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The Influence of Blasting Fragmentation on Ore Recovery in Sublevel Cave Mines

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ARMA/USRMS 05-811

The Influence of Blasting Fragmentation on Ore

Recovery in Sublevel Cave Mines.
DeGagné, D. O.
Department of Mining Engineering, Queen’s University, Kingston, Ontario, Canada
McKinnon, S. D.
Department of Mining Engineering, Queen’s University, Kingston, Ontario, Canada
Copyright 2005, ARMA, American Rock Mechanics Association

This paper was prepared for presentation at Alaska Rocks 2005, The 40th U.S. Symposium on Rock Mechanics (USRMS): Rock Mechanics for Energy, Mineral and Infrastructure
Development in the Northern Regions, held in Anchorage, Alaska, June 25-29, 2005.
This paper was selected for presentation by a USRMS Program Committee following review of information contained in an abstract submitted earlier by the author(s). Contents of the paper,
as presented, have not been reviewed by ARMA/USRMS and are subject to correction by the author(s). The material, as presented, does not necessarily reflect any position of USRMS,
ARMA, their officers, or members. Electronic reproduction, distribution, or storage of any part of this paper for commercial purposes without the written consent of ARMA is prohibited.
Permission to reproduce in print is restricted to an abstract of not more than 300 words; illustrations may not be copied. The abstract must contain conspicuous acknowledgement of where
and by whom the paper was presented.

ABSTRACT: The maximization of sublevel cave mining profitability requires an understanding of gravity flow and its impact on
recovery and dilution. As such, this paper examines the effect that fragmentation size and differential fragmentation has on gravity
flow in a sublevel cave mine. A numerical modelling approach was taken using a three-dimensional Particle Flow Code (PFC3D).
Four ore size models were considered: very coarse, coarse, medium, and layered (fine, medium, coarse). The models displayed
recovery and dilution characteristics comparable to classical Kvapil curves and offer potential for comparison to modern field data.
The finer the particle sizes of the model, the better the match to the classical curves. Ore-waste pulsation was observed in all
models. Overall, modelling suggests that gravity flow in large, sublevel cave mines is an extension of Kvapil’s theory of ellipsoids
with early dilution arising from behind the ring and later from above the ring.

1. INTRODUCTION
As a safe and cost-effective mining method suitable
for low-grade bulk metal deposits, sublevel caving
(SLC) use is experiencing a rebound world-wide.
As such, there is renewed interest in optimizing
mine layout and draw practices to maximize ore
recovery, minimize waste dilution, and minimize
mining costs. Ore recovery of between 60% and
90%+ and waste dilution of between 5% and 35%
have been reported in practice [1]. In order to use
SLC for marginal deposits and to maximize overall
mine profitability, a better understanding of how the
blasted ore and caved waste rock flows towards the
draw point is required.
In SLC mining, (Figure 1), regularly spaced cross
drifts are driven into the orebody. Retreating from
the hangingwall towards the footwall, the ore is
blasted and mucked in a series of thin slices from
temporary draw points until dilution makes further
recovery uneconomic.
Figure 1. SLC mining method.
At this point a subsequent slice is blasted and mined For example, with only a relatively small increase
with the process continuing so that a common in draw point width, but correspondingly large
mining front on a level is maintained. Mining increase in ring width and height, the blasting ring
progresses top-down, in a stepwise fashion. must be fanned out more with wider spacing in
order to distribute the explosive in the ore slice.
Janelid and Kvapil [2] applied ellipsoid theory to
Since this will result in a variable powder factor,
describe the gravity flow of fragmented ore and
Bull and Page [3] suggest that this may produce a
waste in SLC mining. The theory describes a
differential pattern (Figure 3) of ore fragmentation
mobile elliptical volume of rock, which feeds into a
with fines towards the collar and oversize towards
draw point, surrounded by a disturbed elliptical
the apex of the ring.
volume of rock encompassed by a passive zone of
undisturbed rock. The volumes of these extraction
and motion ellipsoids increase with continued draw
and are influenced by rock properties (e.g. particle
size) and mine layout (e.g. draw width). Ellipsoid
theory enables a limit of draw to be estimated and a
corresponding draw drift spacing and ring burden to
be selected.
Improvements in drilling and blasting technology
and the adoption of the modern design have allowed
SLC’s to evolve (Figure 2) to take advantage of
economies-of-scale. For example, sublevel heights
have increased from 7 m to over 30 m, significantly
reducing sublevel development costs. On first
inspection, the modern design may appear to be
considerably different to its predecessor. However,
tracing along the perimeter of the draw points below
any draw point (Figure 2) of the modern design
reveals the familiar diamond outline. These draw Figure 3. Differential ore fragmentation due to variable
points are said to be vertically interactive because explosive distribution in the ring.
ore not recovered by one may be extracted from one
of the others (deferred ore recovery). This paper examines the affect that fragmentation
size and differential fragmentation has on gravity
flow and SLC recovery performance for a large-
scale, modern ring layout.

Figure 2. Evolution of SLC mine layout and scale.
With such extreme changes to the mine layouts for
which elliptical theory was first applied and the
advent of enhanced monitoring and modelling
regimes, researchers have begun to question the
applicability of elliptical theory to modern SLC
mining.
2. PFC3D MODELS
Three-dimensional sublevel cave models were
developed using the Particle Flow Code (PFC3D).
Perfect blasting was assumed (i.e. no benching,
back break, etc.). All ore and waste clumps are free
to move under the influence of gravity and friction
alone, bounded by model walls.
Three cases of ore size were considered: very
coarse, coarse, and medium, consisting of particles
with an average ore ring particle size of 0.45 m,
0.35 m, and 0.25 m, respectively. A fourth model
consisted of regions of differentially sized (coarse,
medium, and fine) particles layered in flat
horizontal bands. A typical PFC3D model (pre-
draw) is shown in Figure 4 in cross (A) and
longitudinal (B) section. All models contained
caved waste rock that was very coarse in size.
Average radii of particles and their equivalent
clumps are shown in Figure 5 and a histogram of
particle sizes for each model is shown in Figure 6.
In the models, the ore ring is generated within the
draw drift and not simply above it. This is done to
represent the fact that the ore has been blasted and
has expanded (i.e. swelled) into the drift at this
initial state.

Figure 5. Relative particle sizes and equivalent volume

clumps (peanuts) used in models.

Figure 6. Histogram of particle sizes for each model.

The models consist of a double-wide ore ring (red)

enveloped by waste rock (yellow). Double-wide
rings were used to represent deferred ore from
previously drawn rings in order to generate
characteristic extraction curves. The models use a
symmetry plane along the centre axis of the draw
drift.
In all models, blasted ore and caved waste is
represented as clumps, which are two 50%
overlapping particles that act as a single entity. A
. random radius, within a desired sized range, is
generated and two overlapping particles of
Figure 4. Typical model, after gravity equilibrium but before
equivalent volume (less the overlap) are generated
draw, with ore coloured by collar, middle, and apex regions
with a random position and three-axis rotation.
Although clumps are an added model complexity
and double the number of particles to be modeled,
Pierce et al. [3] demonstrated that, while there is
relatively little frictional difference between simple
multi-particle clumps, there is a significant
difference between single spheres and multi-particle
clumps. Clumps approximate fragmented rock
better as they can interlock, yielding a more realistic
effective friction than spheres alone.
The model is drawn by deleting a range of particles
in the draw drift. Prior to deletion, these particles
are measured to calculate tonnage, degree of
extraction, recovery, dilution, and grade. This
process repeats every 5000 cycles until an
extraction level of 120% is achieved. Other than
specific gravity and radii, all rock micromechanical
properties were held constant. Model properties are
shown in Table 1. A block grade of 0.78% nickel
and waste rock with zero metal content was
assumed.
dilution, instantaneous (i.e. muck pile) dilution, and
instantaneous grade. SLC dilution is defined as the
ratio of waste extracted to ore plus waste extracted.
This differs from classical dilution which is simply
the ratio of waste to ore.
Figure 7 shows a model, in cross section, prior to
the initiation of draw. Those particles which
became extracted from this model after 120%
extraction are shown; red for ore and yellow for
waste. Here it can be seen that dilution originated
from both behind and above the ore ring and the
general shape of extraction is elliptical in nature.

Table 1. Micromechanical properties used for PFC3D models.

Property Value
Ball Friction (ore and waste) 0.3
Wall Friction 0.3
Ball/Wall Stiffness (N/m) 1x107
Normal Stiffness : Shear Stiffness Ratio 1:1
Ore Specific Gravity 3.2
Waste Specific Gravity 2.7
Initial Ore Porosity (%) 30
Initial Waste Porosity (%) 40

Hang-ups, caused by rock arching, at the brow are a

natural phenomena inherent in draw point mucking.
The same is true in particle models. However,
hang-up frequency in models can be high. Particle
sizes tend to be coarse to minimize model size and
run-times, and particles cannot break down into
smaller elements. Various techniques were
examined to control model hang-ups, and the most
efficient appeared to be one (denoted hang-slip) in Figure 7. Ellipsoid of extraction for a PFC3D SLC model.
which frictional contacts within a range (Figure 7)
of particles was periodically set to zero. This is In Figure 8, the same model is shown in terms of
done for 20 steps for every 5000 steps (0.4%) of a resultant particle displacement which is manifested
draw cycle. While sufficient to continuously loosen as a series of contours ranging from 4 m to 20 m.
any hang-ups, the duration of hang-slip is very Particles not displayed moved less than 4 m. It can
small, meaning that particle displacements are also be seen that the displacement is manifested as a
very small, and therefore do not influence flow. series of ellipsoid shells.
Models using hang-slip compare very well to those
using other techniques. In Figure 9, the same model is shown in terms of
resultant particle stress (reds indicates higher stress,
while blues and greens indicate lower particle
3. MODEL RESULTS stresses. Horizontal stress layers indicate a uniform
gravity field and an elliptical zone of lower stress,
Models were analyzed to examine the physical showing greatest loosening closest to and above the
system at various stages of extraction and the draw point.
extraction response, respectively. This includes
degree of extraction, cumulative recovery and SLC
Figure 8. Ellipsoids of displacement (motion), after 120%
extraction, raging from 4 m (green) to 20 m (rose).

Figure 10 shows the coarse model at three stages of

extraction (top: long section, bottom: cross section).
In this plot, red represents the ore and yellow the
waste material. It can be seen that there is no
dilution until the extraction ellipsoid first cuts into
the waste behind the ring and then later into the
waste above the ring.
Figure 11 shows the cumulative recovery curves for
each model, as well as the theoretical ideal recovery
Figure 9. Stress contours of Layered model (green/blue low
curve (i.e. no dilution) plus data from Kvapil [5]. stress and orange/red high stress). The cutting plane is inclined
While all models demonstrate good recoveries, it parallel to the ring inclination.
can be seen that the medium and layered models
most resemble Kvapil’s data.
Figure 12 shows the cumulative SLC dilution
curves for the PFC3D models, Kvapil [6] data, and
Selldén and Pierce [7] data. Two sets of model
SLC dilution curves are apparent. The coarser
models show dilution entering the draw point earlier
at approximately 15%-20% extraction, while
dilution does not occur in the finer models until
later at 25%-30% extraction. All model curves
show a gradual rate of dilution ingress until a
certain degree of extraction (65%-70% for finer
models and 80%-85% for coarser models), at which
time the slope of the curve increases significantly.

Figure 10. Evolution of ellipsoid of extraction differentiating

between ore (red) and waste (yellow).
 100 35
Very Coarse Very Coarse
90 Coarse Coarse
Medium 30 Medium
Layered
80 Layers
Kvapil
Ideal Recovery Kvapil
70 25

SLC Dilution (%)

60
Recovery (%)

20

50

15
40

30 10

20
5
10

0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Extraction (%) Recovery (%)

Figure 11. Cumulative recovery curves for SLC models [5]. Figure 13. Cumulative dilution/recovery curves for SLC
models [5, 6].
100
Very Coarse
90 Coarse approximates mine observations of flow. Beyond
Medium

80
Layered
Kvapil
75% recovery, all of the curves have a similar form.
Selldén and Pierce
70
Instantaneous grade and dilution is often used, in
conjunction with extraction level, to estimate when
SLC Dilution (%)

60

50
extraction from a particular ring should be halted.
40
Therefore, these values were monitored at the draw
30
point every draw cycle where particles were deleted
20 form the model (i.e. pulled). Instantaneous grade
10 (Gi) was calculated using Eq. (1) where to, tw, Go,
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120
and Gw are ore and waste tonnage pulled, and their
Extraction (%) associated grades, respectably.
Figure 12. SLC cumulative dilution curves for SLC models
[6, 7].
Gi =
(t oGo + t wGw ) (1)
SLC dilution continues to be higher for the coarser (t o + t w )
models until an extraction level of approximately
90% where all curves coalesce.
The finer models demonstrate a similar trend to that Instantaneous dilution (Di) can then be calculated
of Kvapil’s [6] data, although the onset of dilution using Eq. (2).
begins earlier. These curves do not compare well to
recent field data [7] which shows dilution earlier
Gi
and considerably less, although increasing, levels of Di = 1 − (2)
dilution towards the end of extraction. It should be Go
noted that comparisons to Kvapil and Selldén data
is for the purposes of discussion only and not
intended for model calibration as SLC configuration When the instantaneous (i.e. muck pile) dilution is
and other considerations are not known for these plotted in terms of extraction (Figure 14), the
data sets. relatively smooth cumulative curves can be seen to
consist of many alternating surges of higher and
Figure 13 also shows cumulative SLC dilution, but lower ore and waste content . This is generally
in terms of cumulative recovery. A family of referred to as pulsation. A change in the slope of
curves is suggested such that the finer the model, the curves is again apparent as the rate of dilution
the closer it approaches Kvapil’s curve. Looking increases towards the end of the ring life.
along the recovery axis, it can also be seen that the
finer the model, the later the onset of dilution is.
The finer the model, the more closely it
 100

90 Coarse

80 Medium

70
Instantaneous Dilution (%)

60

50

40

30

20

10

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120
Extraction (%)

Figure 14. Instantaneous dilution curves for selected PFC3D

models.

4. DISCUSSION OF RESULTS
All PFC3D models demonstrated three-dimensional Figure 16. Large physical scaled-model showing extraction
ellipsoidal motion about the draw point. This ellipsoids [9].
agrees with Kvapil’s original work (Figure 15) that
identified a central region of partial mass flow While not calibrated for Ridgeway mine, model
above the draw point surrounded by an ellipsoid of extraction profiles show remarkable similarities to
draw [8]. recent in situ marker trials (Figure 17) that indicated
a more vertical draw [10].

Figure 17. General comparison between Ridgeway mine

marker trial results (A) and a typical PFC3D model (B) [10].

Figure 15. Shape of ellipsoid with a large draw point width

Ore recovery for all models was good and compared
[8]. well to Kvapil. SLC dilution for the finer models
(medium and layered) compared reasonably well to
However, it appears that vertical flow rapidly Kvapil, but the coarser models (very coarse and
becomes the dominant factor when larger rings are coarse) did not. When SLC dilution is plotted
extracted. This effect has also be seen in physical against recovery, a family of curves indicates higher
models (Figure 16) performed by Peters [9] where early dilution for coarser models until near the end
the ellipsoid continues to elongate until a maximum of the ring life. Therefore, the waste has more
width is reached, at which point the ellipse is opportunity to enter the draw point in these models.
indistinguishable from a chimney or pipe. In the Model and Kvapil SLC dilution curves all indicate a
original SLC’s of limited height (10 m) this effect rapid increase in dilution at some point during
was minimal, but in modern designs (30 m) it extraction. An examination of the coarse and
becomes a more prominent factor.
layered models reveals the increase in rate of
dilution at these points coincides with the arrival of
waste from above the ring. This is shown in Figure
18, which displays the ore as shades of red and the
waste as yellow, for the layered model. As
extraction continues, a plug of waste is pulled ever
closer to the draw point until it arrives at
approximately 72% extraction. The same is true for
the coarse model, where the upper waste plug can
be seen reaching the draw point after approximately
81% extraction.

Figure 19. Hypothetical model response with “delayed” plug

dilution due to presence of deferred ore. [6, 7]

As currently designed, the PFC3D models have ore

rings that are bounded on top by pure waste rock.
However, all models have shown a residual volume
of ore remaining after 120% extraction. If this ore
pod is mapped onto a model (Figure 20), it can be
seen that there would be a substantial volume of ore
which would act to shield the ring and delay plug
dilution from above. Field observations support this
notion of deferred ore above the ring.

Figure 18. Layered model displaying long-section view and

the degree of extraction.

It has been noted [7] that Kvapil’s data, with

dilution values on the order of 30% and 40% are not
representative of modern field observations.
Therefore, the same can be argued for the PFC3D
model results. However, consider the effect of
ignoring SLC dilution from the upper waste so that
the slope of the model curves remains constant
(Figure 19). Then the final SLC dilution levels
become much closer to the typical modern field data
suggested by Selldén and Pierce.
Figure 20. Deferred level ore helps to buffer the draw point
from excessive dilution.
This highlights the advantage of the modern design,
which not only shields the draw point with an apex
of ore, but also incorporates an interactive approach
that tends to result in higher recoveries and lower
dilution in general. It would be of interest to
determine if Kvapil’s data was based on the
classical SLC design, which is not interactive and
would be more susceptible to the effects of a waste
plug.
Through enhanced monitoring, some SLC mines
have observed pulsation (Figure 21), were the muck
pile grade fluctuates between higher and lower
values throughout extraction. All of the PFC3D
models demonstrated pulsation. Since this is a
phenomenon which has been seen repeatedly at the
mine scale, and has not been satisfactorily
demonstrated using scaled physical models [12], it
is reassuring to see this behaviour being reproduced
spontaneously in the numerical models.

Figure 22. Pulsation due to the elliptical motion of draw.

Figure 21. Instantaneous (bucket) dilution at a mine [11].

The model results suggest that the elliptical motion

of flow can be used to explain the cause of
pulsation. As illustrated in Figure 22, material
essentially enters the draw point from either the
sidewall (A), from behind the ring (B), or from Figure 23. Entry pathway for early waste dilution.
above in the partial mass flow column (C). It is the
chaotic interaction of the different flow paths which
causes the pulsation effect as ore primarily enters
5. CONCLUSIONS
from above and beside the draw point and waste
primarily from behind. A mine-scale numerical model with relatively
simple mechanical properties and composition was
Figure 23 shows a cutting plane section of the
able to reproduce many of the characteristics
particles in a typical model (ore is shades of red and
observed in classical and modern sublevel cave
waste is yellow) at 20%-25% extraction. Waste
mine designs.
enters the draw point primarily near the brow and
the ore from above. The uncalibrated PFC3D models presented in this
paper displayed recovery and dilution
characteristics comparable to classical Kvapil
curves. With the addition of deferred ore above the
ring apex, it is believed that the models would have
been more characteristic of modern SLC field data.
More coarsely fragmented ore was shown to result
in dilution sooner and at higher levels throughout
mining. As such, it was the finer models which best
simulated the mine scale responses considered.
Calibration to actual mine data would be required in
order to better distinguish between the two finer
models and determine the influence of differential
fragmentation on gravity flow.
As in full-scale mines, muck grade pulsation was
seen to occur naturally in all models. This was
shown to be due to the three-dimensional and
elliptical nature of flow. Chaotic mixing of ore and
waste in the draw column contributed to pulsation.
Extraction response curves coupled with modelling
could provide a useful tool to better understand
what is happening behind the brow in order to
predict and, possibly, diagnose flow.
Comparisons of extraction responses to field data
confirm the importance of deferred ore to modern
interactive SLC mines.
In order to reduce dilution for large sublevel
intervals, a double ring burden was required. This
suggests that increased ring burdens for modern
sublevel cave mines should be considered further.
The models suggest that large scale SLC mines
gravity flow is an extension of Kvapil’s theory of
ellipsoids, with the ellipsoid elongated to the point
of forming a pipe. Early dilution appears to be
controlled in large part by ellipsoid flow from
behind the ring, whereas dilution towards the end of
extraction results from waste above the ring flowing
down the mass flow pipe.
6. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors would like to thank Inco Limited and,
in particular, Stobie Mine for providing the primary
financial and in-kind support for this research.
Additional financial support was provided by the
National Science and Engineering Research Council
of Canada (NSERC) in the form of a Collaborative
Research Development (CRD) Grant.
The authors are also grateful to Rob Assabgui,
Colin McAnulty, Bob MacDonald, Luc Chouinard,
Roger Niemi, John Townend, Jennifer Pakula,
Samantha Espley, Simon Nickson, Harvey Buksa,
Mike LeBlanc, and Peter Auchincloss for their
support and assistance with this research.
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