- Nutrients that food must supply

o necessary; “needed from outside the

body”
THE NEED FOR ENERGY - Body can only make limited number of nutrients
ENERGY
ENERGY YIELDING NUTRIENTS
- Needed to perform work
- Nutrients that break down to yield energy the
- Body has considerable requirement for energy,
body can use
even at rest
o 1/3 of energy expenditure is for UNITS OF ENERGY
voluntary work
- Energy released from macronutrients can be
o 2/3 is required for maintenance of the
measured in calories
body, aka homeostasis
a. CALORIES
FOOD o amount of heat required to raise the
temperature of 1g of water by 1 degree
- Body’s fuel
Celsius
FOOD CHOICES o conversion factors:
1000 calorie = 1Kcal
a. Personal preference 1Kcal = 4.186KJ
b. Habit
c. Ethnic heritage or tradition *TAKE NOTE: energy and heat are different forms of the
d. Social interaction same thing*
e. Availability, convenience and economy
ENERGY FROM FOODS
f. Emotions
g. Values - Amount of energy depends on how much carbs,
h. Body weight and image fats and protein it contains
i. Nutrition and health benefits - When completely broken down in the body:
1g carbohydrate 4Kcal of energy
NUTRIENTS
1g protein 4Kcal of energy
- Atoms, molecules and cells of your body 1g fat 9Kcal of energy
continuously move and change even though 1g alcohol 7Kcal of energy
the structures of your tissues, organs and
external appearance remains relatively constant - Fat = greatest energy density (measure of
- To maintain your “self” you must replenish from energy a food provides relative to the amount
foods of food)

NUTRIENT COMPOSITION OF THE BODY ENERGY IN THE BODY

- Materials similar to those found in food - When body uses the energy-yielding nutrients,
the bonds between the nutrient’s atoms break
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF NUTRIENTS - Energy is released as bond breaks
A. Inorganic o energy is released as heat
- No Carbon o used in other internal structures
- Living things (iex: Minerals and Water) - More energy consumed than expended =
B. Organic increase in energy stores and weight gain
- Substance containing C-C or C-H bonds (iex: VITAMINS
Carbohydrates, protein, fats, vitamins)
- Do not provide energy
ESSENTIAL NUTRIENTS

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 - Facilitate the release of energy and in numerous
other activities throughout the body
- Functions only when intact
- Vulnerable to destruction
Vitamin A Beneficial in treating eye
disorders, skin infection,
Vitamin B9 Reduces risk of neural
tube defects during
pregnancy
Vitamin B12 Provides relief from
symptoms of anemia,
kidney and liver disorders
Vitamin C Helps treat scurvy,
cancer and common cold
Vitamin D Aids in treating arthritis,
tooth decay, diabetes
and rickets
Vitamin E Improves blood
circulation and slows
down aging process
Vitamin K Reduces risk of
menstrual pain and
internal bleeding
othe one that does not receive the
treatment
o control group and experimental group
are divided equally
o subject to randomization
2. Sample size
o population of the sample
o must be large to ensure chance
variation
3. Placebos
o inert substance or treatment which is
not designed to have therapeutic value
o experimental group receives treatment
o control group receive placebo
4. Double blind
o both subjects and the researchers
don’t know which subjects are in which
group
o reduces bias
ANALYZING RESEARCH FINDINGS
CORRELATIONS AND CAUSES

VARIABLES
MINERALS
- Something that has a quantity or quality that
- Do not yield energy varies
- Inorganic
CORRELATION
o indestructible and don’t need to be
handled with special care unlike - Statistical technique that can show how
vitamins strongly pairs of variables are related
a. No correlation = no relationship
WATER
b. Positive correlation = direct relationship;
- Provides the environment in which nearly all does not always have a positive result
the body’s activities are conducted c. Negative correlation = inverse relationship

NUTRITION SCIENCE PUBLISHING RESEARCH

- Study of nutrients and other substances in the
foods and the body’s handling of them
- Depends on other sciences such as biology,
biochemistry and physiology
- Tremendous growth in the science of nutrition
as scientists applied knowledge gained from
sequencing the human genome
RESEARCH
- Research scientists follow the scientific method
- An effective research should observe having:
1. Controls
PEER REVIEW
- a process by which something proposed (as for
research or publication) is evaluated by a group
of experts in the appropriate field
- Validity
= conclusions of research are well supported by
evidence
= reviewers endorse the work for publication
PARTS OF RESEARCH ARTICLE
• Abstract

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 - The abstract provides a brief overview of the - Average daily amount of a nutrient that will
article. maintain a specific biochemical or physiological
function in half of the healthy people of a given
• Introduction
age and gender group
- The introduction clearly states the purpose of
the current study.

• Review of literature

- A comprehensive review of the literature

reveals all that science has uncovered on the
subject to date.

• Methodology

- The methodology section defi nes key terms

and describes the instruments and procedures
used in conducting the study.

• Results

- The results report the findings and may include

tables and figures that summarize the
information. RECOMMENDED DIETARY ALLOWANCE (RDA)

• Conclusions - Average daily amount of a nutrient considered

- The conclusions drawn are those supported by
the data and reflect the original purpose as
stated in the introduction. Usually, they answer
a few questions and raise several more.
adequate to meet the known nutrient needs of
practically all healthy people
- Well-researched

• References

- The references reflect the investigator’s

knowledge of the subject and should include an
extensive list of relevant studies (including key
studies several years old as well as current
ones).

DIETARY REFERENCE INTAKE

- Set of standards that best support health
- Set of nutrient intake values for healthy people
used in planning and assessing diets
- Includes:
ADEQUATE INTAKES (AI)
• Estimated Average Requirements (EAR)
• Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDA) - Value used to guide nutrient intake when RDA
• Adequate Intakes (AI) cannot be determined
• Tolerable Upper Intake Levels (UL) - Reflects the average amount of nutrient that a
group of healthy people consumes
ESTIMATED AVERAGE REQUIREMENT (EAR)
- More tentative than RDA
- Approximation

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TOLERABLE UPPER INTAKE LEVELS (UL)
- Maximum daily amount of a nutrient that
appears safe for most healthy people and
beyond which there is an increased risk of
adverse effects
ESTABLISHING ENERGY RECOMMENDATIONS
- Recommendation for energy is not generous,
unlike RDA and AI
o excess energy cannot be readily
excreted and is stored as body fat
- Includes:
a. Estimated Energy Requirement
b. Acceptable Macronutrient Distribution
Ranges
ESTIMATED ENERGY REQUIREMENT (EER)
- Average dietary energy intake that maintains
energy balance and good health in a person of a
given age, gender, weight, height and level of
physical activity
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- Any amount in excess energy needs will result in
weight gain = no upper level for energy has
been determined
ACCEPTABLE MACRONUTRIENT DISTRIBUTION RANGES
(AMDR)
- Ranges of intakes for the energy nutrients that
provide adequate energy and nutrients and
reduce the risk of chronic diseases
- Composition of diet that provides adequate
energy and nutrients:
• 45 to 65 percent kcalories from carbohydrate
• 20 to 35 percent kcalories from fat
• 10 to 35 percent kcalories from protein
NUTRITION ASSESSMENT
If the deficiency or excess is significant over time, the
person experiences symptoms of malnutrition.
UNDERNUTRION
- Deficient energy or nutrients
- causes extreme thinness, frequency of infection
and disease and loss of muscle tissue
a. Primary deficiency
o nutrient is lacking in the person’s diet
b. Secondary deficiency
o body doesn’t absorb, excretes too much
or uses the nutrient inefficiently
c. Subclinical deficiency
o deficiency in the early stages, before
the outward signs have appeared (iex:
body uses up stores of iron)
OVERNUTRITION
- Excess energy or nutrients
 - causes obesity and vulnerability to heart
disease and diabetes
NUTRITION ASSESSMENT OF INDIVIDUALS
- to prepare nutrition assessment, a registered
dietician, dietetic technician, or other trained
health care professional uses:
o historical information
o Anthropometric measurements
o physical examinations
o lab tests
NUTRITION ASSESSMENT OF POPULATIONS
- techniques used are similar to those used in
individuals
- National surveys use similar assessment
methods to measure people’s food
consumption and to evaluate the nutrition
status of populations
DIET AND HEALTH
- Foods play a vital role in supporting health
- Excessive energy and nutrient intake is
associated into development of chronic disease
(diseases characterized by slow progression and
long duration)
RISK FACTORS FOR CHRONIC DISEASE
- Risk Factor
o condition or behavior associated with
an elevated frequency of a disease but
not proved to be causal
o more risk factor = more chances of
developing the disease
DIGESTION
- Process of breaking down of food by mechanical
and enzymatic action in the alimentary canal
into substances that can be used by the body
CHALLENGES IN DIGESTION PROCESS
1. Human beings breathe, eat and drink through
their mouth
2. Food must pass through the diaphragm to reach
the stomach
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3. Materials within the digestive tract should be
kept moving forward, slowly but steadily
4. Food must be lubricated with fluids to move
through the system
5. GI tract contains liquid wherein digested food
particles are suspended. Once digestion is
complete and the needed nutrients have been
absorbed out of the GI tract and into the body,
the system must excrete the remaining waste.
Excreting all the water along with the solid
residue, however, would be both wasteful and
messy. Some water must be withdrawn to leave
a solid enough waste product
6. Digestive enzyme are designed to digest carbs,
fat and protein. The cells of the GI tract are also
made of carbs, fat and protein
7. Once waste matter has reached the end of the
GI tract, it must be excreted, but it would be
inconvenient if this function occurred
continuously
ANATOMY OF DIGESTIVE TRACT
GASTROINTESTINAL TRACT
- A flexible muscular tube that extends from the
mouth, through the esophagus, stomach, small
intestine, large intestine, and rectum to the
anus
LUMEN
- Inner space within the GI tract
- Continuous from one end to the other
MOUTH
- Process of digestion begins here
- During chewing, teeth crush large pieces of food
into smaller ones, and fluids from foods,
beverages and salivary glands blend with these
pieces to ease swallowing
- Fluids also help dissolve the food so that the
tongue can taste it; only particles in solution can
react with taste buds
- The tongue provides taste sensations and
moves food around the mouth, facilitating,
chewing and swallowing
- When a mouthful of food is swallowed, it passes
through the pharynx
PHARYNX
 - Passage way leading from the nose and mouth
to the larynx and esophagus respectively
EPIGLOTTIS
- Cartilage in the throat that guards the entrance
to the trachea and prevents fluid or food from
entering when a person swallows
ESOPHAGUS
- Has a sphincter muscle at each end. During each
swallow, the upper esophageal sphincter opens.
- Bolus then slides down the esophagus, which
passes through a hole in the diaphragm to the
stomach
CHYME
- Semi liquified mass of partly digested food
expelled by stomach into the duodenum
- Bit by bit, the stomach releases the chyme
through the pyloric sphincter, which opens to
the small intestine
SMALL INTESTINE
- a 10-foot length of small-diameter intestine that
is the major site of digestion of food and
absorption of nutrients. Its segments are the
duodenum, jejunum, and ileum
MUSCULAR ACTION OF DIGESTION
After swallowing, all the activity that follows occur
without much conscious thought
PERISTALSIS
- The entire GI tract is ringed with circular
muscles. Surrounding these rings of muscle are
longitudinal muscles
- When the rings tighten and the long muscles
relax, the tube is constricted.
- When the rings relax and the long muscles
tighten, the tube bulges
CONTINUATION! (QUIZ 2 COVERAGE)
STOMACH ACTION
- Stomach has the thickest walls and strongest
muscle of the GI tract organs
- Has a third layer of diagonal muscles that also
alternately contracts and relaxes
- The stomach wall releases gastric juices
o When the chyme is liquified with gastric
juices, the pyloric sphincter opens
about 3 times a minute to allow small
portions of chyme to pass through
SEGMENTATION

LARGE INTESTINE - Periodic squeezing or partitioning of the

intestine at intervals along its length by its
- lower portion of intestine that completes the
circular muscles
digestive process
- These contractions mix the chyme and promote
- Having traveled the length of the small
close contact with the digestive juices and the
intestine, the remaining contents arrive at
absorbing cells of the intestinal walls before
another sphincter, the ileocecal valve,
letting the contents move slowly along
- Segments are the:
1. Ascending colon SPHINCTER CONTRACTION
2. Transverse colon
- Sphincter muscles periodically open and close,
3. Descending colon
allowing the contents of the GI tract to move
4. Sigmoid colon (S-shaped)
along at a controlled pace
RECTUM - Parts:
a. Upper esophageal sphincter
- Muscular terminal part of the intestine
▪ Opens in response to
- Extends from sigmoid to the anus
swallowing
- As the intestinal contents pass through the
b. Lower esophageal sphincter
rectum, the colon withdraws water, leaving
▪ Cardiac sphincter
semi solid waste
▪ Prevents reflux of the stomach
- Strong muscles of rectum and anal canal hold
contents
back this waste until it’s time to defecate

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 c. Pyloric sphincter
▪ Stays closed most of the time
▪ Holds the chyme in the stomach
long enough for it to be
thoroughly mixed with gastric
juice and liquify
d. Ileocecal valve
▪ Allows the contents of the small
intestine to empty into the
large intestine
e. Internal and external anal sphincter
▪ Prevents continuous
elimination of stool
SECRETIONS OF DIGESTION
- Breakdown of foods into nutrients requires
secretions from 5 different organs: salivary
glands, stomach, pancreas, liver and small
intestine
o Brings abundance of water and variety
of enzymes
ENZYMES
- Protein that facilitates chemical reaction:
o Making a molecule
o Breaking a molecule apart
o Changing the arrangement of the
molecule
o Exchanging parts of molecules
SALIVA
- Contains water, salts, mucus and enzymes that
initiates the digestion of carbohydrates
- Protects the teeth and the lining of the upper
digestive tract from damage
- Salivary glands
o Squirts enough saliva to moisten each
mouthful of food so that it can pass
easily down the esophagus
GASTRIC JUICE
- Mixture of water, enzymes and hydrochloric
acid (produces a pH of 2.0 in the stomach)
o Acts in protein digestion
- Mucus
o Thick, slippery, white substance that
coats the cells of the stomach to protect
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gastric juice from destroying stomach
cells
PANCREATIC JUICE AND INTESTINAL ENZYMES
- Pancreatic juice contains enzymes that act on
three energy nutrients
- Cells of the intestinal wall also possess the
digestive enzymes on their surfaces
- Contains sodium bicarbonate
o Neutralizes the acidic chyme arriving in
the small intestine from the stomach
BILE
- Also flows into the duodenum
- Liver continuously produces bile, which is then
concentrated and stored in the gallbladder
- Emulsifier
o Brings fats into suspension with water
so enzymes can break them down into
their component parts
FINAL STAGE
1. Energy yielding nutrients
o Digested and ready to be absorbed
2. Some vitamins and minerals
o Altered slightly during digestion, but
most are absorbed
3. Fibers
o Not absorbed
o Continue through digestive tract
carrying minerals, bile acids and
contaminants of the body
▪ Retains water, accounting to
the consistency of stool
4. In the colon, intestinal bacteria ferment some
fibers, producing water, gas, and small
fragments of fat that provide energy for the
cells of the colon
5. Colon retrieves the materials that the body can
recycle
o Water and dissolved salts
6. Waste is finally excreted
ABSORPTION
- Most of the absorption takes place in the small
intestine
- Small intestine traps and absorb nutrient
molecules
 - To remove the absorbed molecules rapidly and
provide room for more to be absorbed, a rush
of circulating blood continuously washes the
underside of this surface, carrying absorbed
nutrients away to the liver and other parts of
the body
ANATOMY OF THE ABSORPTIVE SYSTEM
- Inner surface of small intestine looks smooth
and slippery but turns out to be wrinkled into
hundreds of folds
VILLI
- Fingerlike projections from the folds of the
small intestine
MICROVILLI
- Tiny hair-like projections on each cell of every
villus that can trap nutrient particles and
transport them into the cells
CRYPTS
- Tubular glands that lie between the intestinal
villi and secrete intestinal juices into the small
intestine
GOBLET CELLS
- Cells of GI tract that secretes mucus
SPECIALIZATION IN THE GI TRACT
- Cells of the intestinal tract are specialized to
absorb different nutrients
- Nutrients are ready for absorption early are
absorbed near the top of the GI tract
- Those that take longer to be digested are
absorbed further down
*TAKE NOTE: IDEA THAT CERTAIN FOOD
COMBINATIONS SHOULD NOT BE EATEN BECAUSE THE
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM CANNOT HANDLE IT IS A MYTH.
FOODS EATEN TOGETHER CAN ENHANCE EACH OTHER’S
USE BY THE BODY (Iex: vitamin C in pineapple can
enhance absorption of iron from a meal of chicken)*
CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
- Once nutrient enters the bloodstream, it will be
transported to any of the cells in the body
THE VASCULAR SYTEM
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- Aka blood circulatory system
- Closed system of vessels through which blood
flows continuously
- As blood circulates through this system, it picks
up and delivers materials as needed
- Blood transportation route:
Heart → arteries → capillaries → veins → heart
- Routing of blood leaving the digestive system
has a special feature:
Heart → arteries → capillaries (intestine) → hepatic
portal capillaries (liver) → hepatic vein → heart
THE HEALTH AND REGULATION OF GI TRACT
- Factors influencing GI tract function:
o Physical immaturity
o Aging
o Illness
o Nutrition
GASTROINTESTINAL BACTERIA
- Most are not harmful
- Diet is one of the several factors that influence
the body’s bacterial population and
environment
o Iex: Yogurt
▪ Helps in alleviating diarrhea,
constipation, inflammatory
bowel disease, ulcers, allergies,
lactose intolerance
 ▪ Enhance immune function and - Glucose is produced via photosynthesis (in
protects against colon cancer plants), while it is oxidized in a series of
metabolic reaction known as respiration (in
GASTROINTESTINAL HORMONES AND NERVE
animals) yielding CO2 and water.
PATHWAYS
- Combination of photosynthesis and respiration
- Homeostasis is called carbon cycle
o Maintenance of constant internal
TYPES OF CARBOHYDRATES
conditions by body’s control system
o Iex: blood chemistry, temperature and
blood pressure
- Two intricate and sensitive systems coordinate
all the digestive and absorptive process
a. Hormonal system
▪ Endocrine
b. Nervous system

CARBOHYDRATES

- Most abundant of all organic compounds in

nature
- Are all made of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen (CHO)
- Simple sugars (Cn(H2O)n ) were once though to
be “hydrates of carbon” thus the name
carbohydrate

ATOMS OF CARBOYDRATES

- Each atom can form certain number of chemical

bonds with other atoms:
o Carbon atoms, four
o Nitrogen atoms, three
o Oxygen atoms, two
o Hydrogen atoms, one
- Atoms form molecules in ways that satisfy the
bonding requirements of each atom.
IMPORTANT FUNCTIONAL GROUPS
- Aldehydes and Ketones contain carbonyl group
(C=O).
- Aldehyde
o carbon atom or carbonyl group is
bonded to a hydrogen atom.
- Ketone
o the carbon atom of the carbonyl group
is bonded to two other carbon atoms.

SYNTHESIS AND DECOMPOSITION

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 - Carboxylic acids ▪ A six-carbon monosaccharide
o functional group is the carboxyl group, that is a ketone.
which is a combination of carbonyl and
hydroxyl group

- Hydroxyl group
o Entity containing oxygen bonded to a
hydrogen
o In org chem, alcohol and carboxylic
acids contain hydroxyl group
*SAMPLE PROBLEM*

Classify each of the following monosaccharides as an

aldopentose, aldohexose, ketopentose, or ketohexose.

MONOSACCHARIDES

- Sugars that have a chain of three to eight

carbons
o One in a carbonyl group and the rest
attached to hydroxyl groups
o 3 C – triose
ketopentose
o 4C – tetrose
o 5C – pentose
aldohexose
o 6C – hexose

FISCHER PROJECTION OF MONOSACCHARIDE

- Drawn with vertical and horizontal lines with

the aldehyde group at the top and –H and –OH
groups on the intersecting line.
- In L-glyceraldehyde, the letter L is assigned to
the stereoisomer with the –OH group on the
left.
o Stereoisomer means: each of two or
more compounds differing only in the
- Classification systems to indicate the type of spatial arrangement of their atoms
carbonyl group and the number of carbon
atoms:
o Aldopentose
▪ a five-carbon monosaccharide
that is an aldehyde.
o Ketohexose

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 - Most of the monosaccharides studied under
biochemistry have five or six carbon atom, with
more than one chiral carbon.
- The –OH group on the chiral carbon farthest
from the carbonyl group is used to determine
the D or L isomer.
*SAMPLE PROBLEM*
- Identify the following as D or L xylose
D - Xylose
STRUCTURE OF SOME IMPORTANT MONOSACCHARIDE
- The hexoses glucose, galactose, and fructose
are the most important monosaccharides.
- Although we can draw Fischer projections for D
and L isomers, the D isomers are more
commonly found in nature and used in the cells
of our body.
GLUCOSE
- Most common hexose
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o D-glucose
- Aka blood sugar
- Found in fruits, veggies, corn syrup and honey
- Building blocks of disaccharides: sucrose,
lactose and maltose
- Building blocks of polysaccharides: amylose
cellulose and glycogen
GALACTOSE
- An aldohexose that is obtained from the
disaccharide lactose
o found in milk and milk products.
- Important in the cellular membranes of brain
and nervous system.
- In the condition galactosemia, an enzyme
needed to convert galactose to glucose is
missing.
o The accumulation of galactose in the
blood and tissues can lead to cataracts,
metal retardation, and cirrhosis.
FRUCTOSE
- Aka levulose
- fruit sugar
- A ketohexose
- Structure of fructose differs at carbons 1 and 2
by the location of the carbonyl group.
- Sweetest of the carbohydrates
o twice as sweet as sucrose (table sugar)
HAWORTH STRUCTURES OF MONOSACCHARIDES
- Molecules of monosaccharides normally exists
in a cyclic structure formed when a carbonyl
group and a hydroxyl group in the same
molecule react to give ring structures known as
Haworth structures.
- While the carbonyl group in the open chain
could react with several of the –OH groups, the
most stable form of pentoses and hexoses are
five- or six-atom rings
 STEPS IN DRAWING HAWORTH STRUCTURES

1. Turn the open chain condensed structural

formula clockwise 90o

3. Draw the new –OH group on carbon 1 down to

give the α isomer or to give the β isomer.

2. Fold the Carbon Chain into a hexagon and bond

the O on the carbon 5 to the carbonyl group.
o Carbons 2 and 3 are the base of
hexagon
o The reacting –OH group on carbon 5 is
drawn next to the carbonyl group,
which moves carbon 6 in –CH2OH above
carbon 5.
o Draw bond from the oxygen of the
reacting –OH group (carbon 5) to the
carbonyl group
MUTAROTATION OF α- AND β-D-GLUCOSE
- In an aqueous solution, the Haworth structure
of α-D-glucose opens to give the open chain of
D-glucose with an aldehyde group.
- At any given time, there is only a trace amount
of the open chain because it closes quickly to
form a stable ring structure.
- However, when the chain closes it again, it can
form β-D-glucose.

HAWWORTH STRUCTURE OF GALACTOSE

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 - Galactose is an aldohexose that differs from
glucose only in the arrangement of the –OH
group on carbon 4.

OH

HAWORH STRUCTURE OF FRUCTOSE β-D-mannose

- Fructose is a ketohexose.
- The Haworth structure for fructose is a five-
atom ring with carbon 2 at the right corner of
the ring.
- The cyclic structure forms when the hydroxyl
group on carbon 5 reacts with carbon 2 in the
carbonyl group.
- The new hydroxyl group on carbon 2 gives the α
and β isomer of fructose.
DISACCHARIDES
- Composed of two monosaccharide linked
together.
- The most common disaccharides are maltose,
lactose, and sucrose.
- When they are split by water (hydrolysis) in the
presence of an acid or enzyme, the products are
two monosaccharides.

HAWORTH STRUCTURE OF DISACCHARIDES

*SAMPLE PROBLEM*
- D-mannose, a carbohydrate found in
immunoglobulins, has the following open-chain
structure. Draw the Haworth structure for β-D-
mannose.
- Glycosidic bond OR glycosidic linkage
o ether bond that connects two
monosaccharide.
o type of covalent bond that joins a
carbohydrate molecule to another
group.
- Ether
o contains an oxygen atom bonded to
two carbon atoms

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 - Glycosidic bond forms between –OH groups of
carbon 1 and 4 of two α-D-glucose molecules
with a loss of a water molecule.
- The glycosidic bond in maltose is designed as an
α-1,4, linkage to show that an alpha –OH on
carbon 1 is joined to carbon 4 of the second
CONDENSATION
glucose molecule.
- Links two monosaccharides together to make a
disaccharide
- A hydroxyl (OH) group from one
monosaccharide and a hydrogen (H) from the
other combine to create a molecule of water
(H2O)

HYDROLYSIS

- Breaks a disaccharide in two

- A molecule of water splits to provide the H and
OH needed to complete the resulting
monosaccharide.
- Commonly occurs during digestion
LACTOSE
- Milk sugar
- A disaccharide found in milk and milk products
- Makes up 6-8% of human milk and about 4-5%
of cow’s milk, and it is used in products that
attempt to duplicate mother’s milk.

HAWORTH STRUCTURE OF LACTASE

- The bond in lactose is a β-1,4-glycosidic bond

because the –OH on carbon 1 of β-D-galactose
forms a glycosidic bond with the –OH group on
carbon 4 of a D-glucose molecule.
MALTOSE

- Malt sugar
- Obtained from starch and found in germinating
grains.
- When maltose in barley and other grains are
hydrolyzed by yeast enzymes, glucose is
obtained, which can undergo fermentation to
give ethanol.
- Used in cereals, candies, and brewing of
beverages.

HAWORTH STRUCTURE OF MALTOSE

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 *SAMPLE PROBLEM*

- Melibiose is a disaccharide that is 30 times sweeter

than sucrose. Shown on below is the Haworth structure
of Melibiose.

What are the monosaccharide units of melibiose =

Galactose and glucose

What type of glycosidic bond links the

monosaccharides? = 1,6
SUCROSE
Identify the structure as α- or β- melibiose = α-
- Sugar used to sweeten our cereal, coffee, or tea melibiose
- Most of the sucrose for the table sugar comes
POLYSACCHARIDES
from sugar cane (20% by mass) or sugar beets
(15% by mass). - Polymer of many monosaccharides joined
- Both raw and refined forms of sugar are together.
sucrose. - Three important polysaccharides:
o starch, cellulose, and glycogen
HAWORTH STRUCTURE OF SUCROSE
▪ polymers of D-glucose that
- Consist of α-D-glucose and β-D-fructose differ only in the type of
molecule joined by an α,β-1,2-glycosidic bond. glycosidic bonds and the
- Glycosidic bond is between carbon 1 and carbon amount of branching in the
2 of fructose. molecule are important in
nutrition

STARCH

- A storage form of glucose in plants

- Found as insoluble granules in rice, wheat,
potatoes, beans, and cereals.
- Composed of two kinds of polysaccharides:
o Amylose
o Amylopectin

AMYLOSE

- Makes up about 20% of starch

- Consist of 250-400 α-D-glucose molecules
connected by α-1,4-glycosidic bonds in a
continuous chain.
- Sometimes called straight chain polymer,
polymers of amylose are actually coiled in
helical fashion

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 AMYLOPECTIN

- Makes up as much as 80% of the starch

- Branched chain polysaccharide
- Glucose molecules are connected by α-1,4-
glycosidic bonds.
- At about every 25 glucose units, there is a
branch of glucose molecules by an α-1,6-
glycosidic bond between carbon 1 of the
branch and carbon 6 in the main chain.
GLYCOGEN
- Animal starch
o stored in liver and muscle tissue
- Found to only a limited extent in meats and not
at all in plants
- Stores glucose for future use
o When the hormonal message “release
energy” arrives at the glycogen storage
sites in the liver or muscle cell, enzymes
respond by attacking many branches of
glycogen simultaneously
- Structure is very similar to that of amylopectin
found in plants, except that glycogen is more
highly branched.
- In glycogen, the glucose units are joined by α-
1,4-glycosidic bonds and branches occurring
about every 10-15 glucose units are attached
by α-1,6-glycosidic bonds

HYDROLYSIS OF STARCHES

- Starches hydrolyze easily in water and acid to

give dextrins, which then hydrolyze to maltose
and finally glucose.
- In our bodies, these complex carbohydrates are
digested by enzyme amylase (in saliva) and
maltase (in the intestine).
- The glucose obtained provides about 50% of our
nutritional calories.

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 - It is hydrolyzed in our cells at a rate that o Non-viscous
maintains the blood level of glucose and ▪ Does not form gels
provides energy between meals. = Found mostly in grains and vegetables
= Promote bowel movement, alleviate
CELLULOSE (FIBER)
constipation
- Dietary Fibers o Functional fibers
o Structural parts of plants ▪ When dietary fibers have been
o Found in all plant-derived foods – extracted from plants or are
vegetables, fruits, whole grains, and manufactured and added to
legumes. foods or used as supplements,
- Bonds between the monosaccharides cannot be ▪ Have beneficial effects.
broken down by digestive enzymes in the body. ▪ Iex: C-Lium fiber food
o Also known as nonstarch supplement
polysaccharides
o Contribute no monosaccharides – no
energy
- In cellulose, glucose molecules form a long
unbranched chain similar to that of amylose.
- However, glucose units in cellulose are linked by
β-1,4-glycosidic bonds.
- The cellulose chains do not form coils like
amylose but are aligned parallel in rows that are
held in place by hydrogen bonds between
hydroxyl groups in adjacent cells, making
cellulose insoluble in water.

- Other kinds:
o Soluble fibers
▪ Dissolve in water
o Viscous fibers
▪ Forms gels
o Fermentable
▪ Easily digested by bacteria in
the colon
= Found in oats, barley, legumes, and citrus
fruits
= Associated with protecting against heart
disease and diabetes by lowering blood
cholesterols and glucose levels
o Insoluble fibers
▪ Does not dissolve in water

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