Mughals

Introduction

Ruling a large territory like the Indian subcontinent with such a diversity of cultures and people was
very difficult for any ruler to accomplish in the Medieval period. However, the Mughals were wholly
contrasted in their territorial expansion; unlike their predecessors, they created an empire
and achieved what was hitherto seemed possible for only a short duration of time. From the mid-
16th century, they expanded their kingdom from Delhi and Agra, and by the end of the
seventeenth century, they established control over nearly all of the subcontinent. They created
structures and ideas of governance and administration that outlasted their rule, with a
poli:cal legacy that succeeding rulers could not ignore.

● Every year the Indian Prime Minister addresses the nation on Independence Day from the
ramparts of the Red Fort, which was used to be the residence of the Mughal emperors.
Ancestors
● The Mughals were considered descendants of two great lineages.
From the father’s side, they were the descendants of Timur (died 1404), the ruler of
Iran, Iraq and modern-day Turkey.

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 From their
mother ’s side,
they were
succe ssors of
Genghis Khan
(died 1227), ruler
of the Mongol
tribes, China and
Central Asia.
● However, the Mughals
did not like to be
called Mo ng o l . T h i s
w a s because Genghis
Khan’s history was
associated with the kil l
ings of innumerable
people. They were also
linked with the Uzbeks,
their Mongol compe:tors.
● On the other hand, the Mughals took pride in their Timurid ancestry because their
great ancestor had captured Delhi in 1398.

Brief Timeline
● The fifteenth century witnessed a number of significant changes in Central and West Asia. In
the fourteenth century, a`er the disintegration of the Mongol empire, Timur united Iran and
Turan under one rule once again.
● In 1494, Babur succeeded to Farghana, a small state in Trans-Oxiana, at the young age of
● twelve, Similar to countless earlier invaders from Central Asia, Babur was drawn to India by the
lure of its fabulous wealth.
● The historian Abul Fazl remarks: ‘He (Babur) ruled over Badakhshan, Qandhar and Kabul which
did not yield sufficient income for the requirements of the army; in fact, in some of the border
territories the expense on controlling the armies and administraCon was greater than the
income.’
● The political situation in north-west India was suitable for Babur’s entry into India.
Sikandar Lodi died in 1517, and he was succeeded by Ibrahim Lodi. Ibrahim’s efforts to
create a strong, centralised empire had alarmed the Afghan chiefs as well as the
Rajputs.
One of the most powerful Afghan chiefs was Daulat Khan Lodi, the governor of Punjab,
almost an independent ruler. Daulat Khan attempted to conciliate Ibrahim Lodi
by sending his son to his court to pay homage. At the same time, he wanted to
strengthen his position by annexing the frontier tracts of Bhira, etc.
In 1518-19, Babur conquered the great fort of Bhira. He then sent letters and
verbal messages to Daulat Khan and Ibrahim Lodi, demanding for the cession of
the areas which had been earlier belonged to the Turks.
However, Daulat Khan detained Babur’s envoy at Lahore, neither granting him audience
nor lelng him go to Ibrahim Lodi.
o It is also said that Daulat Khan Lodhi invited Babar to invade India when he
was insulted his nephew Ibrahim Lodhi in the court. He thougth that Babur
will come to India as other invaders came and get back a`er
plundering. However, Babur’s intensioin was to settled in the Indian land.
When Babur returned to Kabul, Daulat Khan occupied Bhira and expelled Babur’s agents
posted there.
In 1520—21, Babur once again crossed the Indus and easily captured Bhira and Sialkot,
the twin gateways to Hindustan. Lahore also capitulated to him.

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● In 1526, Babur founded the Mughal dynasty by defeating the Sultan of Delhi, Ibrahim Lodhi, in
the First Battle of Panipat.
● However, the Mughal imperial structure is sometimes dated to 1600, to the rule of
Babur’s grandson, Akbar. This imperial structure lasted until 1720, until shortly a`er the death of
the last major Emperor, Aurangzeb, during whose reign the empire also achieved its
maximum geographical extent.
● Reduced subsequently, especially during the East India Company rule in India, to the region in
and around Old Delhi, the empire was formally dissolved by the British Raj a`er the
Indian Rebellion of 1857.

Battle of Panipat
● A conflict with Ibrahim Lodi,
the ruler of Delhi, was inevitable,
and Babur prepared for it by
marching towards Delhi. Ibrahim
Lodi met Babur at Panipat.
● In a battle at Panipat,
Babur defeated the numerically
superior forces of the last of
Delhi Sultan Ibrahim Lodi.
● With his defeat, Babur
fought with the Rajputs under
Rana Sanga of Mewar, and by
1529 he dismantled the
Afghans of Gangetic Plains.

Significance of the Bat t le of Panipat

● The battle of Panipat was indeed one of the decisive battles of Indian history. It broke the
power of the Lodis and opened up the entire territory up to Jaunpur to Babur’s
control. The rich treasures stored by the Lodi Sultans at Agra relieved Babur of his financial
difficulties.
However, before he could consolidate his position, Babur had to wage two hard-fought battles,
one against Rana Sanga of Mewar and the other against the eastern Afghans. Thus, politically
the battle of Panipat was not as decisive as it was militarily. However, it marks a new phase in
the struggle to establish a hegemonic political power in north India.
Babur’s problems al er the bat t le of Panipat
● Babur fought against Rana Sanga in the battle of Khanwa on 17 March 1527. Babur won this
battle.
● In the battle of Chanderi, Babur fought against Medini Rai, Rajput chief of Chanderi,
on 21 January 1528. Babur won this battle, and Babur captured Chanderi from Rajput ruler
Medini Rai. The last victory was marked against Mahmud Lodi (younger brother of
Ibrahim Lodi) in the baYle of Ghagra in 1529. Mahmud Lodi escaped to Burma. The friendly
treaty was signed with Nusrat Shah of Bengal.

Babur (AD 1526- 1530)

● Original name of Babur was Zahiruddin Muhammad.
● Babur ascended to the throne of Fargana at the age of twelve years from his father, Umar
Shaikh Mirza. However, he was soon defeated by his distant relative and, as a result, lost his
kingdom. Babur became a wanderer for some time till he captured Kabul from one of his uncles.
● Then, Babur took an interest in conquering India and launched four expeditions between 1519
and 1523.
● Babur was related to Timur from his father’s side and Chengiz Khan through his
● mother. He occupied Lahore by defeating its governor, Daulat Khan Lodi.

70
● The First Battle of Panipat was
fought between Ibrahim Lodi and Babur
on 21 April 1526, in which Ibrahim
Lodi was killed.
● He was the founder of the Mughal
empire in India.
● On his death in 1530, he le` behind
a new Empire which encompassed all
of northern India from the Indus River
on the West to Bihar on the East and
from the Himalayas in the North to
Gwalior in the South.

Humayun (AD 1530-1540)

● Humayun means “fortune”, but he
was the most unfortunate ruler
of the Mughal Empire.
● Humayun was the eldest son
of Babur.
● Babur had four sons Humayun,
Kamran, Askari and Hindal .
Humayun divided the Indian
empire among his brothers.
Though this proved to be a huge
blunder on his part.
● Kamran was granted Kabul and
Kandahar. Askari and Hindal got
Sambhal and Alwar.
● When Humayun was busy fighting
the Afghans in the east, he came to
know that Bahadur Shah of Gujarat
was advancing towards Delhi.
Therefore, he impulsively concluded a treaty with the Afghan leader Sher Khan (later Sher
Shah Suri) and proceeded towards Gujarat.
● Humayun conquered Gujarat from Bahadur Shah and appointed Askari as its governor.
However, soon, Bahadur Shah retrieved Gujarat from Askari, who fled from there.
● In the meantime, Sher Khan became very powerful in the east.
Humayun was thoroughly defeated by Sher Khan (Sher Shah Suri) in the BaYle of
Chausa in 1539 and the BaYle of Kannauj (BaYle of Bilgram) in 1540.
Sher Khan annihilated the Mughal army, and Humayun escaped from there.
● Humayun went into exile for the next fileen years. He got the opportunity in 1545 when Sher
Shah died. The successors of Sher Shah were not strong enough to hold the empire together.
● Humayun marched from Kabul to Delhi in 1555 and defeated Sikandar Suri in Punjab. Then he
marched to Delhi and Agra and took easy possession of Delhi and Agra. However, he could rule
only for six months and died when he slipped down the stairs of his palace. He died in 1556.

Sher Shah Suri (AD 1540-1545)

● Sher Shah Suri (1486 – 1545) was the founder of the Suri Empire in India, with its capital in
Sasaram in modern-day Bihar. He introduced the currency of the rupee. Sher Shah (Farid was
his original name), who was an Afghan ruler, took control of the Mughal Empire in 1540.
● Sher Shah was a pious Muslim and generally tolerant towards other religions. He employed
Hindus in important offices.
● He added a new city to Delhi called Purana Qila and built a mosque there.

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 ● He also built his Mausoleum at
Sasaram, which is considered one
of the masterpieces of Indian
architecture.
● Sher Shah patronised Malik
Muhammad Jayasi, credited for
writing the famous Hindi work
Padmavat during his reign.
The book depicts the love story of
Raja Ratan Singh of Chittor
and his queen Padmavati. The
conflict between Allauddin Khilji
and Ratan Sen is also described
in the same book.
● Sher Shah died in 1545, and his
successors ruled till 1555. In 1555
Humayun reconquered India.

Akbar (AD 1556- 1605)

● Akbar succeeded the throne a`er his father Humayun’s death.
● Akbar was one of the greatest rulers of India.
● In 1556, Akbar defeated Hemu in the Second BaYle of Panipat and established
strong control over Delhi.
● Bairam Khan acted as his regent
during the first five years of Akbar’s
reign.
Bairam khan led the Mughal
troops.
He consolidated the Mughal
empire.
He was removed by Akbar
a`er five years due to court
conspiracies and sent to
Mecca.
But on his way, Bairam was
murdered by an Afghan.
● Akbar was fourteen years old when
he became emperor.
● His rule can be divided into
three periods.
1556-1570 –
o Akbar became autonomous of his regent Bairam Khan and other members
of his domestic staff.
o Military campaigns were initiated against the Suris and other Afghans.
o Military Campaigns were launched against the neighbouring kingdoms
of
Malwa and Gondwana.
o The campaign was launched to suppress the revolt of his half-brother Mirza
Hakim and the Uzbeks.
o In 1568 the Sisodiya capital of ChiYor was captured.
o In 1569 Ranthambhor was captured.
1570-1585 –

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 o Military campaigns in Gujarat were launched followed by campaigns in the
east in Bihar, Bengal and Orissa. These campaigns were problematic by the
1579-1580 revolt in support of Mirza Hakim.
1585-1605 –
o The expansion of Akbar’s Empire was mainly initiated during this time.
o Campaigns were launched in the north-west.
o Qandahar was confiscated from the Safavids.
o Kashmir was invaded, as also Kabul, a`er the death of Mirza Hakim.
o Campaigns in the Deccan began, and Berar, Khandesh and parts
of Ahmadnagar were occupied.
o In the last years of his reign, Akbar was disturbed by the rebellion of Prince
Salim, the future Emperor Jahangir.
● Akbar’s military conquests were massive. He conquered northern India from Agra to Gujarat
and then from Agra to Bengal.
● Abul Fazal wrote a three-volume history of his reign named Akbarnama.
● It is believed that Akbar died on 27 October 1605, a`er which his body was buried at his
mausoleum in Sikandra, Agra.

Policy towards Rajputs

● The Rajput policy of Akbar was notable, which was
a turning point in the history of the Mughals.
On the one hand many of the Muslim rulers of
Medieval history followed a Policy of
Struggle with the Rajputs on the other hand
Akbar followed a Policy of Cooperation
with the Rajputs.
Some historians are of the opinion that "Akbar
built the Mughal empire by enlis7ng
the support of Rajputs and Aurangzeb
destroyed it by aliena7ng Rajputs "
● Akbar married the Rajput princess, who was
the daughter of Raja Bharamal.
● Akbar gave complete religious freedom to his wives;
he also gave an honoured place to their parents
and relatives in the Mughal nobility.
Salient Features of Akbar’s Rajput Policy-
o It was based on a pragmatic understanding of geopoliiocal condiioons in India.
o He maintained close relations with Rajputs were essential to strengthen
the foundation of the Mughal empire in India.
o Many Rajput states were subjugated through a military campaign.
oHe allowed many rulers to rule independently without much interference.
o Akbar considered Rajput with a sense of equality and accorded high post.
o Akbar’s Rajput policy was secular in outlook.
o The desire to enhance the power and prestige of the Mughal crown and to
carry out the territorial expansion.
Evolution of Akbar’s Rajput Policy
o Phase I(1556-72): Rajputs were treated as loyal allies. In case of lack of trust,
they were not given important responsibili:es, asked to serve Mughal Empire in
and arround their principles.
o Phase II(1572-78): Sword arm of Mughal empire. Raja Bharmal and his Rajput
soldiers saved the life of Akbar during the Gujrat campaign by risking their own
life. In 1576 Raja Mansingh was appointed as joint commander of the Mughal
force at the Battle of Haldighat.

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 o Phase III(1578-1605):
Rajputs were used as
‘make weight’ to
counterbalance Irani
and Turani nobles. I
bada tkhana
discussion held during
1575-78 adversely
affected the relation
between Akbar and
Ulemas. He no longer
trusted the orthodox
Ir ani and Tur ani n o
bles, so
de pe nde nc y
increased on Rajputs.
Mansingh was
appoi nted as i n-
charge of the Indus region, and Bhagwan Das was appointed as joint subedar of
Lahore. During 1585-86 Rajputs were given joint subedar of Kabul, Agra
and Ajmer.
● Thus, the Rajput policy effec:vely ended the centuries-old animosity between the Mughals
and the Rajputs.
● Also, since the latter were assimilated into the administrative structure of the
empire, it affected the public policies of Akbar and helped develop a composite culture.
● Akbar’s Rajput policy was based on broad religious toleration. Akbar abolished the pilgrim
tax and later the jizya.
● The Rajput policy of Akbar proved beneficial to the Mughals as well as to the Rajputs.

Religious Policy of Akbar

● Akbar was not an extreme or orthodox Muslim rather, he was known for his
tolerance
● towards all religions.
Various factors can be regarded for his religious ideas. Like,
the teachings of his tutor Abdul Latif,
his early contacts with the Sufi saints,
his association with intellectual personalities like Shaikh Mubarak, his two illustrious
sons Abul Faizi and Abul Fazl,
his marriage with Rajput women,
● his ambition to establish an empire in Hindustan.
Akbar formed many religious marriage alliances to send a message of unity
and togetherness. Akbar’s marriage to the Rajput princess Harkha Bai says volumes about
● his kindness.
Akbar constructed a temple for Harkha in his palace, even though there was a lot
● of opposition.
To develop a better understanding of religion, he organised debates in Ibadat khana.
Only Muslim scholars were allowed to participate, but later, scholars of all religions were
allowed.
Akbar invited their father, Monserrat, also.
These debates gave clarity to Akbar that the core teachings of all religions are the same.
Evolution of Akbar’s Religious Policy
● Phase 1:(1556-75)
He was a firm believer in the tenets of
Islam.

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 He followed Islamic practices.
But his outlook was liberal and progressive.
He used to listen to the interpretation of ulemas and other scholars.
● Phase 2: (1575-78)
Curiosity in his mind started asking questions on religious matters.
Ibadat khana discussion (1575-78) was started during this phase.
During this period, he held discussion with the man of religion and learning –ini:ally with
Islamic scholars later scholars from other faith
He realised that truth was not limited to any particular religion and present among all faiths
and understood the religions are nothing but different paths to reach the same destination.
● Phase 3 : (1579-1605)
New religious outlook started rising above narrow religious identities.
A lost faith in the interpretation of ullemas.
In September 1579, Mahjar infallibility decree was issued by him through the titles of
‘Imam-I Adil’(supreme priest of Islam), Mujtahid (final interpreter of Holy Islamic laws).
Ulemas were pushed back, and Akbar himself started leading Friday prayer.
In 1581-82 he propounded Din-I-Illahi.

Din-i-Illahi
● Akbar’s quest culminated in Tauhid-i-Ialhi (the divine monotheism) or Din-i-Illahi, a term
Din used decades later.
● In 1582, this doctrine, which included mysticism, philosophy, and the worship of nature, was
invented by Akbar, who did not consider prophets.
● Akbar has declared himself to be the spiritual leader of his people. His religion Tauhid-i-Illahi
loved peace and tolerance.
● Tauhid-i-Illahi forbids lust, sensuality, slander and pride, regarding them as sins. Piety,
prudence, abstinence and kindness are the hallmarks of this religion. The soul is urged to purify
itself by longing for God. It honours celibacy and condemns the killing of animals.
● Din-i-Illahi was an eclectic doctrine that contained objects from very different fields. It
overturned almost all ceremonial laws, whether Muslim or Islamic, but took positive views from
the Brahmins and missionaries and embraced the “Sun” as a symbol of the worship of
the creator.
● He started a new era of
● Illahi. The new religion
suggested:
Prohibited eating cow.
Worship of the Sun as a creator.
Sacred fire adored by the Parsis was incorporated.
Promoted Hindu Havana (hom sacrifice).
This new religion was soon adopted by a small group of Akbar officials, including Faizi, Abul
● Fazal, Birbal, and others. But some do not care if they are not hostile.
This historical philosophy, mysticism and natural worship of the divine faith of Akbar almost
died with him, but it le` traces that contributed to nation-building, which had never been a
united nation before.
Proclamation of Mazhar
Akbar declared himself the chief interpreter of Islam. To strengthen his idea of the oneness of all
religions, Akbar propounded the principle of Din-i- Elahi, through which he spread the theory of
“All Religions are same”.

9
 Sulh-i-Kul:
Sulh-i-Kul means universal peace. Akbar proclaimed that under his rule, people of all faith should
live peacefully. He banned Sati and allowed widow remarriage. Jahangir and Shah Jahan followed
this as well.

Land Revenue Administration:

● He introduced Dahsala System.
● Akbar did some experiments in the land revenue system, and Raja Todar Mal assisted Akbar
in these experiments. The land revenue
system of Akbar was called the
Zaboor Bandobast Dahsala system,
which was completed in 1580.
● Under this system, a uniform system
of land measurement was introduced
by Todar Mal.
● Akbar changed the land measuring unit
and introduced Gaz-i-Ilahi.
● The revenue under this system was fixed
on the average yield of land assessed based on the past ten years.
● The payment of revenue was made generally in cash.
● The land was also divided into three categories: good, bad and middle.
It was further divided into four categories mentioned below-

Nasaq and Zabti Systems

● Nasaq: This system of land revenue assessment was widely utilised in Akbar’s :me.
It consists of a rough calculaioon of the amount payable by the culiovator on the basis of
past experience.
The peasant was provided with remission in the land revenue if crops failed due to
drought, floods, etc.
● Zabti system: Akbar introduced a new system known as the Dahsala or Zabti system in 1580.
● Under this system, the average yield of various crops and the average prices prevailing over
the last ten years were calculated. However, one-third of the average produce was the state
share, which was stated in cash.

Mansabdari System
● The Mansabdari system which Akbar introduced became the main feature of his
administration.
● The term mansab means position, rank or status, but in this context, it indicated the rank of
mansabdar who held the mansab - in the official hierarchy.
● Under the mansabdari system, a rank was assigned to every officer. The highest rank was
5000 for the nobles, and the lowest rank was 10.
● Mansabdars were paid in cash or sometimes in the form of assignments of a jagir.
Mansabdars were entitled to collect the land revenue and all other taxes through an
authority appointed by the emperor.
● The ranks of mansabdars were divided into two – zat and sawar.
Zat, which fixed the personal status of a person while sawar rank indicated the number of
cavalrymen required to be maintained by the mansabdar.
At least two horses had to be maintained by every sawar.
● The mansab rank was not hereditary, which means mansab ranks could not be transferred to
the relatives of mansab.
● The emperor directly made all appointments, promotions and dismissals.

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How was Mansabdari different from Iqtadari?
● Mughal rulers used the Mansabdari, while the Delhi Sultans used the Iqtadari system.
● While the Iqtadari system was in force, the whole land of the empire was divided into two
parts -- the other which belonged to the emperor and one which belonged to Iqtedars.
While in Jagirdari, the whole land belonged to the emperor.
● Jagirdar had to maintain law and order in addition to the revenue collection.
While iqtadar was the officer in charge of the revenue collection and distribution.
● Most of the time, Muqti stayed in their Iqta, while Jagirdars did not stay in jagirs.
● Initially, ‘Iqta’ was a revenue-yielding land for which iqtadars were paid in salary - just like
‘Jagir’. However, the Iqtadari system became hereditary in its latter days, whereas
the Mansabdari system was not hereditary.
● Mansabdar was made in charge of revenue collection and law and order duties - who was
paid either in cash or in the land.
Mansabdar was used to take the salary from this collected revenue and transfer
the remaining to the ruler.
Imperial Expansion
● In his imperial expansion, Akbar chose Malwa, a state of strategic and economic importance
commanding the route through the Vindhyan Range to the Deccan plateau region
and containing rich agricultural land; it fell to him in 1561.
● Then he targeted the Rajputana region, and all Rajput rulers except Mewar accepted
Akbar’s sovereignty.
● In 1573 Akbar annexed Gujarat, an area with many ports that dominated India’s trade with
western Asia, and then turned east toward Bengal.
● Toward the end of his rule, Akbar embarked on a fresh round of conquests.
The Kashmir region was subjugated in 1586, Sindh in 1591, and Kandahār (Afghanistan) in
1595.
● By 1601 Khandesh, Berar, and part of Ahmadnagar had been added to Akbar’s Empire.

Art and Culture

● Besides being a brave ruler, Akbar was also a great patron of art and culture.
● He was blessed with the company of poets and singers and various types of ariosioc
● people. His palaces and forts in and around Delhi were great masterpieces with
unmatched workmanship.
Few amongst those are Buland Darwaza, Jodha Bai’s palace, Allahabad Fort, Fatehpur
Sikri, and Agra Fort.
● He also showed great affection for poetry and music; his durbar was a unique
amalgamation of great artists, scholars, singers, poets, etc.
● His “Nine Jewels or NauraYans”, who excelled in the fields of art and knowledge, were as
follows—
Birbal (Mahesh Das) the
77
court Jester
Miyan Tansen (Ramtanu
Pandey) the court singer
Abul Fazl (The
chronologist) who wrote
Ain I Akbari
Faizi (The court Poet)
Maharaja Man Singh
(Army Consultant)
Fakir Aziao Din (Sufi
Singer)
Mulla Do-Piyaza (depicted
 as Birbal’s Muslim counterpart)
Todar Mal (Finance Consultant)
Abdul Rahim Khan-i-Kkhana (Writer of Hindi Couplets)

Literary Works During Akbar’s Reign

● Akbar started a department for translation of works: Mahabharata, the Ramayana, the
Atharva –Veda, the Bhagavad Gita and the Panchatantra were translated from Sanskrit to
the Persian language.
● Ramayana and Singhasan Baiosi were translated by Mulla Abdul Qadir Badayuni into
Persian.
● Panchatantra was translated into Persian by Faizi.
● Atharva Veda was translated by Ibrahim Sirhindi.
● Rajataringini was translated by Maulana Shah Mohammad Shahabadi.
● Abul Fazl wrote the Ain-i-Akbari and Akbar Nama.
● Hence, the Akbar period was popularly known as ‘the renaissance of Persian literature’.

Jahangir (AD 1605-1627)

● After Akbar died in 1605, Prince Salim succeeded with the title Jahangir (Conqueror
of World).
● Jahangir’s reign witnessed several rebellions. Jahangir’s son Khusrau revolted but was
defeated and imprisoned.
● Jahangir beheaded the filh Sikh guru, Guru Arjun.
● He established friendly relations with Mewar, and thus finally, all Rajput kingdoms accepted
Mughal Sovereignty.
● Mughals permanently lost Kandahar to Persians during Jahangir’s rule.
● In 1608 AD, the East India Company (EIC) sent Captain William Hawkins to the court of the
Mughal king Jahangir to obtain royal patronage.
He succeeded in gelng a royal permit to set up its factories at several places on the
Western Indian coast.
● A`er that, in 1615 AD, Sir Thomas Roe was sent by King James I of England to Jahangir’s
court with a request for more concession for the company.
Ro e w a s v e r y
diplomatic and thus
successfully
secured a royal
charter providing t
he Company
freedom to trade in
the entire territory
of Mughal.
● In 1611, Jah an gi r
married Mehrunnisa,
called as Nur Jahan
(Light of World).
● Her father
Iiomaduddauala, was
a respected person.
He was offered the
post of chief diwan.
● Other members of her family were additionally benefited from this alliance. Nur
Jahan’s elder brother Asaf Khan was given the post of Khan-i-Saman, a post reserved for the
● nobles. In 1612, Asaf Khan’s daughter, Arjumand Banu lady (later called Mumtaj), married
Jahangir’s third son, Khurram (later known as Shah Jahan).

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 ● Some historians believed that Nur Jahan formed a group of “junta”, leading to two fac:ons
in the Mughal court.
This drove Shah Jahan into revolt against his father in 1622 as he felt that Jahangir was
fully under Nur Jahan’s influence.
● Though, this view is not accepted by some other historians.
Till Jahangir became weak due to his health, he only took important political decisions. It is
revealed in his autobiography.
● However, it is clear that Nur Jahan led the royal household and set new fashions based on
Persian traditions.
● She persuaded Persian art and culture in the court.
● She was a persistent companion of Jahangir and even joined him in his
● hunting. The rise of Shah Jahan was owing to his ambitions.
He rose in rebellion against his father, who instructed him to go to Kandahar.
This rebellion disturbed the activities of the empire for four years.
● A`er Jahangir died in 1627, Shah Jahan reached Agra with the help of the nobles and the
army.
● Nur Jahan was granted a pension and lived a retired life till her death eighteen years later.

Shah Jahan (AD 1627-1658)

● The French traveller Tavernier paid a visit during Shah Jahan’s reign.
He described Shah Jahan as the king who had a Universal sense of security as well as a
sense of justice.
Since he was a jeweller by profession, he calculated the cost of the Peacock Throne of
Shah Jahan around 6.5 million sterling.
● Jahangir died in 1627, and Shah Jahan ascended the throne in 1628. A`er claiming
the throne, he eliminated his main rivals and imprisoned his stepmother Nur Jahan.
● He also executed his brothers and nephews to rule without having to face any competition.
● He launched a
prolonged campaign in the
north-west fr o n ti er t o
r e c o v e r Ka n d a h a r a
n d o t h e r ancestral lands
but failed.
The Mughal army lost m
ore than five
thousand lives during
the successive invasions
between 1639 and
● 1647.
His Deccan policy was more
● or less successful.
Shah Jahan defeated the
forces of Ahmadnagar and
● annexed the region.
Both Bijapur and Golkonda
● signed a treaty with the
emperor.
● He carved four Mughal provinces in the Deccan – Khandesh, Berar, Telangana and
Daulatabad and put them under the control of his son Aurangazeb.
● Towards the end of 1657, Shah Jahan fell ill at Delhi for some time but later
recovered. However, the princes started fighting for the Mughal throne.
The last years of Shah Jahan’s rule were shadowed by a war of succession among his sons –
● Dara Shikoh (crown prince), Aurangazeb (governor of Deccan), Shuja (governor of Bengal),
and Murad Baksh (governor of Malwa and Gujarat).
Aurangazeb emerged victorious in this struggle and forced Shah Jahan to surrender.

13
 He entered the Agra fort a`er overcoming Dara. He forced Shah Jahan to surrender.
● Shah Jahan was cramped to the female apartments in the Agra fort and strictly put under
vigil. However, he was not ill-treated.
Shah Jahan lived for eight long years where his daughter Jahanara lived with together.
He died in 1666 and was buried beside his wife’s grave in the Taj Mahal.

Art and culture

● Shah Jahan was a great patron of the arts.
● During his reign, the Mughal Empire became a prosperous centre of arts, cra`s and
architecture.
● The emperor’s love for architecture is legendary; some of the nation’s most well-
known architectural and artistic accomplishments were undertaken during his reign.
● The Red Fort, Taj Mahal and the Jama Masjid in Delhi, and the Shalimar Gardens of Lahore
are examples of Mughal architecture that survive today.
● In 1666 Shah Jahan died and was buried beside his wife’s grave in the Taj Mahal.

80
Aurangazeb (AD 1658-1707)
● Aurangazeb was considered one of the ablest of the Mughal kings.
● He adopted the regnal title Alamgir. (Persian: “Conqueror of the World”).
● His military campaigns in his first to ten years of reign were an excellent success.
He suppressed the minor revolts.
● But he faced severe difficulties within the latter part of his reign.
● The Jats and Satnamis and conjointly the Sikhs revolted against
him.
● His harsh religious policy-induced these revolts.
● In his private life, Aurangzeb was diligent and
● disciplined. He was very simple in food and dress.
● He earned money for his personal expenses by copying Quran and selling those
● copies. He did not drink wine.
● He was learned and skilled in Arabic and Persian
● languages. He was a book lover.
He was devoted to his religion and performed prayers five times a day.
● He strictly observed Ramzan fasting.
In the political field, Aurangzeb committed serious mistakes.
He misjudged the true nature of the Maratha movement and antagonised them.
● Also, he failed to resolve the Maratha problem and le` an open sore.
● His policy towards Shia Deccan Sultanates also turn out to be wrong.
His religious policy was also not productive.
Aurangazeb was an orthodox Sunni Muslim.
However, his move to apply his religious thought rigidly in a non-Muslim society was a
● failure.
His aggressive policies towards non-Muslims did not help him to support the Muslims to his
side.
● On the other hand, it had reinforced the political enemies of the Mughal Empire.
Under his reign, the Mughal Empire reached its greatest extent, although his policies helped
● lead to its dissolution.
● The Fatawa-e-Alamgiri was compiled by Aurangzeb.
Aurangzeb was among the few monarchs to have fully established Sharia law and Islamic
● economics throughout the Indian subcontinent.
● Aurangzeb was called “Zinda Pir” due to his simple living and high
● thinking. When Aurangzeb died a`er a rule of nearly 49 years.
The Mughal empire was confronted with several challenging problems. His successors failed
to cope with them, which led to the empire’s collapse in the mid-18th century.
Deccan Policy of Aurangzeb
● During the reign of Aurangzeb, the Mughal Deccan policy was characterised by elements of
continuity and change.
● For the first three decades of his reign, the Deccan policy remained primarily similar to his
predecessors, and a`er that, some changes were witnessed.
● He had lived in Deccan for many years as Mughal governor. Hence he was aware
of the geopolitical scenario prevailing in Deccan.
● During the reign of Aurangzeb, the rise of Marathas influenced the Mughal Deccan
● policy. Under the leadership of Shivaji, the Marathas emerged as the dominant political
force.
● Hence Mughals had to launch several military campaigns against Marathas.
In 1665 Raja Jaya Singh signed the ‘Treaty of Purandhar’ with Shivaji; this treaty revealed
the possibility of Deccan challenge, but when Shivaji visited Agra, the short-sighted and
● high handed behaviour of Aurangzeb ruined the relations badly.
Aurangzeb applied his great-grandfather Akbar’s recipe for conquest: defeat one’s
enemies, reconcile them and place them in imperial service. Thus, Shivaji was
defeated, called to Agra for reconciliation (1666), and given an imperial rank.

15
 ● The plan broke down, however; Shivaji fled to the Deccan and died, in 1680, as the ruler of
an independent Maratha kingdom.
● In 1686, Bizapur and in 1687 Golkonda were annexed by Aurangzeb because they believed
that these states supported Marathas to keep the Mughals busy and away from
their territories.
● Annexation of Bijapur and Golkonda allowed Marathas to gain greater political influence.
● In 1689, Maratha king Sambaji was captured by Aurangzeb. This was the height of
Aurangzeb’s success in Deccan, but the unmindful act of executing Sambaji pushed
the Mughal empire into a serious crisis known as Deccan Ulcer.
The combined effect of all these development seriously affected the peace and stability
in the Mughal Empire triggered its disintegration.
● In the first half of his rule, which lasted until about 1680, Aurangzeb was a Muslim monarch
of a mixed Hindu-Muslim empire. Though he was generally disliked by many for his
ruthlessness and orthodox policies, still he was feared and respected by many for his vigour
and skill.
● During this period, he diverted his attention towards safeguarding the north-west
region from Central Asian Turks and Persians and less so with the Maratha chief Shivaji,
who twice plundered the great port of Surat (1664, 1670).
● Then, to contain the spread of the Marathas, Aurangazeb decided to invade Bijapur
and Golconda in 1686- 87.
Aurangzeb defeated Sikandar Shah of Bijapur and annexed the Bijapur kingdom.
A`er this, he proceeded against Golkonda and eliminated the Qutb Shahi dynasty.
● Destruction of Deccan Kingdoms brought Mughals and Marathas face to face, which ensued
confrontation between these two powers.
● In addition, his Deccan campaigns exhausted the Mughal treasury.

Religious Policy
● He was an ardent Sunni Muslim and a champion of
Sunni orthodoxy.
This prompted him to enforce the Quranic laws
strictly. To his mind, every pious Muslim must
carry on Jihad, i.e. holy war against Dar-
ul- Harb, i.e. the land of the non-Muslims,
till they were turned into Dar-ul-Islam, i.e.
land of Islam.
● He established a separate department to
enforce moral codes under an officer called
● Muhtasib.
The use of bhang and other drugs were prohibited.
● Drinking was prohibited.
Aurangazeb forbade music in the Mughal court.
He discontinued the practice of Jharokha
● darshan (addressing the public from the balcony).
He discontinued the practice of inscribing
the Kalima on the coins. He also banned the
● Nauroj festival (a Parsi New Year Day).
At first, he banned the construction of new Hindu
temples and the repair of old temples.
● Then started destroying it.
The celebrated temples at Benares and Mathura
● lost their charms.
● He re-imposed jizya and pilgrim tax.
He was an orthodox Sunni Muslim and was not tolerant of other Muslim sects such as
Shia.
Aurangzeb even punished the Sufi saints because of their liberal religious views.
16
 Aurangzeb was also against the Sikhs, and he executed the ninth Sikh Guru Teg
Bahadur.
Because of his religious policy, the Rajputs, the Jats of Mathura, the satnamis of
● Mewars, the Marathas and Sikhs turned into the enemies of the Mughal Empire.
Aurangzeb made the grave mistake of identifying his religion with the state, which
had generated a feeling of discontent among different sections of the people. Even during
his lifetime, it distracted his energies and became the major cause of the decline and fall of
the empire.

Aurangzeb’s Rajput Policy

● Aurangzeb was the last prominent Mughal
● Emperor He ruled for almost 50 years.
● He was one of the most capable Mughal emperors, and several changes were witnessed in
the policies and outlook.
● Rajput relations also witnessed some changes, but these changes didn’t represent a sharp
break from the past.
Phase –I- (1658-67)
● Friendly and cordial relation was maintained.
● Rajputs fought against Aurangzeb taking the side of Dara.
● Aurangzeb emerged victoriously, and they were pardoned.
● Degree of warmth in Mughal-Rajput relations in first the ten years.
Phase –II- (1667-78)
● Elements of distrust emerged because of the suspicious mindset of Aurangzeb.
● In 1660 Rana Raj Singh of Mewar attacked Mughal protected his neighbouring Kishanghar,
and forcibly married the sister of Raja of Kishangarh. In
● 1663, Shivaji attacked the Mughal camp in Pune.
Commander Sayesta Khan got injured. Jaswant Singh was responsible for the safety of Mughal
Camp.
● In 1666, Shivaji escaped from Agra, where he was kept in captivity of Kumar Ram Singh, son of
Raja Jaya Singh.
● In 1667, Raja Jaya Singh died. He was the most capable Rajput noble.
● During this period, the Mughal empire started facing new challenges in the form of revolts of
Jats, Satnamis, Ahoms.
● Rajput nobles were sent away from the capital.
Ram Singh was sent to Bengal.
Jaswant Singh was sent to North-West Frontier Province. Though
● distrust in heart and mind is not reflected much externally.
Phase –III- (1678-78)
● Mughal- Rajput relations reach their lowest point during this time. Distrust prevailing in
mind and heart converted into full-fledged military conflict.
● 10 December 1678, Raja Jashwanth Singh died without leaving any male heir. According to
Mughal practice, the state of Mewar was annexed by Aurangzeb, and he tried to sell it to
the opponent of the Jaswant family.
● After few months, posthumous son Ajit Singh was born to Jashwanth Singh, but Aurangzeb
refused to accept him as a genuine heir. This altude triggered the anti-Mughal revolt in
Mewar.

The Later Mughals’ (AD 1707- 1858)

● The Aura of the mighty Mughal empire started declining aler Aurangzeb’s death in 1707.
The successors of Aurangzeb proved weak, and it caused the disintegration of the
Mughal Empire.
● The Mughal rulers a`er Aurangzeb are known as Later Mughals, and these rulers are:

17
Bahadur Shah (1707-1712)
● In 1707 Mu’azzam ascended the throne a` er having killed his brothers in the bat t le under
the t i tle of Bahadur Shah. (or even Shah Alam-I).
● He was a person of a mild temper, learned and dignified but was too old.
● Bahadur Shah released Shahuji, son of Shambhaji, who was the elder son of Shivaji. Bahadur
● Shah failed to prevent the downfall of the empire due to his sudden death in 1712.
Jahandar Shah (1712 - 1713)
● A` er Bahadur Shah’s death, there was a fresh war of succession among his four sons, Azim-
us-Shah, Jahandar Shah, Rafi-is-Shah and Jahan Shah.
● Jahandar Shah was able to kill his brothers and managed to ascend the throne.
● But within a year, Farrukhsiyar killed Jahandar Shah and ascended the throne.
Farrukhsiyar (1713 - 1719)
● Farrukhsiyar was cowardly, feeble and contemptible.
● In 1717 he granted a Farman to the English East India Company, granting them duty-free
trading rights for Bengal; the notable Murshid Quli Khan repudiated the Farman.
● He was deposed, blinded and brutally killed by his own Sayyid ministers (the King-makers).
Rafi-ud-Darajat and Rafi-ud-Dallah (1719)
● The Sayyid brothers, Abdullah and Hussain Ali raised two less capable kings, Rafi-Ud-Darajat
and Rafi-ud-Dallah, sons of Rafi-us-Shan.
● But within a few months, the Sayyid brothers, who were determined to rule through the
imperial puppets, thought that Roshan Akhtar, son of Jahan Shah, could be a better docile
agent of them.

Muhammad Shah (Rangeela) (1719 - 1748):

● In 1719 Muhammad Shah (Roshan Akhtar) ascended the throne.
● Muhammad Shah
killed the Sayyid
brothers with the
help of Nizam-ul-
Mulk, who later f o
unded the
Hyderbad city in
1724.
● Because of their
luxurious life and
lavish expenditure
on clothing and
entertainment, he
was also called
‘Rangeela’.
● Among the
succe ssor s of A u r a n g
z eb ,
Muhammad Shah’s
reign lasted for a long time, but he was not an able administrator or ruler.
During his reign, the actual breakup of the Mughal empire took roots.
o Jats became independent near Agra
o The Marathas established their power again
o The Ruhelas founded Ruhelkand
o Sikhs became active in Punjab.
● In 1739, Nadir Shah invaded India and defeated the Mughals in the Bat t le of Karnal. This
was a major blow to Mughal Authority.

18
 ● As the number of independent states or regions came to the horizon, the cracks in the
Mughal power started to widen.
Ahmad Shah (1748 - 1754)
● Ahmad Shah, son of Muhammad Shah, failed to hold the forces together that had grown so
enormously.
● In 1754 The Emperor was deposed and blinded by the wazir Ghazi-ud-din, a grandson of
deceased Nizam-ul-Mulk of the Deccan who now became the kingmaker.
Alamgir-II (1754 - 1759)
● Alamgir-II (‘Aziz-ud-din’), the son of Jahandar Shah, was placed on the throne by Ghazi-ud-
din.
● He adopted the same title as Aurangzeb and called himself ‘Alamgir-II’.
● He was a kind of ‘prisoner on the throne’ in the hand of the kingmaker.
● Alamgir II was put to death by Ghaziud-din Imad-ul-Mulk when he tried to free himself
from Ghazi-ud-din Imadul-Mulk.
Shah Alam-II (1759 - 1806)
● Shah Alam-II, the son and the successor of Alamgir-II, moved as a wanderer from place to
place because of the hostility of the evil and ambitious wazir.
● He fought against the British East India Company during the Battle of Buxar.
● Afghan chief Gulam Qadir blinded Shah Alam-II, but the Maratha Sindhia saved him.
● After 1803, when the British took control of Delhi, Shah Alam II lived under the protection
of the British, and till his death in 1806, he lived as their pensioner.

Akbar II (1806 - 1837) & Bahadur Shah-II (1837 - 1858)

● With British control, all that remained for the emperors Akbar-II and Bahadur Shah-II as an
empire was their shabby residence in the Red Fort of Delhi.
● The Great Mughal, a sign of the resilience of a once glorious empire, was still officially
known as the potentate. British maintained the authority of the puppet dynasty to le g i ti
● mi se th ei r presence in India.
But in 1857, during
the Sepoy uprising,
it shot them back.
The Se po y s pr
● oc laim e d
Bahadur Shah-
II emperor of
India to fight
British power.
But in the muony
at Meerut British
e m e r g e d
victoriously, and
● Bahadur ShahII was
suspect of
disrupt i on, treason and rebellion.
He was condemned to exile in Myanmar(then Burma).
The descendants were killed, and therefore the glorious Mughal empire was demolished.

Mughal Administraioon
● Mughal administrat i on is called Persio-Arabic set up in the Indian
environment.
19
 ● The Mughal empire was divided into Subas (Provinces), subdivided into Sarkar, Pargana,
and Gram.
● The central government of Akbar was based on the structure that had developed since the
Delhi Sultanate. Still, by formulating comprehensive regulations for their operation,
the functions of different departments were carefully reorganised.
Wazir was responsible for all finances and management of the jagir and inam lands and
headed the revenue department.
Mir Bakshi was the head of the military called the Mir Bakshi and was chosen
from among the court’s leading nobles.
o Mir Bakshi was in charge of collecting intelligence and made recommendations
for military appointments and promotions to the emperor.
The imperial household, including the harems, was under the charge of Mir Saman and
oversaw the running of the court and royal bodyguards.
The judiciary was a distinct institution led by a chief Qazi, responsible for religious
beliefs and practice.
● Sometimes a dignitary superior to the wazir and other ministers was also appointed called
the Wakil. He acted as the deputy to the sultanate (naib).
● Amil and Khakori were the special revenue officials at the Pargana
● level. Mansabdari was the feudalistic mechanism in Mughals.

Mughal Foreign Policy

● Mughal maintained cordial relations with Safavid (Iran), Uzbek (Central Asia) and Ottoman
Rulers.
● They promoted trade and commerce through friendly relaioons with neighbouring
● countries. By maintaining Kabul, Kandahar, Ghazni border, they also secured the
defence of the country.
● Their foreign policy was based on equality.

Literary Works during this age

● Babur -‘Tuzak-i-Baburi’ (Memories of Babur) in Turki
During the reign of Akbar, it was translated into
Persian.
● Gulabadan Begum(sister of Humayun) - ‘Humayunnama’
● Abul Fazal - ‘Akbarnama’ and ‘Ain-i-Akbari’
● Badauni -‘Muntakhab-ul-Tawarikh’
● Nizam- ud-Din - ‘Tabaqat-i-Akbari’
● Sur Das -‘Sursagar’ (written in Brij Bhasha)
● Sant Tulsi Das- ‘Ramcharitmanas’ (written in Awadhi)
● Malik Muhammad Jayasi –‘Padmavat’
● Jahangir autobiography ‘Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri’
● Abul Hamid Lahori - ‘Padshanama’
● Aurangzeb along with scholars- ‘Fatwa-i-Alamgiri’
● Khafi Khan - ‘Muntakhab-ul- Lubab ‘
● Bhimsen - ‘Nuskho-i- Dilkusha’

Downfall of The Mughals: Causes

● Weak Successors:
The successors of Aurangzeb were weak and have become vict i ms of the intrigues
and conspiracies of the fact i on-ridden nobles.

20
 They were inefficient generals and incapable of repressing revolts. The absence of a
powerful ruler, efficient administrator and strong army created the Mughal Empire weakly.
● Degeneration of the Mughal Nobility:
The history of Asian country of the time of Akbar, Jahangir and Shahjahan was created by
Bairam Khan , Munim Khan, Muzaffar Khan and Abdur Rahim Khan Khana , Itmad
Ud daulah and Mahababat Khan, Asaf Khan and Saadulla khan.
However, with the decline within the character of the later Mughal emperors, physical,
ethical and intellectual degeneration overtook the governing sections.
● Aurangzeb’s religious persecution of the Hindus:
Aurangzeb failed to realise that the vast Mughal Empire depended on the enthusiastic
support of the people.
He lost the support of the Sikhs, the Marathas, the Jats and the Rajputs.
Frequent wars also had drained the resources of the Mughal Empire.
● The demoralisation of the Mughal Army:
From the end of the seventeenth century, it became the habit of the Mughul officers to be in
treacherous correspondence with the enemy.
Because the emperor and the Mir Bakshi themselves lacked ability and firmness of
character, they might not enforce correct discipline within the army that was reduced to a
well-armed mob.
Military crimes were unnoticed even by Aurangzeb, and no regular punishments were
inflicted for dereliction of duty.
One of the major reason for the decline of the Mughal Empire was the demoralisation of the
Mughal army. Mughal army became weak and defective internally.
● Economic Bankruptcy:
Shah Jahan’s zeal for construction activities had depleted the treasury. O
n the other hand Shah Jahan and Aurangzeb’s long war within the south had additionally
drained the treasury.
Bankruptcy began to stare at the Mughal government within the face of Aurangzeb and his
successors, who had to fight several wars to achieve the throne and retain it.
The economic collapse came within the time of Alamgir II(1754- 1759 ).
● Invasions:
Foreign invasions demolished the remaining strength of the Mughals and hastened the
method of disintegration.
The invasions of Nadir Shah and Ahmad Shah Abdali resulted in the drainage of
wealth, hampering the empire’s stability.
Size of the Empire and Challenge from Regional Powers:
●
The expansion Mughal Empire had become too large to be controlled by any ruler from one
centre, i.e. Delhi.
The early Mughals were coherent and had control over ministers and armed forces.
However, the later Mughals were poor administrators.
As a result, the distant provinces declared independence.
The increase of independent states led to the disintegration of the Mughal Empire.
Aurangzeb’s Deccan Policy:
●
Aurangzeb Deccan policy that destroyed the most effective army and undermined the
Mughul prestige beyond repair contributed materially to the downfall.
The empire, in name, however, remained on until 1857. The British even wiped out its name
●
a`er the rebellion of 1857 and assumed de jure as well as India’s de facto sovereignty.

● Impact of Decline of Mughal:

Eighteenth-century India witnessed slow progress in its economic, social and cultural processes.
● Thus, the impact of the decline of Mughal can be seen in various aspects:
Agriculture:

21
 Though agriculture was technically backward, peasants put their full efforts to produce the
grain upon which the entire society depended. However, their own reward was miserably
inadequate as they were forced to pay exorbitant amounts to the state, the zamindars, the
jagirdars, and the revenue farmers.
● Trade:
On the other side, India’s industrial and agricultural products were in good demand in
foreign markets. Hence, its exports were more than its imports; trade was balanced
by importing silver and gold. India was known as a sink of precious metals.
● Educaioon:
The education was still traditional, which could not match the fast developments in Western
countries. The knowledge was limited to literature, religion, law, philosophy, and logic.
It did not make progress in studying physical and natural sciences, technology, and
geography compared with the West. In fact, due to over-reliance placed on ancient
learning, any original thought got discouraged.
Elementary education was quite widespread in the forms of pathshalas and maktabs among
the Hindus and the Muslims. However, it was restricted to reading, writing, and arithmetic.
Though children from the lower caste sometimes attended the schools, the female
presence was rare.

Conclusion

The Mughals were led by a capable military commander and administrator from Central Asia named
Zahiruddin Muhammad Babur. His successors were successful in establishing a pan India
empire gradually. Under Aurangzeb, the Mughal empire reached its greatest territorial limits. This
pan India consolidation was a result of matured Deccan policy, prominent Rajput policy,
economic and religious policies. Mughal empire is also remembered for its cultural richness.
Ironically, the decline of the Mughal empire also began under Aurangzeb. There was a break up of
the association with regional forces like the Rajputs and the Marathas.

22
Sher Shah Suri

Introduct i on

Sher Shah defeated Humayun badly in the bat t le of

Kannauj (1540). Sher Shah Suri is one of those great men in
history who rose to greatness from a humble posi: on. An ethnic
Pashtun Sher Shah Suri took control of the Mughal empire in 1940.
Being unable to understand the real nature of Afghan power,
Humayun was defeated by Afghan ruler Sher Khan (later known as
Aher Shah). In this way, Second Afghan Empire was established
by the name of the Sur Empire.
In a box

Sher Shah Suri (AD 1540-1545)

● The founder of the Sur Empire in India was Sher Shah Suri (1486 – 1545), with its capital in
Sasaram in modern-day Bihar.
● He was the son of Hasan Khan, who was a jagirdar of Sasaram in Bihar.
● His original name was Farid. Later, Farid served under the Afghan ruler of Bihar, who gave
him the t i tle Sher Khan for his bravery.
● He defeated Humayun at the Bat t le of Chausa and took control of the Mughal Empire in
1540 at the age of 54 or so.
● Sher Shah was a remarkable figure in the Medieval era.
● Sher Shah was a pious Muslim and generally tolerant towards other religions. He employed
Hindus in important offices.
● As a ruler, Sher Shah was the greatest ruler of the Sur empire that had come into existence
in north India since Muhammad bin Tughlaq.
Except for Kashmir, his empire extended almost all parts of North India from
Bengal to the Indus. In the west, he conquered Malwa and almost the ent i re
Rajasthan.
His last expedit i on was against Kalinjar where a strong fort assisted made
it a challenging task fo r co nquering
Bundelkhand. During the siege, a gun
burst and relentlessly injured Sher Shah.
Sher Shah died in 1545 a` er he heard
● that the fort had been captured.
● He introduced the currency of the rupee.
Sher Shah also constructed a new city on the
bank of the Yamuna near Delhi. The only
survivor of this is the Old Fort (Purana Qila) and
● the fine mosque.
Sher Shah also built his own Mausoleum at
Sasaram, which is considered one of the
● masterpieces of Indian architecture.
Sher Shah patronized Malik Muhammad Jayasi,
credited for writ i ng the famous Hindi
work Padmavat during his reign. The book
depicts the love story of Raja Ratan Singh of
ChiY or and his queen Padmavat i . The
conflict between Allauddin Khilji and Ratan
● Sen is also depicted in the same book.
Sher Shah died in 1545, and his successors ruled
23
 till 1555.
● He was succeeded by Islam Shah (his younger son) who ruled till 1553. Although Adil Khan,
Sher shah’s eldest son was nominated by him. The nobles regarded Islam Shah as
more capable and efficient.
● In 1555 Humayun reconquered India.

Sher Shah’s Administraioon

● Sher Shah made little changes in the Sultanate
● administration. The village was the smallest unit.
The village headman was called muqaddam, who worked as the sole link between the
government and the village. He had the responsibility of maintaining law and order
in his village.
● Parganas were constituted of several villages.
● A few parganas constitutes a shiqq which was equal to Mughal sarkar.
Though, in few areas, such as Punjab, Bengal, Malwa etc., several shiqqs were
placed under an officer equated with the Mughal subadar.
The shiqdar (shiqqdar-i shiqqdaran) was incharge of the pargana.
o His primary funct i on was to collect the revenue at the pargana level.
o He was regularly transferred under Sher Shah.
o Two karkuns (clerks) were also appointed to assist the shiqdar. The karkuns
kept the records both in Hindi and Persian.
o There was a total of 66 sarkars (shiqqs) in Sher Shah’s Empire.
● Next comes the patwari, a village record keeper.
He was not a state employee but from the village community.
● The munsif was responsible for measuring the land. Etc.
The munsif-i munsifan performed the responsibilities of amin (created later by the
Mughals) at sarkar (shiqq) level.
Both (shiqqdar and munsif) were directly appointed by the govenrment.
● The qanungo managed the records at pargana level.
The qanungo was a hereditary semi-official.
● The fotadar waq was assigned with the treasury of the pargana.
● Accounts were managed both in Persian and the local languages (Hindavi).
● The ruler was assisted by four important ministers: Diwan-i-Arz, Diwan-i-Wizarat, Diwan-i-
Insha, Diwan-i-Risalat.
● The land revenue system was well organized under the Sher Shah administration.
The land was surveyed carefully. Entire cultivable lands were classified into three
classes – good, middle and bad.
His land revenue was based on the system of Patta and Qabuliat.
o The amount of the payment which was collected from each peasant
was written on a paper called patta, and each peasant was notified of it.
● To protect against famine and other natural calamities, a cess at the rate of two and a half
seers per bigha was also levied.
● The state took one-third of the average produce, and it was allowed to be paid in cash or
crop.
● He introduced new silver coins called “Dam”, and they were in circulation until 1835.
● He had also improved communications by laying important highways.
Along with the construction of many roads, he extended the Grand Trunk Road from
Chittagong in the province of Bengal in northeast India to Kabul in Afghanistan in the
far northwest of the country.
● Sher shah emphasized justice.
According to him, “JusCce is the most excellent of religious rites, and it is approved alike
by the king of infidels and of the faithful”.
For ensuring justice, Qazis were appointed in separate places.

90
 His son, Islam Shah, codified the laws.
● Sher Shah was not a religious bigot. He did not initiate any liberal policy as
well. Jijya was continued to be collected from Hindus.
His administra:ve officers were Afghan.

● He invaded the Bengal army and defeated them in the bat t le of Surajgarh.
● Police were efficiently reorganized, and as a result, crime was effectively dealt with under
his administration.
● The military was also efficiently reorganized, and Sher Shah borrowed many ideas like the
branding of horses from Alauddin Khilji.
● He created a network of Sarai (halting-place) for efficient communication systems. Around
the Sarai market also grew.
● Humayun referred to him as “Ustad-I-Badshahan”, a teacher of kings.

Contribution of Sher Shah

● His most important contribut i on was the re-establishment of law and order across
the length and breadth of his empire. He firmly dealt with robbers and dacoits and
with zamindars who refused to pay land revenue or disobeyed the orders of the government.

25
 If there were any the` or crime in the villages, then the muqaddam and zamindars of
those areas were punished instead of the person who did the crime, so that these
officials may work for law and order.
According to eminent historian Akbar Khan even if an old woman with a basket full of
gold on her head would cross through woods no thief or robber would come near
her. The reason behind it was the fear of punishment which Aher Shah
inflicted. It was due to the strict law and order system of Sher Shah.
● Sher Shah paid looked a`er trade and commerce and the improvement of communications
in his kingdom.
● Sher rebuilt the old imperial road known as the Grand highway, from the river Indus within
the west to Sonargaon in a geographic region.
● He also constructed a road from Agra to Jodhpur and ChiYor, linking the road to the Gujarat
seaports.
● He built another road from Lahore to Multan. Multan was, at that era, the staging point for
caravans moving towards West and Central Asia.
● For travellers’ convenience, Sher constructed a Sarai at a distance of each two kos (about
eight km) on these roads.
The Sarai was a fortified hotel or lodge where travellers may spend the night and
conjointly keep their goods in safe custody.
Separate accommodation for Hindus and Muslims were provided in these Sarais.
Brahmans were appointed for providing beds and food to the Hindu travellers and
grain for their horses.
Efforts were created to settle villages around the Sarais, and the land was set apart in
these villages for the expenditures of the Sarais.
Every sarai had many watchmen below the management of a Shahna (custodian).
Sher crowned head engineered 1700 Sarais altogether.
Some of these are still existing, which shows how strong they were.
His roads and Sarais are known as ‘the arteries of the empire’.
Many Sarais were constructed into market-towns (qasbas), where peasants flocked to
sell their crops. The Sarais were conjointly used as stages for the news service or
dak-chowki.
● In his entire empire, customs duty for goods was paid solely at two places.
Goods made in Bengal or imported from outside paid customs duty at the border of
Bengal and Bihar at Sikrigali, and goods coming back from West and Central Asia
paid this duty at the Indus.
Nobody was allowed to levy customs at roads, ferries or cities anyplace else.
Duty was paid for the second time at the time of the sale of products.
● Sher Shah instructed his governors and amils to treat merchants and travellers well and not
to harm them in any way.
● Sher Shah created the local village headmen (muqaddams) and zamindars liable for any loss
that a merchant suffered on the roads.
● The currency reforms of Sher Shah also supported the growth of commerce and handicra`s.
Instead of old debased coins of mixed metal, he introduced fine coins of gold, silver
and copper of uniform standard.
● Sher Shah created a strong army to administer his extensive empire. Tribal Chiefs were
given the authority to tribal levies and recruited soldiers directly only a`er scrutinizing
his character. Each soldier had their descriptive role (chehra). Sher Shah may borrow
this technique, referred to as the dagh (branding) system, from the military reforms of
Alauddin Khalji.

Estimation of Sher Shah’s Character

 Apart from being farsighted Sher Shah Suri was an active seeker of knowledge.

 He was a disciplined and dutiful person.

26
  He was industrious and a progressive thinker.

 He was a well-educated person.

➢ Apart from learning Arabic and Persian language he took interest in studying history
and literature.
 He was a patron of scholars.

 He was not satisfied with his father’s partial behaviour towards his step-mother.

 He had a great love for architecture.

 He had compassion for peasants, poor and destitute.

 Although he ascended the throne at the age of 68 he didn’t lack enthusiasm, ambition
or hardwork.
 In his professional field he was a daring soldier, a successful conqueror and an able
administrator.

Sher Shah is often considered as a forerunner of Akbar, although he was not as great as Akbar.
Famous historian K.R Qanungo says, “It is doubGul whether he would have done such deeds as
Akbar if he had lived for fiIy years more because Sher Shah had the drawbacks from
which Aurangzeb suffered”.

Conclusion
In 1555 AD, the state of affairs in India was most deplorable. Muhammad Adil Shah, the last king of
the Sur dynasty, was quite unfit to rule over his large kingdom. Humayun, who was invited by some
of his friends in India, accepted their invitation. He came and defeated Sikandar Sur at Sirhind in
1555 AD. The Sur empire may be considered as a continuation and culmination of the Delhi
Sultanate, the advent of Babur and Humayun being in the nature of an interregnum. Sur empire
thus imprinted a long-lasting impact in medieval Indian history through its rich culture,
architecture, administration and territorial extent.

27
Bhakti Movement and Sufism
Introduction
The rise and expansion of the Sufi movement and the Bhakti movement were seen in Medieval
India. These two movements brought about a new form of religious expression among
Muslims and Hindus. The Sufis were mystics who advocated for liberalism in Islam. They
emphasised an egalitarian society based on universal love. The Bhakti saints transformed
Hinduism by the introduction of devotion or bhakti as the means to realise God. They
believed that caste had no meaning and all human beings were equal. Bhakti poets emphasised
surrender to God.

Similarly, many of the Bhakti saints were rebels who chose to defy the currents of their time
through their writings. The Sufi and Bhakti saints played an essential role in bringing the
Muslims and Hindus to one plaform. By applying the local language of the people, these saints
made religion accessible and meaningful to the common people. The Bhakti tradition
continues in a changed version even in the present day.

Bhakti Movement
In India, the image of the singer-songwriter exhibited itself to its fullest in what came to be known
later as the Bhakti movement. The rigid caste system, the complex ritualism that constituted
worship, and the inherent need to move to a more satisfying method of worship and
salvation perhaps spurred this movement.

● The Bhakti movement started around the 6th and 7th century AD in the Tamil region and
the Kannada region; the movement begun by Basavanna (1105-68) in the 12th century.
For that time, the movement threatened the caste hierarchy and stretched out the
fabric of local society. While the orthodoxy achieved to resist, the Bhakti movement
in this region produced a rich vein of literature that came to be known as Vachana
Sahitya composed by Basava himself as well as his disciples (Akkamahadevi, Allama
Prabhu, Devara Dasimayya and others).
● It was manifested in the emotional poems of the Nayanars (devotees of Shiva) and Alvars
(devotees of Vishnu).
These saints looked upon religion as a loving bond based upon love between the
worshipped and worshipper rather than formal worship.
Their reach to people was high because of their writ i ng in local languages like
Tamil and Telugu.
● Over time, the ideas of the South moved up to the North, but it was a prolonged
● process. Sanskrit, which was still the instrument of thought, was given a new form.
● An effective method for spreading the Bhakti ideology was the usage of local languages.
The Bhakti saints wrote their verses in local languages.
Sanskrit works were also translated to make them comprehensible to a wider
audience.
● Thus, the writings are found in different languages. Kabir, Surdas and Tulsidas wrote in
Hindi, Chaitanya and Chandidas spread their message in Bengali, Sankaradeva
popularising Assamese, and Mirabai in Hindi and Rajasthani.

28
 Also, devotional poetry was composed in Kashmiri, Telugu, Kannad, Oriya,
Malayalam, Maithili and Gujarati.
● The Bhakti saints believed that all could achieve salvation. There was no distinction of caste,
creed or religion before God.
They themselves came from diverse backgrounds.
● The saints emphasised equality, disregarded the caste system and attacked institutionalised
religion. The saints did not restrict themselves to purely religious ideas but also advocated
social reforms.
They opposed state and female infanticide.
Women were persuaded to join kirtans. Mirabai and Lalla (Kashmir) composed
verses that are popular even today.
● Kabir and Guru Nanak made the most outstanding contribution amongst the non-sectarian
Bhakti saints.
Both Hindu and Islamic traditions inspired their ideas and aimed to bridge the gap
between the Hindus and the Muslims.

The Vaishnavite Movement

● The devotion towards a Nirankar form of God was preached by saints such as Kabir,
Namdev and Guru Nanak.
● This period also saw the development of another movement based upon devotion towards
a Sakar form of God.
● Vaishnavite movement, as it was called, centred around the worship of Rama and Krishna,
who were seen as incarnations (avatars) of Lord Vishnu.
Main exponents of it were Surdas, Mirabai, Tulsidas and Chaitanya.
● Poetry, song, dance and kirtans became a medium through which the path to salvation was
expressed.
● The spread of the Vaishnavite movement in the east is attributed to the efforts of Chaitanya
(1484-1533).
Chaitanya considered Krishna as the highest form of God and not just a mere
incarnation of Vishnu.
Sankirtans (hymn sessions by devotees), which took place in homes, temples
and even street processions, expressed the devotion for Krishna.
Like other Bhakti saints, Chaitanya was also willing to welcome everyone, regardless of
caste, into the fold. The saints thus encouraged a sense of equality amongst the
people.
● The devotion of Rama was popularised by saints like Ramananda (1400-1470).
He considered Rama as the supreme God.
Women and outcasts were welcomed.
● The philosophy of the Vaishnavite saints was developed within the broad framework
of Hinduism. These saints called for reforms in religion and love amongst fellow beings.
Their philosophy was broadly humanist.

Reasons for Emergence and Growth of Bhakti Movement

This movement was the result of several causes:
● Bhakio as an Ancient Indian Tradition: The origin of the movement lay deep into the soil of
India. There was nothing new associated with the bhakti cult that did not already exist in
India. The various elements of the cult could be tracked from the Vedas onwards.
● Impact of the Muslim Rule: Then, the impact of the Muslim rule put dread in the heart of
people of the Hindu religion. Followers of the Hindu religion had suffered a lot under some
of the fanatic Muslim rulers. Some solace was needed to cure their despairing hearts.
● Bhakti movement is seen as the Indian response to face a new challenge that appeared in
the form of Islamic religion. Some of the historians are of the opinion that the destruction of

29
 Hindu temples by the Muslim invaders also paved the way for the emergence of
Bhakti Movement .
➢ The Bhakti movement gave them hope and inner strength to save Hinduism.
➢ The Sufi saints associated with socio-religious movements also inspired
the movement. Some related chords in the two evoked resonance.
● Egalitarian Outlook of the Muslim: The Muslim community strongly believed in the equality
and fraternity of mankind, unity of God, and full surrender to God. It is a coincidence that
the various Hindu reformers and the mystic saints were also attempting to stress
these features.
● Apart from this, the growth of vernacular languages and the complexity of religion played an
important role in the growth of Bhakti movement in India. An important reason for
the popularity of Bhakti Movement was that it challenged the caste system and the
superiority of the Brahmanas.

If "Bhakti" existed in the Indian tradiioon since ancient iomes, then why did the word
"movement" get associated with it over iome?

The beginning of this doctrine has been found to both the Buddhist and
Brahmanical traditions of ancient India and to different scriptures such as the Gita.
However, for the 1st
time in South India in between the seventh and tenth century period that bhakti
movement grew from a mere religious doctrine into a famous movement based on
religious equality and broad-based social participation

Bhakti Movement across India

A great deal of popularity to the movement could be attributed to the poems of the Alvars
and Nayanars and the Vaishnavite and Shaivite poets. These poets, hailing from both high and low
castes, created a formidable body of literature that firmly established itself in the popular canon.

Bhakti Movement in South India

Between the 7th and the 10th century, Vaishnava Alvar saints and the Saiva Nayanar saints of South
India were responsible for spreading the doctrine of bhakti amongst several sections of the society
regardless of caste and gender. Some of the saints of this movement came from the “lower” castes,
and some were women.
● Adi Shankaracharya: Shankaracharya started a Hindu revivalist movement in the 9th
century and provided a new orientation to Hinduism. He preached Advaita or Non-
dualism. He established four Mathas in four corners of the country; Dwaraka, Puri,
Badrinath, Sringeri
His followers are called Smarthas.
● His most famous philosophical work is Viveka Choodamani.
Ramanujacharya: In the 11th century, another famous acharya, Ramanuja, preached
Vishishtadvaita and tried to assimilate bhakti to the tradition of the Vedas. He contended
that in order to attain salvation, the grace of God was more crucial than knowledge about
Him.
Ramanuja emphasised the path of prapal or total reliance on or surrendered to
God being open to all, including the Shudras and the Dalits.
According to him, God is ‘Saguna’ brahman. He also encouraged praba|marga or the
path of self-surrender to God. He invited the downtrodden to Vaishnavism and
made Vaishnavism popular.
Thus, Ramanuja tried to bridge the popular movement based on bhakti and the
upper caste movement based on the Vedas.
He has written Sri Bhashya.
30
 Several thinkers, such as Madhvacharya (tenth century), and in north India,
Ramananda, Vallabhacharya and others followed Ramanuja’s tradition.
o In this way, bhakti in its popular form became acceptable to all sections of Hindu
society by the early 16th century.
● Nimbarka: He was a younger contemporary of Ramanuja. A Telugu Brahman, Nimbarka
spent most of his time in Vrindavan in the vicinity of Mathura in North India. He believed in
complete devotion to Krishna and Radha.
● Madhvacharya: In the 13th century, Madhava from Udupi propagated Dvaita (dualism) of
Jivatma and Paramatma. According to his viewpoint, the world is not an illusion but a reality.
He believed that God, soul and matter are unique in nature.
He wrote Geeta Bhashya.
● Basavanna: His followers were known as Veerashaiva or Lingayat. His followers worshipped
Shiva in Linga form.
● Nayanars and Alvars: The period between the 7th to 9th centuries saw the arrival of new
religious movements, led by the Alvars (saints devoted to Vishnu) and Nayanars (saints
devoted to Shiva) who came from various castes involving those considered as
“untouchable” such as the Pulaiyar and the Panars.
Nayanars and Alvars were critical of the Jains and Buddhists and advocated ardent love for
Shiva or Vishnu as the route to salvation.
Nayanars and Alvars drew upon the standards of heroism and love as discovered in the
Sangam literature (the earliest example of Tamil literature, composed during the early
centuries of the Common Era) and combined them with the values of bhakti.
Nayanars: In the 6th to 8th century, they were a group of 63 saints (in Tamil Nadu) who
were faithfully devoted to the Hindu god Shiva. There were 63 Nayanars
belonging to various castes and backgrounds like “untouchable” workers, peasants,
hunters, potters, soldiers, Brahmanas and chiefs.
o The well-known among them were Sambandar, Sundarar, Appar and
Manikkavasagar.
o Thirumurai (meaning holy division) is a twelve-volume collection of songs or
hymns in praise of Shiva in the Tamil language from the sixth to eveventh
century by various poets in South India.
Alvars: Alvars were a group of 12 devotional saints in the 7th and the 12th centuries (in
Tamil Nadu) devoted to the Hindu god Shiva.
o There were 12 Alvars, who came from different backgrounds, the well-
known being Periyalvar, his daughter Andal, Tondaradippodi Alvar and
Nammalvar.Their songs were compiled in the Nalayira Divya Prabandham.

Bhakti Movement In North India

● Ramananda: Ramananda was initially a follower of Ramanuja. A`er some time, he
established his own sect and preached his doctrines in Hindi at Banaras and Agra. He was a
believer of Rama, and he was the first to employ the vernacular medium to propagate his
thoughts.
Simplification of worship and liberation of people from the traditional caste rules
and regulations were his two valuable contributions to the Bhakti movement.
He was against the caste system and selected his disciples from all segments of
society, disregarding caste.
There were a large number of disciples of Ramananda, and they belonged to wide-
ranging backgrounds.
o The prominent disciples were: Kabir (a manufacturer of stoves), Raidas
(a tanner by profession), Dhanna (a Jat by caste, but worked as a
butcher), Peepa (a Kshatriya), and Sen (a barber by profession).
o There were some Brahmins like Brahmanand, Sukhananad, Bhavananad and
Sursari. There was also a prostitute, i.e., Ganga.

31
 ● Vallabhacharya: He was a Telugu brahmin and founder of Pushiomarg (way of grace). It
was also known as Vallabha sampradaya (Vallabha Sect).
He advocated Krishna bhakti. Famous Krishna bhakti saint-poet, Surdas (1483- 1
563) and seven other Krishna bhakti poets associated with ashtachap were
supposed to have been the disciples of Vallabha.
The sect later became famous in Gujarat.
● Surdas: He (1483-1563) was a pupil of the famous teacher, Vallabhachara. Surdas
was a blind poet whose songs are centred around Krishna. He popularised the Krishna cult
in the north Indian region.
He wrote Sur Sagar, which recounts the exploits of Krishna during his childhood and
youth with gentle affection and delighzulness. He was contemporary to Tulsi
Das and Akbar. He is called the “Blind Bard of Agra”.
● Mirabai: The love for Krishna was expressed through the songs of Mirabai (1503-73). She
had become a widow at an early age. She considered a spiritual marriage with her Lord.
She was a great devotee of God Krishna, and she became popular in Rajasthan for her
bhajans.
Her Krishna was known as ‘Giridhar Nagar’, and her bhajans influenced Mahatma
Gandhi. Her poems have a very exceptional quality of their own and are
popular even today.
● Tulsidas: He was a worshipper of Rama and composed the famous Ramcharitmanas,
the Avadhi version of Ramayana.

Bhakti Movement in Bengal

● Chaitanya: Chaitanya was a famous saint and reformer of Bengal who promoted the
Krishna cult. He renounced the world and turned into an ascetic. He walked all over the
country preaching his thoughts.
He supported the idea of the universal brotherhood of man and criticised all
distinctions based on caste and religion.
He believed that through devotion and love, song and dance, a devotee could
experience the presence of God.
He accepted disciples from various classes and castes, and his teachings are
extensively followed in Bengal even today.

Fig. Sri Krishna Chaitanya Mahaprabhu

● Gaudiya Sampradaya: Gaudiya Vaishnavism (Chaitanya Vaishnavism or Hare Krishnas) is a

Vaishnava religious movement founded by Sri Chaitanya in the 16th century. With
this movement, he revived the culture of Krishna bhakti.

32
 Here, the word “Gaudiya” refers to the Gauda region (present-day West Bengal &
Bangladesh), and Vaishnavism refers to “the worship of Vishnu”. The philosophical
basis of the movement is that of the Bhagavad Gita and Bhagavata Purana, besides
the other Puranic scriptures and Upanishads.
● Jaydev: Another prominent Vaishnavite saint from Bengal was Jaydev, who wrote
Gita Govind. The Gita Govinda describes the relationship between Krishna and the
gopis of Vrindavan, and in particular, one gopi named Radha.
It is stated that Radha is greater than Krishna.
The Gita Govinda is arranged into twelve chapters which are sub-divided into
twenty-four divisions known as Prabandhas.
The prabandhas include couplets grouped into eighths, named Ashtapadis.
The text also explains the eight moods of the Heroine, the Ashta Nayika, which has
been an insight for many compositions and choreographic works in Indian classical
dances.

Bhakti Movement in Maharashtra

● Jnaneswar or Gyaneshwar (1275-1296 AD): He was the pioneer bhakti saint of
Maharashtra. He taught that the only way to attain God was bhakti, and in bhakti, there
was no place for caste distinctions.
Jnaneswari was an extensive commentary on the Bhagavad Gita. This was one of the
most primitive works of Marathi literature and served as the foundation of bhakti
ideology in Maharashtra.
Abhangs are hymns composed by him.
● Namadeva: Namadeva was a tailor who, it is said, had taken to robbery before he became a
saint.
His poetry which was composed in Marathi which breathes a spirit of intense love and
devotion to God. He preached the gospel of love.
He has travelled far and wide and engaged in discussions with the Sufi saints
at Delhi. He opposed idol worship and priestly domination and also started the
Abhang cult in Maharashtra.
● Ekanatha: A devotee of Lord Krishna, he was a prominent figure of the Warkari tradition.
Warkari (one who performs the Wari) is a sampradaya or a religious movement within the
bhakti spiritual tradition. Ekanatha composed many lyrics, and his bhajans and kirtans are
famous even today.
● Tukaram: Another important Bhakti saint of Maharashtra was Tukaram (contemporary
of Shivaji). He was responsible for establishing a background for Maratha nationalism. He
was a 17th-century Hindu poet and saint of the Bhakti movement in Maharashtra.
He was part of the egalitarian, personalised Varkari devotionalism tradition.
He is well known for his devotional poetry known as Abhanga and community-
oriented worship with spiritual songs known as kirtans.
His poetry was devoted to Vitthala or Vithoba.

Bhakti Movements in Other Regions

● Kashmir: Saiva bhakti flourished in the 14th century. Lal Ded (woman) was the most
prominent one.
● Gujarat: Vallabha sect of Vallabhacharya (he was major) and Narasimha Mehta (1414-1481,
or 1500-1580) became popular among merchants and landowners.
● Assam: Sankaradeva (1449- 1568). Sankaradeva preached supreme devotion to Vishnu or
his incarnation, Krishna.
He had to face persecution of orthodox Brahman priests.
Monotheistic concepts influenced his concept of bhakti which came to be known as
the eka-sarana-dharma (‘religion of seeking refuge in one’).
He denounced the caste system and used a common language.

33
 He brought significant innovations in devotional practice.
o He included dance-drama-music form in the preaching of bhakti.
o He founded the institution of satra which later grew into a full-
fledged monastery.
o His sect is called mahapurashiya dharma.
Other Saints associated with Bhakti Movement
● Raidas/Ravidas most probably belonged to the generation next to Kabir’s. Dhanna
was a 15th century Jat peasant from Rajasthan. Other saints were Sen (a barber) and Pipa.
● Ramanand: Ramananda came from a conservative brahmin family, and his disciples
included both Hindus and Muslims. He was a follower of Ramanuja. He was born at
Prayag (Allahabad). He replaced the worship of Rama in place of Vishnu.
He taught his doctrine of bhakti to all the four varnas and disregarded the ban on
people of different castes cooking together and sharing their meals. His
disciples were enrolled from all castes, including the low castes.
o Ramananda taught in Hindi (vernacular language) at his centres in Agra and
Varanasi because Sanskrit was known only to the upper castes.
His initial 12 disciples are said to have included at least one woman, members of the
lowest castes (including the leatherworker Ravidas), and a Muslim (the mystic
Kabir).

Fig. Swami Ramanand

● Kabir: Among the disciples of Ramananda, the most popular was Kabir (1440-1518). He is
considered a son of a brahman widow who abandoned him. A Muslim weaver brought him
to her house.
He believed that the way to God was through personally experienced bhakti or
devotion. He thought that the Creator was One.
o Rama, Hari, Govinda, Allah, Rahim, Khuda, etc., were the names of the God
he recalled.
o No wonder if the Muslims claim him as Sufi, the Hindus as Rama-Bhakta,
and the Sikhs integrate his songs in the Adi Granth.
The external aspects of religion were irrelevant for Kabir. His beliefs and ideas were
manifested in the dohas (Sakhi) composed by him.
He emphasised simplicity in religion and believed that bhakti was the simplest way to
attain God.
o He refused to accept any prevailing religious belief without prior reasoning.
o He believed that a man could not achieve success without hard work.
o He advocated performance of action rather than the renunciation of duty.
His belief in the unity of God led both Hindus and Muslims to become his
disciples.
His principal tenet was ‘Love for all’. He highlighted that love was the only important
medium that could bind humankind in an unbreakable bond of fraternity.

34
In his dictum, the Educator (Guru) has been given the prime position. According to him, the teacher
was the incarnation of God.
Kabir emphasised the impermanence of all things in the world.
Kabir expressed his views in a vast collection of verses known as sakhis and pads. These are said to
have been composed by him and sung by wandering bhajan singers.
He is considered as the greatest of the mystic saints, and his followers are known as
Kabirpanthis.
Bijak is the sacred book of Kabirpanthis.
Kabir’s ideas were not restricted to religion and attempted to change the narrow thinking of society.
His poetry was forceful and direct but was easily understood.

Fig. Kabir Das

Monotheistic Movements in North India

Evolution of Sikhism: Medieval period contains the origins of the Sikh Movement. Saint preacher
Guru Nanak founded the Sikh Religion, which started as a minor religion but eventually developed
into a major religion over the centuries. There were ten recognised living Gurus in the Nanak line:

● Guru Nanak (1469-1539)

A great example of the Nankana school was Guru Nanak.
He was born at Talwandi. From an early age, he
showed leanings towards spiritual life. Nanak was
helpful to the poor and needy.
His personality was an amalgamation of simplicity
and peacefulness.

His objective was to eliminate the existing

corruption and demeaning practices in society.
He showed a new path for the formation of an
egalitarian social order. His disciples called
themselves Sikhs.
Like Kabir, he was as much a social reformer as he
was a religious saint.
He preached for an improvement in the status of
women. According to him, women who give birth to kings should not be spoken ill
of.
o His vani (words) and those of other Sikh Gurus have described in the Guru
Granth Sahib, the holy book of the Sikhs.
35
 Guru Nanak dev Ji passed the message of Universal brotherhood.
Guru Nanak Dev Ji asked his followers to shun five evils that lead to illusion (maya), which
eventually acts as a roadblock towards attaining salvation. The five evils are; Ego, Anger,
Greed, Attachment and Lust.
The three duties that a Sikh must carry out can be summed up in three words; Pray, Work,
Give.
o Nam Japna: Keeping God in mind at all times.
o Kirt Karna: Earning an honest living.
o Vand Chhakna (Literally, sharing one’s earnings with others): Giving to
charity and caring for others.
He denounced caste distinctions and rituals. His conception of religion was very
much practical and firmly ethical.
One of his famous sayings was ‘Abide pure amidst the impurities of the world’.
His life was devoted to forming harmony between Hindus and Muslims.
● Guru Angad (c.1539–1552 CE)
His real name was Bhai Lehna. He is contributed to the standardisation and
popularisation of the Gurumukhi script of the Punjabi language.
He founded new religious institutions to strengthen the base of Sikhism and started many
new schools. He popularised and also expanded the institution of Guru ka
Langar.
He began the tradition of Mall Akhara for physical as well as spiritual development.
● Guru Amardas (c.1552–74 CE)
He reformed the Langar and also gave more importance to it.
He divided the spiritual empire into 22 parts called Manjis, each under a Sikh and Piri
system.
He also strengthened the langar community kitchen system.
He preached against the Hindu society’s sati, advocated widow-remarriage, and
asked the women to discard the purdah (veil worn by the women).
He asked for the removal of the toll-tax (pilgrim’s tax) for non- Muslims while
crossing Yamuna and Ganges rivers to Akbar.
● Guru Ramdas (c.1574–81 CE)
Ramdas composed the four Lawans (stanzas) of the Anand Karaj.
Anand Karaj was a distinct marriage code for Sikhs separate from the orthodox and
traditional Hindu Vedic system.
He had cordial relations with Akbar.
By Akbar, he was granted a plot of land where later, the Harmandir Sahib was
constructed. Interestingly, Hazi Mian Mir (a Muslim) laid down the first brick of
Harmandir Sahib.
He also laid the foundaioon stone of Chak Ramdas (Ramdas Pur), now called
Amritsar. Strongly decried superstitions, caste system, and pilgrimages.
● Guru Arjun Dev (c.1581–1606 CE)
Adi Granth, i.e., Guru Granth Sahib, was compiled by him and installed at Sri
Harmandir Sahib.
He completed the construction of Amritsar, Kartarpur and Taran.
He was later executed by Jahangir for helping his rebellious son Khusrau and was
therefore hailed as the first martyr of the Sikh religion and as Shaheedan-de-Sartaj (the
crown of martyrs).
● Guru Har Govind (c.1606–1644 CE)
He had the longest tenure as a Guru.

36
 He transformed Sikhs into a militant community along with the establishment of the
Akal Takht and fortification of Amritsar.
He waged wars against rulers Jahangir and Shah Jahan and defeated a Mughal army at
Sangrama.
The title ‘Sachcha Padshah’ was taken by him.
He also shi`ed his headquarters to Kartarpur.
He introduced the concept of Miri and Piri (keeping two knives).
● Guru Har Rai (c.1644–1661 CE)
Aurangzeb persecuted him for giving Dara Shikoh (brother of Aurangzeb and his rival
to the throne). Aurangzeb had framed charges of anti-Islamic blasphemy against the
Guru and the Guru Granth Sahib.
● Guru Har Kishan (c.1661–1664 CE)
Under framed charges, he was forcibly summoned to Delhi, which was the imperial
capital of Aurangzeb.
● Guru Tegh Bahadur (c.1665–1675 CE)
Tegh Bahadur was beheaded before the public in Delhi’s Chandni Chowk in 1675 CE for
revolting against Aurangzeb and was thus, executed.
At the site of his martyrdom stands Sis Ganj Sahib Gurudwara today.
He had appointed Banda Bahadur as the military leader of the Sikhs.
He is credited with spread Sikhism to Bihar and Assam.
● Guru Gobind Singh (c.1675–1708 CE)
He passed the Guruship of the Sikhs to the Guru Granth Sahib and was the last Sikh Guru
in human form.
He was born in Patna, organised the Sikhs as community at warriors, and called them
Khalsa in c.1699 CE.
He died of complications that arose from stab wounds inflicted by an Afghan who
is believed to have been sent by Wazir Khan, Mughal governor.
He started some pracioces to create a sense of unity among the Sikhs, which were to be
followed by the Sikhs.
The practices included initiation through baptism by the double-edged sword, carrying
arms, wearing uncut hair, and adopting the epithet Singh as part of their name.
He selected five persons called as the Panj piyare (the five beloved), who were
requested to administer the pahul (amrit chakhha) to him.
He compiled the supplementary granth of Deswan Padshan Ka Granth.

Nathapanthis, Siddhas, Yogis: Some of the ideas of Kabir and other monotheists can be traced to
the influence of heterodox movements like that of the nathpanthi. Many nathpanthi
preachers called siddhas belonged to the “lower” castes- doma, Chamara (tanners),
washerman, oilman, tailor, fisherman, woodcutter, cobbler etc.
With the establishment of Turkish rule in northern India, the popularity of the nathpanthi
movement reached its peak during the 13th and 14th centuries. Anybody could be admitted into
the sect of the nathpanthi yogis irrespective of caste.

Women In Bhakti Movement

● Many women saints, such as Mira, and others such as Surdas, opened the way of bhakti for
women and promoted their rising above the task of service and duty to a husband.

37
 ● However, the Brahmans continued to claim a privileged position for themselves, including
the exclusive right to preach and educate.
● Within the framework of caste, a new subgroup arose due in parts to the absorption of
tribal groups into Hinduism, the growth of new professional groups, and the local
and regional feelings.
● According to the economic and political power of the groups concerned, the varna status of
castes rose or fell. Rajputs, Marathas and Khatris could be mentioned in this context.
● A better sense of the fundamental principles of Hinduism and Islam was gradually brought
about by the Bhakti and Sufi saints underlining the fact that they had a great deal
of similarity.
This led to a greater spirit of mutual harmony and toleration.
● Important changes in the context of religion were also brought about by the Bhakti and Sufi
saints, emphasising true faith than formal observances.
● They also contributed to the development of regional languages and literature.
● Excessive concern with religious and spiritual affairs led to a setback to the growth of
rational sciences, especially to the cultivation of science and technology.
Nirguna and Saguna Sect in Northern India
● The Bhakti movement, a part of Hinduism, saw two streams that looked differently towards
the nature of the divine (Brahman) – Nirguna and Saguna.
● Nirguna Bhakti was the concept of the Ultimate Reality (God) as formless, without
attributes or quality. Nirguna bhakts thus believe in the eternal all-pervading
and omnipresent divine consciousness.
● Saguna Brahman, in contrast, was envisioned as with form, attributes and quality. God was
manifested in some form.
Sufism
It is a mystical Islamic belief and movement. It aims to establish direct communion between God
and man through the personal experience of mystery within Islam. Sufis, though, accepted
the Shariat but did not confine their religious practice to formal adherence.
● They established several Sufi orders or silsilah in and outside India, and each had its specific
features. However, they had some common characteristics:
Stress the significance of traversing the Sufi path as a process of establishing direct
communion with divine reality.
Novice has to pass all the way through a succession of “stations” or “stages” and
changing psychological conditions or “states” to experience God.
The Sufi route could be traversed only under the strict observation of a spiritual guide
(murshid, shaikh or pir) who had himself successfully traversed it and
consequently founded direct communion with God.
Disciple (murid) evolved through the “stages” and “states” by practising spiritual
exercises.
o Example: self-mortification (subjugation of desire by self-discipline),
remembrance of God’s name for concentration.
Sufi sect practised sama (musical recital), which was aimed to induce a
mystical state of ecstasy.
o Ulema was hostile to this practice.
The organisation of the Sufis into different orders (silsilah). Example- Qadiri, Chishti
and Suhrawardi etc.
o Hospice (khanqah) was the centre of the different activities of a Sufi order.
o Here, a pir imparted spiritual training to his disciples.
Sufism emphasised self-discipline to gain knowledge of God. While orthodox
Muslim followers emphasise external conduct, the Sufis lay stress on inner purity.
Philosophy of Sufism
● It had its beginning in Persia and spread into India in the 11th century.
It was a liberal reform movement within Islam.

38
● Sufi saints were preparing a more liberal movement within the framework of Islam rather
than selng up a new religion. They, too, owed their allegiance to the Quran as much as the
ulema did. The most popular Indian Sufi saints of India was Khwaja Moinuddin Chishti, who
settled in Ajmer. Hence, Ajmer is called ‘Mecca of India’ His disciples are called Sufis of
Chisti order.
Shaikh Ismail of Lahore, the first Sufi saint, started preaching his ideas.
Another famous Sufi saint was Shihabuddin Suhrawardi.
o His branch of Sufi saints was called the Sufis of the Suhrawardi Order.
Nizamuddin Auliya was a famous Sufi saint was who belonged to the Chishti order.
● Varieties of sources are used to reconstruct the history of
Sufi traditions.
A wide range of texts was produced in and
around Sufi Khanqahs.
● Sufism emphasised the elements of love and devotion
as valuable means of the realisation of God.
Love of God was linked to the love of humanity,
and so the Sufis believed service to
humanity was equivalent to service to God.
● Sufism emphasised other ideas were meditation,
tolerance, good actions, repentance for sins, the
performance of prayers and pilgrimages, fasting,
suppression of passions by ascetic practices, and charity.
● These liberal and unorthodox elements of Sufism had a
great influence on medieval Bhakti Saints.
When the Sufi movement was becoming famous
in India, about the same time, the Bhakti cult was gaining strength among
the Hindus.

Fig. Khwaja Nizamuddin Auliya

39
Fig. Hazrat Nizamuddin Auliya Dargah in Delhi

Sufism in India
The onset of Sufism in India is said to be in the 11th and 12th centuries. Sufism had already taken
on a definite shape before coming to India.
● The fundamental and moral principles, teachings and orders, along with the system
of fasting, prayers and practice of living in khanqahs, had already been fixed.
The Sufis came to India via Afghanistan of their own free will. Their popularity could
be attributed to emphasis upon a pure life, divine love and service. This also earned
them a place of honour in Indian society.

Sufi Orders or Silsilah

Abul Fazl, while writing the Ain-i-Akbari, speaks of fourteen silsilahs of the Sufis.
● These silsilahs were divided into two types as Ba-shara and Be-shara.
Ba-shara followed the Sharia (Islamic Law) and its directives, i.e., namaz and roza.
o The Chishti, Suhrawardi, Qadiri, Firdawsi and Naqshbandi silsilahs were chief
amongst them.
Beshara silsilahs were those who were not bound by the Sharia.
The Qalandars belonged to this group.
The Chisti Silsilah
● The Chishti order was established in a village called Khwaja Chishti (near Herat).
However, the Chishti silsilah in India was founded by Khwaja Muinuddin Chishti (born
c. 1142), who came to India around 1192, shortly a`er the defeat and death
of Prithvi Raj Chauhan.
Ajmer was made the main centre for his teaching.
● Among the disciples of Shaikh Muinuddin (d. 1235) were Bakhtiyar Kaki and his
disciple Faridud-Din Ganj-i-Shakar.
Farid-ud-Din activities were to Hansi and Ajodhan (in modern Haryana and Punjab,
respectively).
His broad and humane outlook makes his verses found quoted in the Adi-Granth of
the Sikhs.
● For him, serving mankind was the best way of devotion, and therefore, he worked amongst
the oppressed. He died in Ajmer in 1236.
● Because of the frequent visits to the Sheikh’s tomb by the emperors, Ajmer became
a leading pilgrim centre during the Mughal times.
● A large number of people also visited the khanqah of Qutubuddin Bakhtiyar Kaki.
Qutub Minar was dedicated to him by Sultan Iltutmish.
● Chishti silsilah was popularised by Sheikh Fariduddin of Ajodhan (Pattan in Pakistan).
He opened up his door of love and generosity for everyone.

40
 He was called Baba Farid and was respected by Hindus and Muslims.
● His verses, composed in Punjabi, are quoted in the Adi Granth.
Shaikh Nizamuddin Auliya (1238-1325), Baba Farid’s most famous disciple, made
Delhi a vital centre of the Chishti silsilah.
He preferred to avoid the company of rulers and nobles and kept aloof from
the state.
For him, renunciation translated to the distribution of food and clothes to the poor.
Amir Khusrau, a noted writer, was amongst his followers.
● Another renowned Chishti saint was Sheikh Nasiruddin Mahmud, popularly known as
Nasiruddin Chirag-i-Dilli (The Lamp of Delhi).
His death in 1356, followed by the lack of a spiritual successor, made the disciples of
the Chishti silsilah move out towards eastern and southern India.
Suhrawardi Silsilah
● Founded in India by Sheikh Bahauddin Zakariya (1182-1262), this silsilah was initially
founded by Sheikh Shihabuddin Suhrawardi.
A leading khanqah in Multan was set up by him, which was visited by rulers, high
government officials and wealthy merchants.
He openly took Iltutmisht’s side in his struggle against Qabacha, who then conferred
the title Shaikhul Islam (Leader of Islam).
● The Suhrawardis maintained close contact with the state, unlike the Chishti saints.
They accepted gi`s, jagirs and government posts in the ecclesiastical department.
● This silsilah was firmly founded in Punjab and Sind.
● Besides these two silsilahs, other silsilahs such as the Firdawsi Silsilah, Qadiri Silsilah,
Shattari Silsilah, and Naqshbandi Silsilah also existed.
Naqshbandi
● This order, established in India by Khwaja Bahauddin Naqshbandi, was later propagated by
his successors, Sheikh Baqi Billah and Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi.
● The mystics of this order stressed the observance of the Shariat and denounced all
innovations or biddat.
● They attempted to purge Islam from all liberal, and according to them, ‘un-Islamic’
● practices. They opposed the listening of sama (religious music) and the practice of
pilgrimage to the tombs of saints and strongly opposed interaction with Hindus and Shias.
In fact, it was Baba Farid, the famous Sufi Saint, who maintained that
devotional music was one way of coming close to God.
● They criticised the liberal policies of Akbar, such as the high status accorded by
Akbar to many non-Muslims, the withdrawal of the jizya, and the ban on cow slaughter.
● Contrary to the Chistis, they maintained that the relationship between man and God was
that of the slave and the master and not of the relation of a lover and beloved.
● The mission of the Naqsh Bandi saints was similar, but they emphasised the eradication of
alien elements that crept in Islam from the native religions. Khwaja Kalan and his
other compatriots propagated the teachings of their predecessors Ubaid ulah Ahrar and
Baha ul- din.
● Naqsh Bandi order was less tolerant as compared to the Chishties, Qadries
and Suhawardies.
● The three above mentioned orders claimed themselves to be the descendants of Ali,
whereas the Naqshbandies traced their origin from the first caliph, Abu Bakr.
Their puritanical approach made them austere and obstinately hardliners.
● They wanted to convert India into an Islamic state and recommended that the Mughal
kings impose jaziya (kind of tax) on the Hindu subjects.
The Mughal kings, however, never acted upon their advice.

41
Qadri
● The Quadiriyya Silsilah, which was popular in Punjab, was initiated during the Mughal rule
under the teachings of Sheikh Abdul Qadir and his sons, Shaikh Niamtullah,
Mukhdum Muhammad Jilani, and Miyan Mir, who had enrolled the Mughal princess
Jahanara and her brother Dara as disciples.
● Another prominent pir was Shah Badakhshani.
The pirs of this order supported the following: The concept of Wahdat al
Wajud, meaning “Unity of Existence” or “Unity of Being”, which suggests God
and his creation are one and similar.
● They dismissed Orthodox elements, declaring that the infidel who had perceived reality and
recognised it was a believer and that a believer who did not recognise reality was an infidel.
During the medieval period, while there was a constant tension between the liberal
and orthodox views in Islam, the Sufis featured on both sides.
● For instance, the Chistis held a liberal view and argued in favour of the assimilation of local
traditions. At the same time, there were Naqshbandi Silsilah proponents who had
the Orthodox view of Shariat and argued that through the other Silsilahs, the purity of Islam
was being diluted.
But most of the Sufis found resonance with the liberal opinion that the ulema argued
against the narrow definition of Islamic laws.
Impact of Sufism
● The Sufi movement had given a valuable contribution to Indian society.
● Just like the Bhakti saints were functional in breaking down the Hinduism barriers, the Sufis
also worked on infusing a new liberal stance within Islam.
● The interaction among early Bhakti and Sufi ideas laid the formation for more liberal
movements of the 15th century.
● Sant Kabir and Guru Nanak preached a non-sectarian religion on the basis of universal love.
● For the Sufi saints, the concept of Wahdat-ul-Wajud (Unity of Being) was a prominent idea
which was promoted by Ibn-i-Arabi (l165-1240).
Ibn-i-Arabi opined that all beings are essentially one. Different religions were
identical.
● The Sufis and Indian yogis had quite the exchange of ideas between them. In fact, the
Amrita Kunda, a hatha-yoga treatise, was translated into Arabic and Persian.
● A significant contribution of the Sufis was their service towards the poorer
and downtrodden people. While the Sultan and ulema were o`en aloof from the
day-to-day problems of the people, the Sufi saints maintained close contact with the
● common people.
Nizamuddin Auliya was infamous for the distribution of gi`s amongst the needy
people irrespective of religion or caste. It is said that he did not take rest untill he heard
● every visitor at the khanqah.
The highest form of devotion to God, according to Sufis, was the service of mankind.
● They treated Hindus and Muslims alike.
It was said by Amir Khusrau that, “Though the Hindu is not like me in religion, he believes in
● the same things that I do”.
● The Sufi movement encouraged equality and brotherhood.
It may be noted that the Islamic emphasis upon equality was acknowledged far more by the
Sufis than by the ulema.
The doctrines of the Sufis were attacked by orthodoxy.
The Sufis also denounced the ulema as their belief was such that the ulema had
succumbed to the world by temptations and was moving away from the
● original democratic and egalitarian principles of the Quran.
A wave of social reforms was also brought about by Sufi saints. Most of the Sufi saints, who
were poets, chose to write in local languages and hence contributed greatly to the growth
of a rich regional literature, just like the Bhakti saints.
Baba Farid recommended the usage of Punjabi for religious writings.
42
 Shaikh Hamiduddin, before him, wrote in Hindawi, with his verses being the
best examples of early Hindawi translation of Persian mystical poetry.
Syed Gesu Daraz, who found Hindi more expressive than Persian to explain
mysticism, was the first writer of Deccani Hindi.
Many Sufi works wriYen in Bengali include one of the most notable writers, Amir
Khusrau (1252-1325), the follower of Nizamuddin Auliya.
o Khusrau, who took pride in being an Indian, looked at the history and
culture of India as a part of his own tradition.
o He wrote verses in Hindi (Hindawi) and employed the Persian metre in
Hindi. He also created a new style called sabaq-i-Hindi.
● By the 15th century, Hindi had begun to assume a definite shape and was used extensively
by Bhakti saints such as Kabir.

Similarities Between Bhakti and Sufi Movements

● The Bhakti cult, along with Sufi movements, showed to people that Priests or ulemas are not
necessary to feel the presence of God as the presence of God could also be experienced under the
direction of a guru.
Therefore, numerous people began to question the authority and domination of their
religion by religious leaders.
● The bhakti and the Sufi saints criticised the existence of rituals in Indian society.
● Both Sufi and Bhakti movements emphasised the feeling of universal brotherhood and
religious tolerance.
Due to this, an environment of mutual love and respect was formed among various sections of
society.
● As the Bhakti and Sufi saints preached their teachings in the local language, it spurred the
development of the local and vernacular languages and corresponding literature.
● Both the movements were functional in promoting the idea of charity and social service. Both
● Bhakti and Sufi saints were very popular among people.
So, their shrine and tombs became a place of pilgrimage visited by both Hindus and Muslims.

Importance of Bhakti and Sufi Movements

● Bhakti movement, being a socio-religious movement, battled religious bigotry and
social rigidities.
● It emphasised good character along with pure thinking.
● When society had become stagnant, a new life and strength were infused by the
Bhakti saints. A new sense of confidence was awakened, and an attempt to redefine
social and religious values was made.
● Bhakti and Sufi saints were critical of the ritualistic and superstitious aspects of the religion.
They were for shedding the age-old superstitious elements of the faith and
attaining salvation through pure devotion towards God. This helped in reforming the
dogmatic nature of the religion.
● Saints like Kabir and Nanak stressed the reordering of society along egalitarian lines. These
saints were against the caste system and the dominance of Brahmans.
Their disciples were from diverse backgrounds—for example- The disciples of
Ramananda.
Many of the oppressed were attracted to their call to social equality.
● There was no intention of founding new religions by Kabir and Nanak, but their supporters
grouped as Kabir panthis and Sikhs a`er their deaths.
● The movements also led to the secularisation of the society and the promot ion of Hindu-
Muslim unity.
Both Hindus, as well as Muslims, respected Saint Kabir.
● Bhakti and Sufi saints created a new atmosphere that continued to affect the social,
religious, and political life of India even in later times to come.

43
 Akbar’s liberal ideas were a result of the atmosphere in which he was born
and brought up.
● Passed down from generation to generation, Guru Nanak’s preaching resulted in the growth
of a separate religious group, with its different language and script Gurmukhi and religious
book, Guru Granth Sahib.
● The Sikhs grew into a daunting political force in the politics of North India under Maharaja
Ranjit Singh. The Sufi theory of Wahdat-al-Wujud (Unity of Being) was extremely similar to
that in the Hindu Upanishads.
● Many Sufi poet-saints preferred to use Hindi terms rather than Persian verses to explain
concepts. Thus, Sufi poets such as Malik Muhamniad Jaisi were found composing works in
Hindi.
● It was so common to use the terms Krishna, Radha, Gopi, Jamuna, Ganga etc., in
the literature that an eminent Sufi, Mir Abdul Wahid, wrote a treatise Haqaiq-i-Hindi to
explain their Islamic equivalents. The interaction continued in the later years as Akbar and
Jahangir followed a liberal religious policy.
● The famous verses and songs of the Bhakti saints served as a precursor for a
musical renaissance. New musical compositions were written for group singing at kirtans.
● Even today, the Bhajans of Mira and the Chaupais of Tulsidas are recited at prayer
meetings.
Did Bhakti and the Sufi Movement also played a role in wielding India as a Nation ?

A socio-cultural movement which spanned for more than 500 years - First Bhak:
came from North to South then went from South to North - the process went on for
several hundred years - gave rise to Composite Culture - Unity, Commonness,Iden:ty
- Nation Building.

Conclusion
As a social movement, the Bhakt i movement in India challenged the caste hierarchy. It
emphasised the individual’s direct connect i on to God and the possibility of salvat i on through
good deeds and simple living. It empowered those on the lowest rungs of Indian society and
provided an impetus for the growth of vernacular literature. As a literary movement, it liberated
poetry from singing the glories of kings and introduced spiritual themes. From a style point of view, it
began with simple and accessible styles like vachanas (in Kannada) and other forms in various
languages to literature. It ended the hegemony of Sanskrit metrical forms.

44
Women Ruler in India

Introduction
When going through the history of India, one tends to come across the achievements of
men whereas having to hunt more to uncover the feats of women. This is not only because women
tend to be denied access to power, but the stories of women who struggled against their
circumstances against all odds are often buried. They have usually been treated as an
undifferentiated group on the periphery, not much relevant to the main historical narrative. But
when looking at the sources, one finds an entirely different pictureti women were rulers, court
participants, builders, donors and occupied a range of other prominent roles. These remarkable
stories of resilience and defiance are worthy of being told, heard, and shared.

Rani Rudrama (1259-1289 AD)

● Rani Rudrama Devi belonged to the Deccan

Plateau’s Kakatiya dynasty.
● The daughter of King Ganapathideva was
formally designated as a son by her father
through the ancient Putrika ceremony and was
named Rudradeva.
● At the young age of 14 years, she
succeeded her father.
● She was married to Veerabhadra, who was an
Eastern Chalukyan prince of Nidadavolu.
● She completed the Warangal Fort, started
by her father.
● The Venetian traveller Marcopolo, who paid a visit during her rule, wrote that she was a
lover of justice, equity, and peace.

Rani Durgawat i (1523- 1564 AD)

● On behalf of her son Bir Narayan, Rani Durgawati ruled over
Gondwana from 1548 to 1564, after the death of Dalpat Shah,
who was the ruler of Gondwana.
● Mughal Emperor Akbar attacked Gondwana in 1564.
● She led the battle against the invading army, but
ultimately, she killed herself, choosing death to dishonour
when her defeat became imminent.

Chand Bibi (1559-1599 AD)

● Chand Bibi was a daughter of Hussain Nizam Shah I of Ahmednagar, also known as Chand
Khatun or Chand Sultana.
● She was married to Sultan Adil Shah (Bijapur), who was murdered by his own men.
● Chand Bibi acted as the Regent of Bijapur (1580–90) and the Regent of Ahmednagar
(1596– 99).
She was able to defend Ahmednagar successfully when the Mughals invaded it in
1595.
● In 1599, once again, the siege was laid by the forces of Akbar to the Ahmednagar fort.

45
 While negotiating terms with the
Mughals, Chand Bibi was killed by her own
troops, who misunderstood her.

Devi Ahilya Bai Holkar (1723-1795 AD)

● Daughter of Manakoji Shinde, Devi Ahilya Bai Holkar
ruled over Ahmednagar from 1766 to 1795.
● She was taken to Indore to marry Malhar Rao’s 10-year-
old son, Khande Rao, when she was eight years old.
Malhar Rao was one of the chief
generals of the Maratha general Baji
Rao I.
A prince’s education was given to her when
there was a superstition that her
husband would die if a woman learned
to read.
● She was married to Khande Rao in 1733, who
died in the battle of Kumbher in 1754.
Her father-in-law Malhar Rao Holkar
guided her in ruling the state till his
death in 1766.
● Malhar Rao relied heavily on Ahilya Bai.
When Khande Rao was murdered during a siege, all his queens rushed to commit sati, but
her father-in-law implored Ahilya Bai not to commit sati.
● When Ahilya’s son died, she saw no reason why she could not become the official
ruler herself.
Gangadhar Yashwant, the diwan, was so horrified that he wrote to Raghoba, the
uncle of the young Peshwa, appealing him to invade Malwa.
● Ahilya Bai created a small army of around 500 women.
Ahilya Bai then wrote a letter to Raghoba, stating that he could only gain disgrace by
battling with women—to win would be a humiliation and to lose a still greater one.
Raghoba then sent a message to save face, stating that he had come to Indore only to
offer his condolences on her son’s death.
o He was royally entertained for a month.

Raziya Sultan (1236-1240 AD)

● Born to the sultan of Delhi in 1211 CE, Shamsuddin Iltutmish and his chief consort
Qutb Begum, daughter of the previous sultan Qutubuddin Aibak, Raziya Sultan was one of
the two children.
● Iltutmish chose his elder son Nasiruddin Mahmud as heir, but he died suddenly.
● Of his other sons borne from different women, Iltutmish found none worthy of being his
successor and instead chose Raziya in 1231 to inherit the throne.
● Upon his death, the nobles, unwilling to accept a woman’s rule, defied the sultan’s decision
and put Iltutmish’s son Ruknuddin Firuz on the throne.
Ruknuddin turned out to be a dreadful ruler who
dissipated the kingdom’s resources.
His mother, Shah Turkan, who was once a slave of
Iltutmish, was now able to exact revenge on all
those she felt had mistreated her,
condemning many to death.
● Terrorised by mother and son, the people of Delhi, who
looked to Raziya as their true ruler, and several nobles,
rebelled.

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 ● When Shah Turkan conspired and killed the young prince, Kutb-ud-din, the murder was
announced by Raziya to the citizens from the palace terrace.
Auditors seized Ruknuddin and brought him to Raziya, who declared, ‘The slayer
must be slain.’
● Raziya then took control as the sultan and was by all accounts a benevolent leader.
● She refused to be addressed as sultana because the word meant ‘wife of a sultan’.
● She appointed non-Turks in state offices. An Abyssinian slave Yakuth was appointed as
master of the royal horses.
● Still, the Chihalgani (the group of forty Turkish chiefs) could not accept and digest the rule of
a woman. They rebelled against Razia when she appointed her favourite Yakut as the
superintendent of the stables.
Yakut was an Abyssinian, which raised the jealousy of Turko-afghan nobles.
● Malik Altunia, the Governor of Bhatinda, supported the rebel chiefs.
A long fight resulted between the two opponent gatherings, following which Yakut died,
and Razia turned into a detainee.

Sugandha (813-914)
● Because of her powerful family
background, Sugandha’s marriage to
Shankaravarman (CE 883-902) of
the Utpala dynasty helped him
elevate his political status.
● Kalhana’s Rajatarangini is an essential
source for Sugandha’s history.
It documents Sugandha as
having accompanied her
husband on m ilit ar y
expediioons.
● Upon Shankaravarman’s untimely death, she displayed good judgement by hiding the fact
of his death until she got ready to take on the guardianship of their young son,
Gopalavarman, to rule the kingdom as a regent.
● Maintaining herself on the throne among different political groups in court, she extended
her forays into power politics, which had resulted in her dethronement.
However, she did make an abortive bid to regain power in 914.
● Her coinage is important corroborative evidence of her power and refers to her by
the masculine epithet Sri Sugandha Deva.

Didda (CE 980/1-1003)

● She represented female power at its resonant peak in early medieval Kashmir.
● Hailing from the politically renowned ruling family of Lohara, Didda commenced her
pursuit of power in Kashmir as a regent. She was the granddaughter of the great Bhima
● Shahi.
Her rule of about 50 years spanned her husband, Kshemagupta’s lifetime, the period of her
● regency and her reign as a formal sovereign.
She exerted considerable influence on the ineffectual Kshemagupta, and this is aYested to
by his coins where di prefixed to his name (di-kshemaguptadeva).
This was intended as her abbreviation.
● Didda assumed guardianship of their son, Abhimanyu, on Kshemagupta’s death.
Her becoming the formal ruler of Kashmir is attributed to the shrewdness of her schemes
for safeguarding the power, as in her alternate bribe-and-placation policy and her disposal
● of her grandsons who stood in the way of the throne.
Her rule was one of peace and prosperity. It was marked by a strong and effective
administration.

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 ● The coins that she issued as Kashmir’s sovereign refer to her by the masculine epithet Sri
Didda Deva, whereas the inscriptions of her reign refer to her by both male and
female epithets.

Vilasa Devi
● Vilasadevi was the wife of Vijayasena (c.1095-1158) of the Sena dynasty of early medieval
Bengal and Bihar.
● Although Vijayasena is considered the real founder of the Sena fortunes in Bengal, it was his
marriage with Vilasadevi, a princess of the Shura family of Apara-Mandara, which
had catapulted him into political greatness.
Based on his newfound power’s strength, Vijayasena was able to conquer nearly all of
Bengal.
● Vilasadevi was not at all a passive partner in this alliance, though. She had a
visible presence in the contemporary political and economic sphere.
Sena inscriptions mention her as a land grant executor, and she possessed
significant financial resources of her own with the will to disburse them as
she pleased.
There is epigraphic evidence of her extensive donations of land to the priests and
other donees, as well as a record of the grand religious ceremonies she
would organise.
● Her performance of the tulapurusha mahadana is significant among these. This was usually
performed by founders of new dynasties of tribal origins seeking to augment their newly-
won political power – and, hence, a male prerogative.
Her inclusion in this list violates a gender dictate.

Prabhavatigupta
● Another prominent queen of early
Indian history, Prabhavatigupta, was the
daughter of Chandragupta II of the Gupta
● dynasty.
She was married to Rudrasena II of
the Vakataka dynasty of western
● India (CE 380-385).
Rudrasena died shortly a`er that, leaving
Prabhavati with Divakarasena and
● Damodarasena, their two infant sons.
She swi`ly assumed the role of regent and
took over the reins of the Vakataka state. She had ruled for around 20 years competently,
closely allying herself with the Gupta political interests and quelling the misgivings of
● naysayers around her at court.
While Chandragupta II appears to have been an advisory for her running the
Vakataka kingdom, Prabhavati is also known to have extended her support to her father’s
● campaign against the Shakas, which had amounted to further territorial acquisitions for the
Guptas.
A routine mention was made about the Gupta dynasty’s details and those of the Vakatakas
in the copper plate inscriptions that Prabhavati issued.

Conclusion: These, coupled with her coins, form an essential source for her reign.
The history of women empowerment in India cannot be complete without a list of female leaders of
Indian and women freedom fighters of India. Although the status of women in medieval times was
probably much worse than today, there were several women leaders and inspirational
women in India who presented a great example of courage, intelligence, and
resourcefulness to future generations.

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