. An FIC value of 0.34 was
recorded rheumatism. The last citations of this ranking were
reported for plants used to treat dermatological, urinary diseases,
respiratory diseases, nervous system with FIC value of 0.32, 0.28,
0.27 and 0.23, respectively.
There is no study conducted by people from our district, in
which the FIC value is calculated. When the articles in which the
informant consensus factor (ICF or FIC) is calculated are examined,
it is seen that, for example in the study by Mesfin et al. (2009) the
category: malaria, fever and headache have the highest 0.82 FIC
followed by ascariasis and diarrhea, and intestinal parasite and
stomach-ache each with 0.78 FIC.
In the study by Akerreta et al. (2007) the FIC value was found to
be 0.65. It was stated that this value was high; however, it is lower
than the values obtained in the studies conducted in various areas
of the Iberian Peninsula: 0.85 and 0.91 for a Portuguese and a
Catalan region, respectively (Bonet and Valles, 2003; Camejo-
Rodrigues et al., 2003). ICF values obtained for the reported
categories indicate the degree of knowledge shared regarding
the use of medicinal herbs in the treatment of the ailment. These
categories recorded a lower ICF, which could be attributed to the
civilization trend of the society (Al-Qura'n, 2009).
Cakilcioglu et al. (2011) examined the diseases in 10 categories.
In these categories, the highest ICF value was reported to be 0.58
while the lowest ICF value was reported to be 0.25. In the present
study, it was found that the FIC values range between 0.65
and 0.23.
3.7. Review of local plant names
In Turkey, local plant names display differences especially due
to local dialects. The plants used in Solhan are known by the same
or different local names in various parts of Anatolia. For example,
the local names of Amaranthus retroflexus L. in Bingöl (Polat et al.,
2012); Gundelia tournefortii L. var. tournefortii in Central Anatolia
and Arat Montain (Sezik et al., 2001; Akan et al., 2008); Mentha
spicata L., Urtica dioica L., Vitis vinifera L. in Edremit Gulf (Polat and
Satıl, 2011); Pistacia terebinthus L. subsp. palaestina (Boiss.) Engler.
in Amasya (Cansaran and Kaya, 2010); Plantago major L., Rheum
ribes L. in Kars (Güneş and Özhatay, 2011); Rheum ribes L. in Elazığ,
Ilıca, Iğdır (Altundağ and Özhatay, 2009; Cakilcioglu and Turkoglu,
2010; Özgen et al., 2012); Rhus coriaria L. in Andırın, Central
960 R. Polat et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 148 (2013) 951–963
Anatolia, Elazığ, Kisecik Town and Taurus Mountains (Yeşilada
et al., 1995; Sezik et al., 2001; Cakilcioglu et al., 2010; Yücel et al.,
2011; Demirci and Özhatay, 2012) are the same with the local
names used in Solhan.
The local names used for Achillea biebersteinii Afan. and
Helichrysum plicatum DC. in Andırın and Central Anatolia (Sezik
et al., 2001; Demirci and Özhatay, 2012); Anchusa azurea Mill. in
Arat Mountain, Gölbaşı, Şemdinli, Bahçe and Hasanbeyli (Şimşek
et al., 2001; Akan et al., 2008; Mart and Türkmen, 2008; Öztürk
and Ölçücü, 2011); Anthriscus cerefolium (L.) Hoffm., Malva neglecta
Wallr., Polygonum cognatum Meissn., Pastinaca armena Fisch. &
Mey., Polygonum cognatum Meissn., Teucrium polium L. in Kars
(Güneş and Özhatay, 2011); Cotoneaster nummularia Fisch. & Mey.,
Onopordum acanthium L., Nasturtium officinale R.Br., Polygonum
cognatum Meissn., Teucrium chamaedrys L. in Ilıca (Özgen et al.,
2012); Heracleum trachyloma Fisch &Mey. in East Anatolia and Iğdır
(Altundağ and Özhatay, 2009; Altundag and Ozturk, 2011); Quer-
cus libani Olivier, Nasturtium officinale R.Br., Pistacia terebinthus L.
subsp. palaestina (Boiss.) Engler. in Central Anatolia (Sezik et al.,
2001); Plantago major L. and Teucrium polium L. in Gaziantep
(Şığva and Seçmen, 2009); Rubus sanctus Schreber, Teucrium
chamaedrys L., Teucrium polium L. in Edremit Gulf (Polat and
Satıl, 2011); Teucrium polium L. in Osmaneli (Koyuncu et al.,
2010); Pistacia terebinthus L. in Yanıktepe (Abay and Kılıç, 2001);
Achillea wilhemsii C. Koch. in Haymana (Sarper et al., 2009); Vitis
vinifera L. in Arat Mountain (Akan et al., 2008) are different from
the local names used in Solhan.
Arat Mountain, Elazığ, Sivas and Yozgat are close to our field of
study. However, names of some local plants used in these areas are
different. These are Anchusa azurea Mill. (guriz, dağ darısı) in Arat
Mountain (Akan et al., 2008), Anchusa azurea Mill. (sığırdili),
Helichrysum plicatum DC. (solmaz çiçek) in Elazığ (Cakilcioglu
and Turkoglu, 2010), Helichrysum plicatum DC. (sarı çiçek), Achillea
biebersteinii Afan. (civan perçemi), Portulaca oleracea L. (pür-
pürüm) in Sivas and Yozgat (Özüdoğru et al., 2011), Portulaca
oleracea L. (pirpirim), Silene vulgaris (Moench) Garcke var. vulgaris
(gıvışganotu), Polygonum cognatum Meissn. (madımak), Rumex
acetosella L. (Ekşimek, Kuzukulağı) in Elazığ (Doğan and Bağcı,
2011).
Due to these differences in plant names expressed above, it
becomes difficult to obtain the correct plant to be used.
4. Conclusions
In the research area, local people were found to use 82 plants
from 31 families for curative purposes. These plants are used in the
treatment of many diseases. By drying infusions or decoctions of
these plants, local people use them during the whole seasons of
the year. The respondents of the questionnaire are Turkish citizens,
with various ethnic backgrounds. Mean age of the respondents
was 55 years. Herbal treatment has become a tradition for the
residents of the study region.
Most commonly used plants are Cornus mas L., Gundelia
tournefortii L. var. tournefortii, Juglans regia L., Mentha spicata L.
subsp. spicata, Malva neglecta Wallr., Rosa canina L., Rheum ribes L.
and Urtica dioica L. Most commonly used parts of the plants were
the aerial parts (24 of use-reports), leaves (24), fruits (18) and
flowers (7). Many plants are used for the treatment of diabetes
disease, colds and flu, digestive, antihypertensive, cardiac disorder,
rheumatism, and stomach-ache etc.
There was some consistency in the use of local names between
Solhan and other regions of Turkey. However, it was also found
that several different species were referred to by the same local
names in different regions. Relative importance value of plant
species and informant consensus factor (FIC) for plants were
calculated. The FIC values were found to be too low in our
calculations. Therefore, it can be inferred that obtained data are
not reliable.
The medicinal uses of Anthriscus cerefolium (L.) Hoffm., Arum
elongnatum Steven, Astragalus lamarckii Boiss., Chaerophyllum
bulbosum L., Crataegus atrosanguinea Pojark., Hordeum bulbosum
L., Pastinaca armena Fisch. & Mey., Prunus kurdica Fenzl ex Fritsch,
Sium sisarum L. var. lancifolium (M. Bieb.) Thell. that we found they
were used in our study area were recorded for the first time. This
result is higher than the majority of new record plants obtained
during ethnobotanic studies conducted in the vicinity of the
research area.
Comparison of the data obtained from the plants growing in
Solhan within the scope of this study with experimental data
obtained in previous laboratory studies confirmed most of the
ethnobotanical usages. Literature review indicated that curative
plants found in Solhan are used in different parts of the world for
the treatment of the same or similar diseases.
Differences in the plant names used in many regions of
Anatolia must be taken into account, and expert opinion should
be received before using plants about which we are not sure.
The plant flora of Solhan is threatened by such factors as
grazing, expansion of new agricultural lands, and unsustainable
picking of plants for the purpose of generating income. Immediate
steps should be taken to ensure the inclusion of relevant flora
within conservation designations.
Appendix A
1 Name and surname of the participant
2 Age and sex of the participant
3 Telephone and address of the participant
4 Educational level of the participant
5 Date of interview
6 Place of residence of the participant
7 Duration of residence of the participant
8 What is the local name of the plant used?
9 For which diseases do you use the plant?
10 Which parts of the plant do you use? (root, stem, flower,
leaves, fruit etc.)
11 How do you prepare the plant for use?
12 How and when do you use the plant?
13 Approximately what dose do you use?
14 How long does the convalescence period take?
15 Did any complication occur from the plants you used?
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