Journal of Ethnopharmacology 153 (2014) 297–307

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Journal of Ethnopharmacology
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jep

Use of medicinal plants in the South-Eastern area of the Partenio

Regional Park (Campania, Southern Italy)
Bruno Menale a,n, Rosa Muoio b
a
University of Naples Federico II, Department of Biology, Via Foria 223, 80139 Napoli, Italy
b
University of Naples Federico II, Botanical Garden of Naples, Via Foria 223, 80139 Napoli, Italy

art ic l e i nf o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Ethnopharmacological relevance: This study documents the pharmaceutical importance of plant
Received 2 December 2013 resources in the South-Eastern area of the Partenio Regional Park (PRP), inland Campania, Avellino
Received in revised form province. This is reflected in the great diversity of plants used for medicinal purposes as well as in their
31 January 2014
wide range of medicinal applications.
Accepted 18 February 2014
Materials and methods: In order to collect information on medicinal plants used in the investigated area
Available online 25 February 2014
and to maximize the collection of local knowledge, informants were randomly contacted in the streets,
Keywords: squares and fields. Data were collected through both open and semi-structured interviews with native
Ethnobotanical study people between April 2012 and April 2013.
Plant traditional uses
Results: The study recorded 87 plant species belonging to 76 genera and 35 families used as medicine for
Medicinal plants
treating various diseases, both human and veterinary. Herbs represent the majority (56 species), followed
Partenio Regional Park
by trees (18) and shrubs (13). Among the recorded plants, leaves were the most frequently used and topic
use is the most common remedy. Cough is the most treated human disease followed by wounds healing.
Conclusion: The investigated area is endowed with a strong tradition of herbal medicine usage for
primary healthcare (PHC). The preservation of this knowledge is due to the continued use of plants for
PHC by the local community. This is due to the fact that in the study area still exists an oral tradition that
allows the persistence of such information. Recovering ancient knowledge is very important for
preserving ethno-biodiversity and to discover new entities for a further evaluation of their biological
activity.
& 2014 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
Ethno-pharmaceutical research involves the study of the identi-
fication and the classification of the natural material from which the
remedies are produced, their preparation and the effects on humans
and animals. A research focused on ethnobotany of rural commu-
nities isolated from the main developed city centers allows to
discover traces of traditional knowledge regarding the use of local
plants as medicine. In Italy, many recent ethnobotanical researches
have been carried out in Central and Southern regions, taking into
special account traditional plant knowledge of small and rural
communities (e.g. Leporatti and Pavesi, 1989; De Feo et al., 1992a,
1992b; De Feo and Senatore, 1993; Bruni et al., 1997; Ballero et al.,
2001; Leporatti and Corradi, 2001; Palmese et al., 2001; Pieroni
et al., 2002a, 2002b, 2004a, 2004b, 2004c; Guarrera, 2003, 2005;
n modern phytotherapy.
Corresponding author. Tel.: þ 39 0812533925; fax: þ 39 081295351.
E-mail addresses: bruno.menale@unina.it (B. Menale),
muoio@unina.it (R. Muoio).
Pieroni, 2003; Guarrera et al., 2005a, 2005b, 2006; Pieroni and
Quave, 2005; Salerno et al., 2005; Scherrer et al., 2005; Menale
et al., 2006; De Natale and Pollio, 2007; Salerno and Guarrera, 2008;
Montesano et al., 2012; Di Novella et al., 2013; Leto et al., 2013).
In this study, we have analyzed the South-Eastern area of Partenio
Regional Park (PRP) (Avellino province, Campania, Italy) traditional
medicinal uses of plants. The particular position of the chosen area
and its economy, which is for the most part still based on agricul-
tural activities, represent a good opportunity for conducting studies
about local traditional knowledge. No other studies have been
conducted so far in this area.
The main aims of this investigation were (i) to check at what
extent current knowledge on the medicinal use of plants is still an
important part of the culture within the population of PRP, (ii) to
create an ethnobotanical collection of herbal remedies in order to
preserve local awareness on medicinal plants and (iii) to even-
tually discover new potential natural remedies to be used in
The field research has shown that wild and cultivated plants are
still used in many villages, where depositories of such information

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2014.02.039
0378-8741 & 2014 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.
298 B. Menale, R. Muoio / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 153 (2014) 297–307
are often elderly people. These people jealously store their knowl-
edge on the use of plants handed down to them throughout
generations. The recovery of such knowledge could permit, for
example, to connect the past way of using plants with the devel-
opment of new phytopharmaceuticals in order to sustain local
biology and to preserve ethno-biodiversity (Martin, 1995).
2. Material and methods
2.1. Study area
PRP is located in Campania region and its name derives from
the ancient Greek and means “the place of the Sunrise”. It covers
an area of 14,870.24 ha and includes the provinces of Avellino,
Benevento, Caserta and Naples and five Mountain Communi-
ties (Partenio, Vallo di Lauro and Baianese, Serinese-Solofrana,
Taburno, Montedonico-Tribucco). The territory of PRP is domi-
nated by Partenio Mountain Ridge: according to D.M. 03.04.2000,
it is a Site of Community Importance (SCI) developing for over
25 km. The ridge is a calcareous mountain system with slopes cut
by rather deep ravines leading rainwater and springs down to the
valley (Moraldo and La Valva, 1989).
The territory of the PRP is mainly characterized by woodlands;
however, it is also possible to find arboreal and herbaceous cultiva-
tions and pastures. The area is subject to hydrogeological restrictions.
Moreover, large sections of the protected area are subject to land-
scape protection. Partenio chain represents a real biogeographical
island considered a green natural lung.
The climate is characterized by an high temperature range: in the
valley the annual mean winter temperature is 15 1C and the annual
mean summer temperature is 26.5 1C; on the top of the mountains
the annual mean winter temperature is 9 1C, sometimes it reaches
3 1C, and the annual mean summer temperature is 16.9 1C
(Moraldo and La Valva, 1989).
There are not complete studies regarding the flora of PRP. The
most important floristic research regards only the Mountain Com-
munities of Valle di Lauro and Baianese (Moraldo and La Valva,
1989); in this survey, 1162 entities were identified.
The present study has been carried out in the South-Eastern part
of the PRP (Fig. 1), 118 km2 wide, in the municipalities of Avellino in
Fig. 1. Campania map showing in black the investigated area.
the districts of Avella, Baiano, Mercogliano, Monteforte Irpino,
Mugnano del Cardinale, Quadrelle, Sirignano and Sperone.
2.2. Population
In PRP the first human settlement dates back to Bronze Age when
people descending from Appenines culture colonized the territory. The
area was the watershed and at the same time the point of contact
between two populations: Caudini and Hirpini, two of the most
important Samnite people. Samnites were ferocious Italic enemies of
the Romans. In this land the famous battle of Caudine Forks occurred;
after being defeated, the Roman soldiers were forced to pass under-
neath a yoke made of two spears driven into the ground and joined at
the top by a third. The region is rich of archeological finds both of
Samnite and Roman people.
Since ancient times people of this area have depended on
agriculture and shepherding. Agricultural activities influenced the
landscape since the past and the cultivation of olive tree, vineyards,
chestnuts and hazelnuts trees characterize the whole territory.
Today there are many small family-owned commercial and
handicraft enterprises that grow and sell local crops as chestnuts,
hazelnuts, olives and their derivates. An extended area is devoted
to vineyard as there are many important winery. Agricultural food
chain boasts leadership in producing dairy, wines, oil and the
famous Castagne del Prete, a typical product obtained by the fruits
dried and roasted and then rehydratated to give softness.
In addition, many wood handicrafts are produced thanks to the
richness of woody trees of the PRP forests; baskets made of reeds
or chestnuts bark are widely sold.
Another important economic activity of the territory is tour-
ism: the best-known and visited site in the park is the church
and monastery of Montevergine above Avellino, that dates back to
Medieval age.
In Montevergine, Benedictine monks have been experts in pre-
paring herbal remedies for centuries and they have been guardians
of the ancient local medicinal traditions; they were well known for
their skills in using vegetables to prepare galenic products since the
12th century and herb liqueurs since 1882.
2.3. Data collection, taxonomic identification and analysis
The field work was conducted during the periods April–July
2012, September–November 2012 and February–April 2013.
Ethnobotanical information was collected using semi-structured
and unstructured interviews with 72 persons living in the investi-
gated area, whose age ranged from 30 to 80 years old, who still
retain traditional knowledge of the use of the plants. Most were
people over 50 years old (Fig. 2).
2,8%
8,3% 30-39
12,5%
40-49
18,1%
50-59
60-69
30,5%
70-79
27,8%
80-84
Fig. 2. Pie diagram with the percentages of the informants age in the South-
Eastern area of PRP.
 B. Menale, R. Muoio / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 153 (2014) 297–307
Prior informed consent was obtained for all interviews conducted.
Informants were randomly contacted in the streets, squares
and fields; often they suggested us to interview other individuals
they knew.
In the first phase open interviews were carried out; people were
asked to freely recall all medicinal plants and other natural remedies
that they use or have used in the past. In the second phase more
specific information were asked by using semi-structured interviews.
People were asked to precisely describe the folk plant remedies they
know, the methods of use and preparation, the diseases treated. All
the interviews have been recorded.
In order to identify the plants quoted, the informants were
followed in the field and invited to show the medicinal species.
Regarding taxonomic identification and nomenclature, Pignatti
(1982) was followed. Samples of the plants cited during the
interviews were collected and deposited at the Herbarium of the
“Dipartimento di Biologia Vegetale” of Naples Botanical Garden
(NAP). The recorded tape is deposited at the authors address.
Data analysis were done by using both classical ethnobotanical
systematic investigation, and numerical quantitative data of con-
sensus according to several recent papers (Bruni et al., 1997; Di
Novella et al., 2013; Heinrich et al., 2009; Waller, 1993). We
calculated the use value (Trotter and Logan, 1986) to express the
importance of investigated species; the use value formula is
UV¼ U/N (UV¼use value; U¼number of citations per species;
N ¼number of informants). This factor serves to test the effective
knowledge and reliability of each species to support its pharma-
cological properties.
3. Results and discussion
3.1. General data on the medicinal species
The plant species recorded in the investigated area are pre-
sented in Table 1, following an alphabetic order for families and
entities. Families classification follows Judd et al. (2007). Scientific
names, local names, parts used, folk medical uses and way of
preparation are given. We took into the account only species that
were cited by not less than two informants.
This study recorded 87 plant species belonging to 76 genera and
35 families used for medicinal purposes for treating various, both
human and veterinary, diseases. Allium, Artemisia, Crataegus, Mercur-
ialis, Morus, Pinus, Plantago, Solanum, Triticum and Urtica are the
genera best represented with 2 entities each; the remaining genera
are represented by only one entity. Families with the largest number
of entities are Poaceae and Rosaceae (9), followed by Asteraceae (8),
Lamiaceae and Solanaceae (6), Apiaceae (4).
Poaceae, Rosaceae and Asteraceae families have the highest
diversity of species used as herbal medicine probably because
these are large families characterized by several species.
In the investigated area, among the recorded 87 plants, 52 are
spontaneous or subspontaneous and 35 are cultivated in the
kitchen gardens or for reforestation.
Analysis of the growth forms of the medicinal plants used in the
study area revealed that herbs represent the majority (56 species,
64.4%), followed by trees (18, 20.7%) and shrubs (13, 14.9%). The
largest proportion of herbs could be due to the fact that some of
them are easily available in the wild and on the edge of the streets,
along the walls, on the ruins, some others are weeds and some
others are cultivated for cooking. In any case all these herbs grow
near to the places where people live and for this reason it is effortless
to pick up them. The plant parts used for making herbal preparations
were leaves (33 citations), roots (12), fruits (10), flowers (8), branches
(7), seeds (7), bark (6), whole plants (6) and flowery tops (5). We
have only few citations about the use of bulbs (2), latex (2), tubers
299
(2), bran (1), fruit pedicels (1), resins (1) and stylus (1): in the
diagram (Fig. 3) these latter parts are represented as others. The
leaves were the most frequently used (31.7%) as they are tender and
so it is more easy to extract active principles avoiding long term
period of remedies preparation.
The investigated species were used to treat 62 different human
health problems and 12 veterinary disorders.
The results of the present study were compared with ethnobo-
tanical data both from contiguous areas of Campania and other
regions of Central and Southern Italy (Barone, 1963; Catanzaro, 1970;
Galt and Galt, 1978; Barbagallo et al., 1979; Capasso et al., 1982;
Leporatti et al., 1985; Antonone et al., 1988; Leporatti and Pavesi,
1989, 1990; Lentini and Raimondo, 1990; Ballero and Fresu, 1991;
Lentini and Aleo, 1991; De Feo et al., 1992a, 1992b; De Feo and
Senatore, 1993; Amico and Sorce, 1996; Bruni et al., 1997; Guarrera,
1999, 2003, 2005, 2009; Uncini Manganelli and Tomei, 1999; Lentini,
2000; Pieroni, 2000; Ballero et al., 2001; Leporatti and Corradi, 2001;
Palmese et al., 2001; Uncini Manganelli et al., 2001; Pieroni et al.,
2002a, 2002b, 2004a, 2004b, 2004c; Camangi and Tomei, 2003;
Vallariello, 2003; Maxia and Maxia, 2004; Guarrera et al., 2005a,
2005b, 2008; Pieroni and Quave, 2005; Scherrer et al., 2005; Menale
et al., 2006; De Natale and Pollio, 2007; Guarrera and Leporatti,
2007; Leporatti and Impieri, 2007; Passalacqua et al., 2007; Quave
et al., 2008; Salerno and Guarrera, 2008; De Natale et al., 2009;
Guarino et al., 2008; Leonti et al., 2009, 2010; Motti et al., 2009;
Signorini et al., 2009; Idolo et al., 2010; Savo et al., 2011; Montesano
et al., 2012; Di Novella et al., 2013; Guarrera and Savo, 2013; Leto
et al., 2013). Moreover, literature regarding ancient uses of medicinal
plants in Campania has been examined (Petagna, 1796; Tenore, 1820;
Venturi Ferriolo, 1995).
3.2. Human medicinal uses
Most of the plants used for human medicine had more than a
single therapeutic use, with 2 species used in the treatment of 10
ailments (Urtica dioica, Urtica urens), one species used for 8 (Malva
sylvestris), 2 species for 7 disorders (Allium cepa, Allium sativum),
2 species used for 6 (Citrus limon, Rubus ulmifolius), 3 plants used
for 5 ailments (Cichorium intybus, Foeniculum vulgare, Solanum
tuberosum), 2 plants used for 4 (Agropyron repens, Laurus nobilis)
and 6 species for 3 ailments (Cynodon dactylon, Eucalyptus globu-
lus, Linum usitatissimum, Parietaria officinalis, Raphanus sativus,
Ruta graveolens); 24 and 35 plants were respectively used to solve
2 and one disorders.
The entities used to solve the most cited diseases were: Allium
cepa (29.2% of the informants, cold; 27.8%, ear pain), Allium sativum
(43.1%, high blood pressure; 38.9%, antielminthic and anitimicrobial),
Chelidonium majus (37.5%, warts), Foeniculum vulgare (30.6%, babies
colic; 29.2%, cold), Lactuca sativa (61.1%, teethache), Laurus nobilis
(31.9%, cold; 30.6%, cough), Linum usitatissimum (47.2%, bronchitis),
Malva sylvestris (37.5%, bronchitis; 33.3%, cold; 31.9%, cough), Olea
europaea (43.1%, high blood pressure), Solanum tuberosum (43.1%,
burns; 41.7%, headache). These plants are very easy to find as they
are often cultivated such as in the case of Allium cepa, Allium sativum,
Lactuca sativa, Linum usitatissimum (subspontaneous too), Olea euro-
paea and Solanum tuberosum or they are common in the wild as for
Chelidonium majus, Foeniculum vulgare, Laurus nobilis (subsponta-
neous), Malva sylvestris.
The human uses of the investigated plants were divided into 11
groups (Fig. 4). The highest number of plants was recorded for skin
and cutaneous appendages (38), followed by gastrointestinal
system (36) and respiratory system (36).
Regarding specific ailments, cough is the most treated human
disease (22.9% of plants are cited for this), followed by wounds
healing (10.3%), rheumatism and bronchitis (9.2%), cold and intestinal
inflammation (8%), greasy skin and teethache (6.9%). These data
300 B. Menale, R. Muoio / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 153 (2014) 297–307

Table 1
Ethnopharmacological uses of plants in the South-Eastern area of PRP.

Family/scientific name (herbarium Local name Parts used Folk medical uses Preparations UV
number)

Adoxaceae
Sambucus nigra L. Sauc' Inflorescence, Cough Infusion, decoction 0.19
leaf
(NAP–MM 097) Leaf Ovine, cattle and Washing the skin with decoction
horses scab
Bark Swelling due to sprain Topic use
or bruise

Alliaceae
Allium cepa L. Cipoll' Bulb Greasy skin Fried sliced bulb applied on skin 0.38
(NAP–MM 147) Bulb juice Corns, warts Applied on skin
Bulb Sting Applied on skin
Bulb Nephroliths Tincture of sliced bulbs
Mashed bulb Ear pain A cotton flock dipped in mashed bulb in
auditory duct
Bulb Cold Milk decoction
Bulb Contusion Cooked slices applied on skin
Allium sativum L. Aglio Bulb Antimicrobial; antielminthic Eaten raw, infusion, tincture 0.57
(NAP–MM 103) Mashed bulb Sting Rubbed on skin
Bulb Chilblains Applied on skin
Bulb High blood pressure; Tincture
cold
Leaf Teethache Fumigation with roasted leaves

Apiaceae
Apium graveolens L. Accio Root Nephroliths Decoction 0.03
(NAP–MM 119)
Conium maculatum L. Cicut' Leaf Greasy skin Warm leaves applied on skin with oil 0.03
(NAP–MM 133)
Foeniculum vulgare Miller F'nucchu' Seeds Babies colic Decoction 0.39
(NAP–MM 085) Inflorescence Contusion Poultice obtained from a mixture of
inflorescence
and rancid lard applied on skin
Whole plant Stimulating milk production; Dried plants in decoction
stomachache
Seeds Cough Infusion
Petroselinum sativum Hoffm. Ptrusin' Root Nephroliths Decoction 0.03
(NAP–MM 127)

Asparagaceae
Asparagus officinalis L. Spalic' Root Stimulating diuresis Decoction 0.21
(NAP–MM 109)

Asteraceae
Achillea millefolium L. Evr' ro' tagl' Inflorescence Ovine, cattle and Poultice with a mixture of flowers and 0.03
horses scab brandy
applied on skin
(NAP–MM 141)
Artemisia absinthium L., Artemisia Assenzio, Whole plant Insects, spiders and Topic use with a macerate obtained putting 0.07,
vulgaris L. amarell' snakes bites, lice the whole plant in oil and vinegar 0.07
(NAP–MM 121, NAP–MM 156)
Cichorium intybus L. C'coria Root Acne Poultice with the decoction 0.17
(NAP–MM 101) Root Cystitis; cough; cold Decoction
Leaf Wounds healing Topic use
Lactuca sativa L. ‘Nsalata Leaf Teethache Boiled leaves applied on painful area 0.61
(NAP–MM 153)
Matricaria chamomilla L. Camumill' Inflorescence Dyspepsia Infusion 0.19
(NAP–MM 134) Inflorescence Horses tendinitis Poultice with the infusion
Tanacetum parthenium (L.) Sch.-Bip. Camumill' do' Inflorescence Cough; stimulating digestion Main ingredient of “Anthemis liqueour” 0.26
Partenio obtained
by macerating the drug in alcohol, made by
Padri Benedettini
in Montevergine
(NAP–MM 148)
Taraxacum officinale Weber (0.06) Sciosciavient' Root Cough Decoction 0.06
(NAP–MM 112)

Betulaceae
Alnus cordata (Loisel.) Desf. Ontn' Branch, bark Gastritis By chewing 0.1
(NAP–MM 083)

Brassicaceae
Brassica oleracea L. s.l. Caul' Leaf Joint pain Topic use of crushed leaves 0.07
(NAP–MM 096)
Raphanus sativus L. Rafn' Root Greasy skin Poultice 0.14
(NAP–MM 128) Root Cough; stomachache Decoction
 B. Menale, R. Muoio / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 153 (2014) 297–307 301

Table 1 (continued )

Family/scientific name (herbarium Local name Parts used Folk medical uses Preparations UV
number)

Cactaceae
Opuntia ficus-indica (L.) Miller Figurina Cladode Horses' hoofs pain Topic use 0.07
(NAP–MM 092)

Caprifoliaceae
Centranthus ruber (L.) DC., Valeriana Vallrial' Aerial part Cough Infusion 0.15,
officinalis L. 0.10
(NAP–MM 150, NAP–MM 159) Root Headache; cattle colic Decoction

Convolvulaceae
Calystegia sepium (L.) R.Br. Curriola Leaf Wounds healing Topic use 0.06
(NAP–MM 165)

Cucurbitaceae
Bryonia cretica L. subsp. dioica Jacq. Vita ianc' Rhizome Rheumatism Topic use of grated rhizome 0.03
(NAP–MM 117)

Dennstaedtiaceae
Pteridium aquilinum (L.) Kuhn Fielc' Leaf, rhizome Wounds healing; hemostatic Topic use 0.17
(NAP–MM 104)

Euphorbiaceae
Mercurialis annua L., Murculell' Aerial part Constipation Decoction 0.11,
Mercurialis perennis L. 0.11
(NAP–MM 131, NAP–MM 098)

Fabaceae
Ceratonia siliqua L. Sciuscell' Fruit Diarrhea Not filtered decoction 0.1
(NAP–MM 139)
Lupinus albus L. Lupin' Seed Ovine, cattle and horses scab Topic use of decoction 0.08
with vinegar
(NAP–MM 084) Seed Gastritis Suck the dry seeds

Fagaceae
Quercus robur L. subsp. brutia (Ten.) O. Cerqua Bark Rheumatism Topic use of decoction 0.04
Schwarz
(NAP–MM 107) Bark Stomachache Decoction

Geraniaceae
Geranium robertianum L. Geranio Whole plant Ovine, cattle and horses scab Topic use of decoction 0.06
(NAP–MM 122)

Juglandaceae
Juglans regia L. Noc' Leaf Antielminthic Infusion 0.1
(NAP–MM 088) Leaf Lice Topic use of infusion

Lamiaceae
Lamium album L. Mentrast' Leaf Fat skin Topic use 0.04
(NAP–MM 142)
Mentha spp. Menta Aerial part Intestinal worms Liqueur 0.17
(NAP–MM 151) Aerial part Cough Infusion
Ocimum basilicum L. Masnicol' Aerial part Stimulating digestion Liqueur 0.19
(NAP–MM 137)
Rosmarinus officinalis L. Rosmarin' Branch Antimicrobial Decoction 0.21
(NAP–MM 146)
Salvia officinalis L. Salvia Leaf Heart protection Infusion 0.08
(NAP–MM 163)
Thymus longicaulis Presl Tim' Flowery top Stimulating digestion, cough Tincture 0.17
(NAP–MM 110)

Lauraceae
Laurus nobilis L. Laur' Leaf Cough; cold; ovine, cattle and Decoction 0.42
horses constipation
(NAP–MM 154) Leaf Belly pain; menstrual pain Infusion with honey

Linaceae
Linum usitatissimum L. Lin' Seed Horses intestinal colic Eaten raw with water 0.47
(NAP–MM 114) Seed Bronchitis Topic use of poultice, obtained from flour
and hot water, on breast
Seed Teethache Topic use of poultice on cheek
Seed Wounds healing Topic use of poultice

Malvaceae
Althaea officinalis L. Altea Flower Cystitis Infusion 0.04
(NAP–MM 140)
Malva sylvestris L. Malv' Leaf Teethache Topic use with cooked and crushed leaves 0.44
(NAP–MM 126) Leaf Whitlow Topic use with cooked leaves
Leaf Belly pain Infusion, decoction
Flower, leaf Cystitis; cough; cold Infusion
Flower, leaf To lose weight Decoction
Root Bronchitis Decoction
302 B. Menale, R. Muoio / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 153 (2014) 297–307

Table 1 (continued )

Family/scientific name (herbarium Local name Parts used Folk medical uses Preparations UV
number)

Tilia platyphyllos Scop. subsp. platyphyllos Tigl' Bark Chicken crest infections Infusion 0.03
(NAP–MM 099)

Moraceae
Ficus carica L. Fica Branch Rumination help In the cattle mouth to avoid chewing 0.25
(NAP–MM 120) Infructescence Cough Decoction of dried figs
Latex Corns; warts Topic use.
Morus alba L. Ceuza ianca Leaf High blood pressure Infusion 0.08
(NAP–MM 086) Branch pith Wounds healing Topic use
Morus nigra L. Ceuza nera Branch pith Wounds healing Topic use 0.08
(NAP–MM 106)

Myrtaceae
Eucalyptus globulus Labill. Calips' Leaf Bronchitis Infusion 0.19
(NAP–MM 094) Bark Cough; cold Fumigation of decoction

Oleaceae
Fraxinus ornus L. Liuorn' Bark Poultry breathing diseases Infusion 0.03
(NAP–MM 129)
Olea europaea L. Auliv' Leaf High blood pressure; Infusion 0.43
water retention
(NAP–MM 145)

Papaveraceae
Chelidonium majus L. Evr' ‘e puorr’ Latex Warts Topic use 0.38
(NAP–MM 161)
Papaver rhoeas L. subsp. rhoeas Papagn' Whole plant Insomnia Cooked and eaten in salads 0.11
(NAP–MM 116) Flower Insomnia Infusion

Pinaceae
Pinus halepensis Miller, Pinus pinea L. Pin' Bud resin Wounds healing Topic use 0.03,
0.03
(NAP–MM 123, NAP–MM 149)

Plantaginaceae
Plantago lanceolata L., Plantago major L. Cientnerv' Leaf Throatache Infusion 0.06,
subsp. major 0.06
(NAP–MM 111, NAP–MM 136) Seed Intestinal inflammation Decoction

Platanaceae
Platanus orientalis L. Platn' Leaf Rheumatism Topic use of the infused oil 0.03
(NAP–MM 090)

Poaceae
Agropyron repens (L.) Beauv. Rammegn' Aerial part Intestinal inflammation By chewing 0.07
(NAP–MM 087) Rhizome Cough; cold; intestinal Decoction
inflammation; water retention
Arundo donax L. Cann' Leaf Horses stomach flatulence Eaten raw 0.03
(NAP–MM 143)
Avena sativa L. Biav' Seed Cough Topic use of the flour decoction on the 0.1
breast
(NAP–MM 100) Stem Animals wounds healing Topic use of the ashes
Bran Stomachache Topic use
Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers. Rammegn' Aerial part Intestinal inflammation By chewing 0.07
(NAP–MM 081) Rhizome Cough; intestinal inflammation; Decoction
water retention
Hordeum vulgare L. Uorg' Fruit Bronchitis; gastritis Decoction 0.08
(NAP–MM 155)
Phragmites australis (Cav.) Trin. Cann' Leaf Horses stomach flatulence Eaten raw 0.03
(NAP–MM 130)
Triticum aestivum L. Gran' Fruit Bronchitis Topic use of the decoction on the breast 0.04
(NAP–MM 162) Stem Animals wounds healing Topic use of the ashes
Triticum spelta L. Farr' Fruit Animals digestion stimulating By drinking water soaked with fruits 0.03
(NAP–MM 113)
Zea mays L. Graurignl' Stylus Gastritis Infusion 0.04
(NAP–MM 152)

Primulaceae
Cyclamen spp. Ciclamin' Tuber Hemorrhoids Topic use of the infused oil 0.03
(NAP–MM 102)

Rosaceae
Agrimonia eupatoria L. Agrimonia Leaf, flowery Animal wounds healing Topic use 0.03
top
(NAP–MM 082)
Crataegus monogyna Jacq. subsp. monogyna, Calavric' Flower Insomnia Infusion 0.13,
Crataegus oxyacantha L. 0.13
(NAP–MM 158, NAP–MM 118) Flower High blood pressure Decoction
Malus domestica Borkh. Mel' False fruit Flu 0.11
 B. Menale, R. Muoio / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 153 (2014) 297–307 303

Table 1 (continued )

Family/scientific name (herbarium Local name Parts used Folk medical uses Preparations UV
number)

Decoction with honey, by eating the cooked

apple
(NAP–MM 164)
Mespilus germanica L. Nespula pilos' Leaf Throatache Gargling a decoction 0.04
(NAP–MM 135)
Prunus cerasus L. Amaren' Fruit pedicel Cough Decoction 0.03
(NAP–MM 166)
Rosa spp. Ros' Leaf Teethache Topic use of the decoction 0.06
(NAP–MM 124) Leaf Greasy skin Topic use
Rubus ulmifolius Schott Spin' Young shoot Diarrhea Decoction 0.1
(NAP–MM 095) Leaf Greasy skin; wounds healing Topic use
Leaf Hemorrhoids Decoction
Barkless Bronchitis; hemorrhoids; intestinal Decoction
branch inflammations
Sorbus domestica L. (0.07) Suruovl' Leaf Chilblains Topic use of the decoction 0.07
(NAP–MM 138) Fruit Diarrhea Eaten raw

Rutaceae
Citrus limon (L.) Burm. fil. Limon' Leaf Babies colic Raw in the baby bath 0.14
(NAP–MM 089) Leaf Greasy skin; seborrheic dermatitis Topic use
Fruit Bronchitis; high cholesterol Lemon juice
Fruit Dandruff Topic use of the unripe fruit juice
Ruta graveolens L. Rut' Flowery top Hemorrhoids; rheumatism Topic use of infused oil 0.08
(NAP–MM 132) Flowery top Bronchitis Topic use of infused oil on breast or
shoulder

Salicaceae
Salix alba L. subsp. alba Salic' Branch Rumination help In the cattle mouth to avoid chewing 0.04
(NAP–MM 167)

Solanaceae
Capsicum annuum L. Peperoncin' Fruit Gastritis As spice for food 0.13
(NAP–MM 108) Fruit Rheumatism Topic use of tincture.
Cestrum parqui L'Her. Ftient' Whole plant Edema Topic use 0.04
(NAP–MM 091) Leaf Herpes Topic use
Leaf Rumination help By chewing
Datura stramonium L. Fiet' e lup' Leaf Asthma By smoking cigarettes made with dried 0.08
leaves
(NAP–MM 157)
Lycopersicum esculentum Miller Pummarol' Fruit Warts Topic use of the juice 0.06
(NAP–MM 160)
Solanum nigrum L. subsp. schultesii (Opiz) Sular' Seed Teethache Mouth fumigation with the tincture 0.11
Wessely
(NAP–MM 125)
Solanum tuberosum L. Patan' Tuber Burns; chilblains; headache Topic use 0.47
(NAP–MM 144) Tuber Flu Topic use on the forehead
Tuber Eyes irritation Topic use on closed eyes

Urticaceae
Parietaria officinalis L. Evr' e mur' Aerial part Stomachache Infusion 0.15
(NAP–MM 105) Aerial part Renal calculus Decoction with honey
Aerial part Rheumatism Topic use of the infused oil
Aerial part Calf birth help Decoction
Urtica dioica L., Urtica urens L. Urdic' Aerial part Dandruff, loss of hair Decoction, alcoholic tincture rub 0.19,
0.19
(NAP–MM 093, NAP–MM 115) Aerial part Anemia, intestinal inflammation Infusion
Aerial part Sprain; contracture Topic use
Aerial part Water retention Infusion, decoction
Aerial part Lack of minerals Cooked in salads
Root Cough Decoction
Leaf Rheumatism Topic use of the decoction

Note: When only topic use is referred, it means that the drugs are used raw.

show that folk remedies are often used as primary healthcare (PHC)
above all when symptoms are clear and do not need doctor assistance.
Most of the recorded species are well known in traditional
medicine and they are reported in the literature examined. Some
species presented new uses compared to the above mentioned
literature, and will be discussed below.
 Alnus cordata (bark and branches used for gastritis). In the
literature consulted, a different species, Alnus glutinosa (L.)
Gaertn., is reported to treat gastralgia (Leporatti and Ghedira,
2009) in Turkey. The genus Alnus has many bioactive constitu-
ents, among them flavonoids, that could explain this anti-
inflammatory activity (Sati et al., 2011).
 Cichorium intybus (roots to solve cough and cold). This species
has a long history of herbal use and is especially of great value
for its tonic, laxative and diuretic properties (Gastaldo, 1987).
There are no direct scientific evidence on its action on respira-
tory diseases; this healing activity might be due to sesquiterpene
304 B. Menale, R. Muoio / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 153 (2014) 297–307

35 31.7 affect human health and act as relief for stomach disorders
30 (Ebrahimzadeh et al., 2008; Liu et al., 2011).
25
The following uses are very unusual and rarely mentioned in
20
ethnopharmacological investigations.
15 11.6
10
9.6
7.7 6.7 6.7
9.6  Malva sylvestris (flowers and leaves to lose weight). In Cilento
5.8 5.8 4.8 National Park (Campania), the decoction of the plant is used for
5
the same purpose (Scherrer et al., 2005). It acts as a mild
0
laxative, a diuretic and a liver cleansing tonic thanks to high
rs

s
its

rs
s

ots

eds

rk
hes

nts

top
ave

content of polysaccharides (Gasparetto et al., 2012).

we

he
Ba
Fru
Ro

pla
Se
anc

Ot
Le

Flo

ry
Mespilus germanica (leaves to relief throatache). In inland
ole
Br

we
Wh

Flo
Fig. 3. Percentages of plant parts used for remedies preparation.
40
36 36
38
35
30
25
20
15 12 11
10 6 6
4 3
5
0
CS ENT GS NS OC RS SM S SD
Fig. 4. Number of plants used to treat human diseases: circulatory system (CS), ear,
nose and throat (ENT), gastrointestinal system (GS), nervous system (NS), oral
cavity (OC), respiratory system (RS), skeleton and muscles (SM), skin and cutaneous
appendages (S), systematic diseases (SD), urogenital system (US), others (O).
lactones, like lactucin and lactucopicrin, content that have
antibacterial effects (Zaman and Basar, 2013).
 Conium maculatum (leaves as remedy for oily skin). The use of
this toxic plant is very rare; the species has been reported as
lenitive of insect bites, corns, rheumatism, swellings, inflamma-
tions and in ethnoveterinary as vulnerary (Guarrera, 1994; Viegi
et al., 2003). The presence of an high content of alkaloids (Vetter,
2004) might give details for the treatment of greasy skin.
 Foeniculum vulgare (poultice obtained with inflorescence and
rancid lard prescribed for the treatment of contusion) and
Lupinus albus (seeds used for gastritis). Phytochemical data do
not explain these uses.
 Morus alba (leaves for high blood pressure). Italian ethnopharma-
ceutical investigations do not report this curative activity of the
plant, that instead is used at this extent in Bulgaria (Leporatti and
Ivancheva, 2003). In the pharmacological field Morus alba is
reported as a diuretic (Devi et al., 2013) and this justify its effect
on high blood pressure. A chemical study carried out on the
Japanese Morus (Morus bombycis Koidz.) isolated some kuwa-
nons, active substances exhibiting the hypotensive effect
(Nomura, 1999).
 Rosa spp. (leaves to analgise teethache). Analgesic effect of Rosa
species for teethache has never been reported in the literature
consulted, but the species is cited to solve painful health
conditions. Eugenol is one of the active compounds of Rosa
genus and its properties make it a good local antiseptic and
analgesic (Hosni et al., 2010; Jirovetz et al., 2005).
 Zea mays (stylus to relief gastritis). In the examined literature, Zea
mays has been cited as diuretic, antilithiasic, uricosuric and
antiseptic. Stomach curative activity has been reported in an
ethnobotanical investigation carried out in Turkey (Kültür, 2007).
Corn silk is rich in phenolic compounds known to significantly
Marches (Central-Eastern Italy) medlar tree is used at the same
extent (Pieroni et al., 2004c). This healing activity has been
reported in Iran too (Bibalani and Mosazadeh-Sayadmahaleh,
2012). Chemical studies have isolated anti-inflammatory and
anti-oxidant bioactive compounds responsible of this curative
action (Nabavi et al., 2011).
 Raphanus sativus (roots for greasy skin). Dermatological use of
the roots has been documented in Sardinia (Italy) (Loi et al.,
2004). Phytochemical studies do not give explanation of this
activity.
 Sorbus domestica (leaves to cure chilblains). Guarrera (2009)
reported the same healing activity in Sicily region. In Sannio
area (Campania), the ripe fruits are used instead of the leaves;
9 10
they are topically applied to solve chilblains for their lenitive
and astringent properties (Guarino et al., 2008).
US O
3.3. Veterinary medicinal uses
Regarding ethnoveterinary use of plants, nowadays veterinary
services solve most of the animal diseases and natural remedies
carried out by shepherds and farmers are disappearing. However in
our study area and in some others Mediterranean regions, such folk
traditional practices are still used for the treatment of ailments
easily identified.
The investigation revealed 22 species used to treat veterinary
problems. Ovine, cattle and horses scab was the most treated
disease (4 species used), followed by animals wounds healing and
rumination help (3). The study revealed some veterinary uses not
earlier reported in the specific mentioned literature (cf. Section
3.1); they will be detailed below.
 Geranium robertianum (whole plant to medicate ovine, cattle
and horses scab). Chemical composition of the plant gives
evidence of many compounds with antioxidant and antiseptic
properties (Neagu et al., 2010). This might explain its use for
animal scab.
 Arundo donax (leaves to reduce horses stomach flatulence),
Phragmites australis (leaves to reduce horses stomach flatu-
lence), Tilia platyphyllos subsp. platyphyllos (bark as remedy for
chicken crest infections) and Triticum spelta (fruits to stimulate
animal digestion) Phytochemical studies do not explain these
surprising healing activities.
A very singular use is that of Parietaria officinalis, whose aerial
part decoction helps calf birth. Similar remedy has been reported
in Tuscany where Parietaria diffusa Merlet & W.D.J. Koch is used
before calving (Uncini Manganelli et al., 2001).
3.4. Preparation methods
For treating both human and animal diseases, there were no any
evidence of synergy among two or more species in the investigated
area. In some cases, different ingredients are added to the
 B. Menale, R. Muoio / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 153 (2014) 297–307
preparation such as honey and milk, in order to make some
remedies more tasty. Examples are the Allium cepa decoction,
obtained with milk to solve cold and the Laurus nobilis infusion
with honey to solve pain ailments. Oil, vinegar and spirits are used
together with drugs as they work as solvents in extracting active
principles; extracted solutions are used as topic remedies, i.e. the
Artemisia spp. oil and vinegar macerate.
For human diseases, topic use was the most common remedy (69
citations) carried out by applying and rubbing herbal preparations on
the affected areas, followed by decoction assumption (56), infusion
assumption (34), tincture assumption (11) and eaten raw (10); 15
citations regarded different ways of use, as shown in Table 1. For
animal diseases, topic use was the most common remedy (9 citations)
too, followed by decoction assumption and eaten raw (4) and infusion
assumption (2); there were only 3 citations as far as different uses. The
69 citations reported for topic use include the uses of drugs as raw,
after being processed as decoction, infusion, infused oil, tincture,
macerate or juice.
The recommended dosage differed among adults and children:
more amounts of remedies were given for adults than children to
treat the same disease. Lack of standardization is a matter of fact in
traditional medicine as reported in similar studies (Abu-Irmaileh
and Afifi, 2003; Balick et al., 2000; Camejo-Rodrigues et al., 2003;
De Natale and Pollio, 2007; Ertuğ, 2000; Jouad et al., 2001).
4. Conclusion
The number of medicinal plants and their different applications
both human and veterinary reflect the rich ethnobotanical knowl-
edge of the South-Eastern part of PRP, where man–nature relation-
ship has always been strong since ancient times, natural world
being seen as the most important resource.
Remarkable is that in spite of modern medicine is the official
way of healing, traditional medicine still have many followers. The
preservation of this knowledge is owed to the continued use of
plants for PHC by the local community. The reason is that in the
study area still exists an oral tradition that allows the persistence
of such information. Moreover, agricultural practices are strongly
embedded in this land and also people that are involved in various
types of jobs, not only agricultural, have at least a parent, a friend
or a neighbor that are farmers and are accustomed to use plants
for medicinal properties.
In addition, the plants used are easily available because they are
widely diffused in the wild or are cultivated in the home-garden
and often the remedies preparations are very simple to obtain.
The results of this first contribution about plant uses in the PRP
indicate that this area could retain a peculiar traditional popular
knowledge which surely deserve further researches in the remaining
areas in order to recover ancient knowledge that is very important for
preserving ethno-biodiversity too. Protection of herbal medicine prac-
tice should be a longer-term goal to discover different and perhaps
endangered entities. Nonetheless, ethnopharmacological researches
just like this could reveal species to submit to phytochemical and
phytopharmacological studies in order to discover new active princi-
ples responsible for the reported biological activity.
It is estimated that nearly three fourths of the herbal drugs
used worldwide were discovered following researches from local
medicine and in the future, the basic study of medicinal plants will
continue as a source of therapeutic agents too (Verma and Singh,
2008). Vegetable ingredients are present in many products not
only phytopharmaceuticals, e.g. cosmetics; the consequence is that
phyto-industries demand for raw materials is increasing. Recently,
even developed European countries are using medicinal systems
that involve the use of herbal drugs and remedies.
305
In many Southern Italian areas, not only in PRP, there is a lack of
information on the social and economic benefits that could derive
from the industrial utilization of medicinal plants. Except for the use
of these plants for local healthcare needs, not much information has
been available on their market potential and trading possibilities.
Therefore, ethnopharmacological investigations like this could serve
both to spread the knowledge of local medicine and to promote the
realization of local farms devoted to grow and sell medicinal plants
as raw material on a large scale. This might contribute to create new
jobs positions and to improve local economy.
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