9) WoureiA Te ies Eaeyepdin Flower A flower, sometimes known as a bloom or blossom, is the reproductive structure found in flowering plants (plants of the division Angiospermae). Flowers produce gametophytes, which in flowering plants consist of a few haploid cells which produce gametes, The "male" ‘gametophyte, which produces non-motile sperm, is enclosed within pollen grains; the "female" gametophyle is contained within the ovule. When pollen from the anther of a flower is ‘deposited on the stigma, ths is called pollination, Some flowers may sel-pollinate, producing, soed using pollen from the same flower ora different flower of the same plant, but others have ‘mechanisms to prevent self-pollination and rely on cross-pollination, when pollen is, transferred from the anther of one flower to the stigma of another flower on a different individual ofthe same species, l-pollination happens in flowers where the stamen and carpel mature at the same time, and are positioned go thal the pollen can land on the flower's stigma. This pollination does not roquire an investment from the plant to provide nectar and pollens food for pollinators"! Some flowers produce diaspores without fertilization (parthenocarpy). Flowers contain sporangia and are the site where gametophytes develop. ‘Most flowering plants depend on animals such as bees, moths, and butterflies, to transfer their pollen between different flowers, and have evolved to attract these pollinators by various strategies, incding brightly colored, conspicuous petals, attractive scents, and the production of nectar, a food source for pollinatrs.2! In this way, many flowering plants have co-evolved ‘with pollinators be mutually dependent on services they provide to one another—in the plant's case, a means of reproduction; in the pollinators case, a source of food.|3) After fertilization, the ovary ofthe flower develops into fruit containing seeds. Flowers have long been appreciated by bumans for their beauty and pleasant scents, and also hold cultural significance as religious ritual, or symbolic objects, or sources of medicine and food, Etymology perms om diferent fantes,Flower is from the Middle English flour, which referred to both the ground grain and the reproductive structure in plants, before splitting off in the 17th eentury. It comes originally from the Latin name of the Italian goddess of flowers, Flora. The early word for flower in English was blossom, {# though it now refers to flowers only of fruit trees.®) Morphology “The morphology ofa flower, ots form and structure can be considered in two pats: the ‘eetative part, consisting of non-repraductive structures sich as petals and the reproductive or seal parts. stereotypical flower made up of fou kinds of struetres attached to the ip of a short talk or ais ale a receptacle. Fach ofthese prt o Nloral organi arranged in & spiral called a whorl.”1 The four main whorls (starting from the base of the flower or lowest node and working wpwards) are the calyx, corolla, androeciom, and gumoccium, Together the Calyx and corolla make up the non-reproductive part of the flower called the perianth, and in ome cases may not be dtferentiate. I this is the case, then they are described as tepaa/*l Perianth Calyx “The sepals, collectively called the calys, are modified leaves that occur on the outermost whorl Saictanataturnty meres toners saree Of the lower, They are leake, in hat they have 4 broad base, stomata, stipules and sores fests pesceneonen chlorophyl 18) sepals are often waxy and tough, and grow quickly to protect the flower as it — develops 10) They nay be decduous but wil more commerly ro oat fruit dispersal. the eal is fused together i iscalledgamosepalous.°! Mature flower ott Corolla ‘The petals, together the corolla, are almost or completely iberless lealke structures ‘hat form the innermost whorl ofthe peranth. They are often deligate and thin, and are usually coloured, shaped, or scented to encourage pollination. {" Although similar peranthto leaves in shape they are more comparable to stamens in that they form almost simultaneously with one another, but thir subsequent growth is delayed, Ifthe corolla is used together iis called sympetalous.21 Reproductive ‘Androecium The androecium, or stamens, is the whorl of pollen-producing male parts. Stamens consist typically of an anther, made up of four pollen sacs arranged in two thecae, connected to a filament, or stalk. The anther contains mierosporocytes which become pollen, the male gametophyte, after undergoing meiosis, Although they exhibit the widest variation among floral organs, the androeciam is usually confined just to one whorl and to two whorls only in rare cases. Stamens range in number, siz, shape, orientation, and in thelr point of connection to the flower! L2 Gynoecium the gynoccium, or the earpels, is the female part of the flower found on the innermost whorl, Bach earpel consists of a stigma, which receives pollen, a style, which acts as a stalk, and an ovary, which contains the ‘ovules. Carpels may occur in one to several whorls, and when fused together are often described as a pistil a A Inside the ovary, the ovules are suspended off of pieces oftiseue called the placenta [2241 pi ot Ester Ly Variation aoa). 1. Sa fis) Pet m Although this arrangement is considered "typical", plant species show a wide variation in floral structure. The four main parts of a flower are generally defined by their positions on the receptacle and not by their fanetion, Many flowers lack some parts or parts may be modified into other functions or look like what is typically another part! in some families, ike Ranunculaceae, the petals are greatly reduced; in many species, the sepals are colorful and petal- Tike. Other flowers have modified stamens that are petal-lke; the double flowers of Peonies and Roses are mostly petaloid stamens." ‘Many flowers have symmetry. When the perianth is bisected through the central axis from any point and symmetrical halves are produced, the flower is said to be actinomorphic or regular. Ths is an example of radial symmetry. When flowers are bisected and produce only one line that prochices symmetrical halves, the flower is said to be irregular or zygomorphic. If, in rare cases, they have no symmetry at all they are called asymmetrie!081291 lowers may be direetly attached to the plant at their base (sessile—the supporting stalk or stem is highly reduced or absent) #9) The stem or stalk. subtending a flower, or an inflorescence of flowers, is called a peduncle. Ifa peduncle supports more than one flower, the stems connecting each Agwer tothe main axis are ealled pedicels"! The apex ofa flowering stem forms a terminal swelling which is called the torus or receptacle [9]In the majority of species, individual lowers have both pstls and stamens, These flowers are deseribed by botanists as being perfect, bisexual, or hermaphrodite. However, in some species of plants the flowers are imperfect or unisexual: having only either male (stamens) or female (pst) parts Inthe latter case, i an individual plant is either female or msle the species is regarded as dioecious. However, where unisexual male and female lowers appear on the same plant, the species is called monoecious!#2! Many’ flowers have nectaries, which are glands that produce & sugary fluid used to attract pollinators, They are not considered as an organ on their own, 8) Inflorescence In those species that have more than one flower on an axis, the collective cluster of flowers is called an inflorescence. Some inflorescences are composed of many small flowers arranged in a formation that resembles ‘single flower. A common example ofthis is most members of the very large composite (Asteraceae) group. A Single daisy or sunflawer, for example, is nat a flower but a flower head—an inflorescence composed of ‘numerous flowers (or florets! An inflorescence may include specialized stems and modified leaves known, as bracts*1 Floral diagrams and formulae aly sata angle ower ually an ileroscones of ty ‘A floral formuta is a way to represent the structure ofa flower using specifi letters, numbers, and symbols, presenting substantial information about the flower in a compact form. Itcan represent a taxon, usually giving "®¥F Pre ranges of the numbers of diferent organs, or particular species. Floral formulae have been developed in the °*!stakratis sur early 1oth century and their use has declined since, Prenner etal (2010) devised an extension of the existing, =" ste brat ‘model to broaden the descriptive capability ofthe formula/=2l The format of floral formulae differs in different parts ofthe world, yet they convey the same information 81291301311 The structure of a flower can also be expressed by the means of floral diagrams, The use of schematic diagrams can replace long descriptions oF complicated drawings as a tool for understanding both floral structure and evolution. Such diagrams may show important features of flowers, including the relative positions of the various organs, including the presence of fosion and symmetry, as wel as structural details. 221 Development A flower develops on a modified shoot or axis from a determinate apical meristem (determinate meaning the axis grows to a set size). It has compressed internodes, bearing structures that in classical plant morphology are interpreted as highly modified leaves.) Detaled developmental studies, however, have shown that stamens are often initited more or less like modified stems (caulomes) that in some eases may even resemble branchlets #405) Taking into account the whole diversity in the development ofthe androecium of flowering plants, we finda continuum between ‘modified leaves (phyllomes), modified stems (caulomes), and modified branchlets (shoots, 81:1 Transition‘The transition to lowering is one of the major phase changes that a plant makes during its life eyele. The transition must take place ata time that js favorable for fertilization and the formation of seeds, hence ensuring maximal reproductive sucess. To meet these needs a plant is able to interpret important endogenous and environmental cues such as changes in levels of plant hormones and seasonable temperature and ‘hotoperiod changes. (27! Many perennial and most biennial plants require vernaliation to lower. The molecular interpretation of these signals is {heough the transmission ofa complex signal known as florigen, which involves a variety of genes, including Constans, Flowering Locus C, and Flowering Locus T. Forgen is produced inthe leaves in reproductvely favorable conditions and acs in buds and growing tips to induce a number of different physiological and morphological changes.) ‘The first step ofthe transition isthe transformation ofthe vegetative stem primordia into oral primordia. This occurs as biochemical changes take place to change celular differentiation of leaf, bud and stem tissues into tissue that will row into the reproductive organs. Growth of the central part of the stem tip stops or flattens out and the sides Gevelop protuberances in a whorled or spiral fashion around the outside of the stem end. These protuberances evelop into the sepels, petals, stamens, and earpels, Once this process begins, in most plants, it cannot be reversed ln and the stems develop Mowers, even ifthe inal stat of the Hower formation evet was dependent of some environmental cue 2 Organ development The ABC model isa simple model that describes the genes responsible forthe development of flowers, Three gene activities interact in combinatorial manner to determine the developmental identities ofthe primordia organ within the floral apical meristem, These gene functions are called A,B, and C. A genes are expressed in only outer and lower Tho ABC motel! ower ‘most section of the apical meristem, which becomes a whorl of sepals, In the second whorl both A and B genes are cevciopnont expressed, leading to the formation of petals. In the third whorl, B and C genes interact to form stamens and ia the center of the flower C genes alone give rise to carpe. The model is based upon studies of aberrant flowers and ‘mutations in Arabidopsis thaliana and the snapéragon, Antirhinum majus, For example, when there is a loss of B gene fonction, mutant flowers are produced with sepals in the frst whorl as usual, but also in the second whorl instead of the normal petal formation. In the third whorl the lack of B funetion but presence of Cfunetion mimics the fourth who, leading tothe formation of earpels also in the third whorl #9! Function The principal purpose of a flower is the reproduction of the individual and the species. All flowering plants are heterosporous, that is, every individual plant produces two types of spores. Microspores are produced by meiosis inside anthers and megaspores are produced inside ovules that are within an ovary. Anthers typically consist of four microsporangia and an ovule is an integumented megasporangium. Both types of spores develop into gametophytes inside sporangia. As with all heterosporous plants, the gametophytes also develop inside the spores, i. e., they are endosporie.In the majority of plant species, individual flowers have both functional earpels and stamens. Botanists describe these flowers as perfect or bisexual, and the species as hermaphrodite. In a minority of plant species, ther lowers lack one or the other reproduetive organ and are described as imperfect or unisexual. If the individual plants of a species each have tnisexual flowers of both sexes then the species is monoecious. Alternatively, ifeach individual plant has only unisexual flowers ofthe same sex then the species is dioecious. Pollination ‘The primary purpose of the flower is reproductions! Since the Mowers are the reproductive organs of the plant, they mediate the joining of the sperm, contained within pollen, to the ovules — contained in the ovary.°° Pollination is the ‘movement of pollen from the anthers to the stigma.2] Normally pollen is moved from one plant to another, known as eross-pollination, but many plants are able to self-pollinate, Cross-pollination is preferred because it allows for genetic variation, whieh contributes to the survival of the species 2] Many flowers are dependent, then, upon external factors for pollination, such as: the wind, water, animals, and especially insects. Larger animals such as birds, bats, and even’ some possums,{¢4] however, can also be employed.!48ll46] To accomplish this, flowers have specific designs whieh encourage the transfer of pollen from one plant to another of the same species. The period of time during whieh this process can take place (when *he flower sully expanded and functional sealed anthesis hence the study of pollination biology is called anthecology 8 feeding on fox flower nectar, wh yolow poten nex wer tats, lowering plants usually face evolutionary pressure to optimize the transfer oftheir pollen, and this is typically reflected in the morphology of the flowers and the behaviour ofthe plants! Pollen may be transferred between plants va a namber of vectors or methods. Around 80% of Algwering plants make use of biotic, or living vectors. Others use abiotic, or non-living, vectors and some plants make use of multiple veetors, but -most are highly specalised39) ough some fit between oF outside of these groups,/!! most flowers can be divided between the following two broad groups of pollination methods: Biotic pollination lowers that use boli vectors attract and use insects, ats, birds, or other animals to transfer pollen from one flower tothe next. Often they are specialized in shape and have an arrangement ofthe stamens that ensures that pollen grains are transferred to the hodies ofthe pollinator when it lands in search of its attractant (Such as eta, pollen, or mate)! In pursuing this atratant from many flowers of the same species, the tor transfers pollen tothe stigmas—arranged with equally pointed precision—of al ofthe flowers i visits 59) Many flowers rely on simpleproximity between flower parts to ensure pollination, while others have elaborate designs to ensure pollination and prevent sef-pollination 51 Flowers use animals including: insets (entomophiy), beds (ornithophiy), bats (ehiropterophiy), Nzards/#81 and even snails and slugs (malacophilae) 541 ‘Attraction methods Plants cannot move from one leation to another, thus many flowers have evolved to attract animals to transfer pollen between individuals in dispersed populations, Most commonly, lowers are insect plinated, known a5 entomophitous; Healy "insct-oving’ in Greek) To attract these insets flowers commonly have glands called nectaries on various parts that attract animals looking for nutritious neetar [7] Birds and bees have color isin, enabling them to srk ot "olrfl” Rowers!) Some flowers ave paters, celled nectar guides, that show points where took for nectar; they may be vibe only under Ultraviolet ight, whic vibe to bees and some other insects 3) Flowers aio attract pollinators by scent, though not ll lower scents are appeaing to humans; a numberof flowers are pollinated by insects that are attracted to rotten flesh and have flowers that smell like dead animals. ‘These ae often called Cation flowers, including plants i the genus Relea, and the titan aru! Flowers ponte hy night ws, lading ats an moth, te ket concentrate on sent oat politors ‘and so most such flowers are white {60} Flowers are also specialized in shape and have an arrangement ofthe stamens that ensures that pollen grains Opts apo, abe eh, wien are transferred to the bodies of the pollinator when it lands in search of its attractant. Other flowers use %3s evohed ver many goneratons ‘mimicry or pseudocopulation to attract pollinators. Many orchids for example, produce flowers resembling minica female oes 8) female bees or wasps in colour, shape, and scent. Males move from one flower to the next in search of a mate, pollinating the flowers °1¢2) Pollinator relationships Many flowers have close relationships with one or afew specif pollinating organisms. Many flowers, fo example, attract only one specifi species of insect, and therefore rely on that insect for sucoessfl reproduction. Ths lose relationship an example of coevolution, as the flower abd pollinator have developed together over along period of time to match cach other's neede|¢) This lose relationship compounds the negative tects of extinction, however, since the extinction of either member in soc areltioship would almost certainly mean the extinction ofthe other ‘member aswel 61 Abiotic pollination Flowers tht use abit, oF non-living, vectors use the wind of, much less commonly, water, to move pollen from one flower to the next] In ‘wind-dispersed (anemophilous) species, the tiny pollen grains are caried, sometimes many thousands of kilometres by the wind to other flowers. Common examples include the grasses, birch tres, along wth many other species inthe order fagaes( ragweeds, and many sedges“They have no need to attract pollinators and therefore tend aot to grow large, showy, or colorful owes, and do not have nectares, nor a noticeable scent. Because of this, plants typically ave many thousands of iy flowers ‘hich have comparatively large, feathery stigmas; to increase th chance of poll being recived] Whereas the Pullen of entomephilon fowars socal ge tc, and rich i protein (inact a a rewart orpllinators), Eiemophllouy flower pollen is typically smallgrained, very light: smoith, and of litle nutritional value to inseets.'"7ll®81 Tp order for the wind to effectively pick up and transport the pollen, the flowers typically have anthers loosely attached to the end of long thin filaments, or pollen forms around «eatin which moves inthe ‘rnd. Rarer forms of this involve indvidoal lowers being moveable by the wind (Pendulous), or sven less commonly; the anthers exploding to release the pollen into the wind. Pollination through water (hydrophily) is a much rarer method, occurring in only around 2% of abiotically pollinated flowers/2l Common examples of this incude Calitrcke autummalis, Vallisneria spiralis and some Eeagrasses One characteristic which mast species inthis group share isa lack ofan eine, of protective layer, around the pollen grain 1 Paul Knuth identified two types of hydrophilous pollination in 1906 and Erast Schwarzenbach added a third in 1944, Knuth named his two groups Hyphydrogamy and the more common Ephydrogamy. In Hyphydrogamy pollination oceus below the surface ofthe water and so the pollen grains ate typically negatively buoyant. For marine plants that exhibit this method the stigmas are usualy stif, wile freshwater species have small and feathery stigmas.” In Ephydrogamy pollination occurs on the surface of the water and so the pllen has alow density to enable floating, though many alo use raf, and are hydrophobic Marine flowers have floating tread-ik stigmas and may have adaptations forthe tide, while freshwater species create indentations in the water! The third category set out by Schwarzenbach, is those lowers which ‘transport pollen above the water through conveyance. This ranges from floating plants, (Lemnoideae), to staminate lowers (Vallsneria). Most species in this group have dry, spherical pollen which sometimes forms into Janger masses, and female lowers which form depression in the water; the method of transport varies Mechanisms A.Gras ower wth it og, hin through aca Hyphyrogany and Flowers can be pollinated by two mechanisms; cross-pollination and self-pollination. No mechanism is indisputably better than the other as they cach have their advantages and disadvantages. Plants use one or both ofthese mechanisms depending on their habitat and ecological niche 1 Cross-pollinationCCross-pollination isthe pollination ofthe earpel by pollen from a different plant of the same species. Because the genetic make-up of the sperm contained within the pollen from the other plant i ditferent, their combination will result ina new, genetically distinet, plant, through the process of sexual reproduction. Since each new plant is genetically distinct, the different plants show variation in their physiological and structural adaptations and so the population as a whole is better prepared for an adverse occurrence in the environment. Cross-pollination, therefore, Increases the survival of Uae species and is usually preferred by lowers for this reason, #01731 Self pollination Self-pollination is the pollination of the carpel of a flower by pollen from either the same flower or another flower on the same plant|$! leading to the ereation of a genetic clone through asexual reproduction, This increases the reliability of producing seeds, the rate at whieh they ean be produced, and lowers the amount energy needed. 41 But, most importantly, it limits genetic variation. In addition, selt-pollination causes inbreeding depression, due largely to the expression of recessive deleterious mutations 178 the extreme case of sel-fertlization, when the ovule is fertilized by pollen from the same flower or plant, occurs in lowers that always sel-fertlize, such as many dandelions.'7"I Some flowers are self-polinated and have flowers that never open or are self-pollinated before the flowers open; these flowers are called cleistogamous; many species in the genus Viola exhibit this, for example.78] Conversely, many species of plants have ways of preventing self pollination and hence, self-fertilization. Unisexual male and female flowers on the same plant may not appear or mature at the same time, o pollen from the same plant may be incapable of fertilizing its ovules. The latter flower lypes, which have chemical barriers to their own pollen, are referred to as self-incompatible!2179) Ia Clignthus puniceus, (pictured), sell pollination is used strategically as an "insurance poliey.” When a pollinator, in this case a bird, visits C. puniceus it rubs off the stigmatic covering and allows for pollen from the bird to enter the stigma. If no pollinators visit, however, then the stigmatic covering falls off naturally to allow for the flowers own anthers to pollinate the flower through self-polination.78) Allergies Pollen is a large contributor to asthma and other respiratory allergies which combined affect between 10 and 50% of people worldwide. This number appears to be growing, as the temperature increases due to climate change mean that plants are producing more pollen, which is also ‘more allergenic. Pollen is difficult to avoid, however, because ofits small size and prevalence in the natural environment. Most ofthe pollen which causes allergies is that produced by wind-dispersed pollinators such asthe grasses, birch trees, oak tres, and ragwoeds; the allergens in pollen are proteins which are thought to be necessary in the process of pollination 21 Fertilization Fertilization, also called Synagmy, occurs following pollination, whieh is the movement of pollen from the stamen to the earpel. It encompasses both plasmogamy, the fusion ofthe protoplasts, and keryogamy, the fusion ofthe nuclei. When pollen lands on the stigma of the flower it begins creating a pollen tube which runs dawn through the style and into the ovary, After penetrating the centre-most part of the ovary it enters the eggapparatus and into one synergid, At this point the end of the pollen tube bursts and releases the two sperm cells, fone of which makes its way t0 an egg, While also losing its cell membrane and much of its protoplasm. The sperms nucleus then fuses with the egg’ nucleus, resulting inthe formation ofa zygote, a diploid (two copies of each chromosome) cell/®2) ‘Whereas in fertilization only plasmogamy, or the fusion of the whole sex cells, results, in Angiosperms (flowering, plants) a process knovn as double fertilization, which involves both Karyogamy and plasmogamy, occurs. In double fertilization the second sperm cell subsequently also enters the synergid and fuses with the two polar nuclei of the central cll. Since all three nuclei are haploid, they result in a large endosperm mucleus which is twiploid [#2] Seed development Following the formation of zygote it begins to grow through nuclear and cellular divisions, called mitosis, eventually becoming a small group of ces, One section of it becomes the embryo, while the other becomes the suspensor; a structure which forees the embryo into the endosperm and is later undetectable. Two small Drtnordia also form at tis time, that later become the eotein, which is used as an energy stor, Plants Whieh grow out one of these primordia are called monocotyledons, while those that grow out two are dicotyledons. The next stage is called the Torpedo stage and involves the growth of several key structures, Including: the radicle (embryotie root), the epicotyl (embryotic stem), and the hypocotyl, (the root/shoot junction) Inthe final step vascular tissue develops around the seed 31 Fruit development “The ovary, inside which the seed is forming from the ovule, grows into a frit. All the other main floral parts die uring this development, including: the style, stigma, sepals, stamens, and petals. The fruit contains three ‘Afra agra, wh he pln tube lboled PC structures: the exocarp, or outer layer, the mesocarp, or the fleshy part, and the endocarp, or innermost layer, while the fruit wal is ealled the pericarp. The size, shape, toughness, and thickness varies among diferent fruit. This is because it is directly connected to the method of seed ispersal; that being the purpose of fruit - to encourage or enable the see's dispersal and protect the seed while doing so. (8!) Seed dispersalFollowing the polinaion ofa flower, fetization, and Bray the development oft seed andy ¢ trechanism is plealy used to disperse the fuk eva from the plant.!®7! In Angiosperms (flowering plants) feuds are dispersed away fot the plant sos To not fore competition between the mothe andthe daghter plants) eel eto enable the colonisation of new reas, They tre often divided into to categories, though many panel inbetween orn one or ore of ‘these:!*9) vcwoatdine ea important dnt “wings 8) Allochory Imallochory, plants use an external veetor, or carrie, to Biotic vectors ‘Many plants use biotic vectors to disperse their seeds away from them. This method falls under the umbrella term Zoochory, while Endozoochory, also known as fruigivory, refers specifically to plants adapted to grow fruit in order to attract animals to eat them. Once eaten they go through typically go through animal's digestive system and are dispersed away from the plant.2"! Some seeds are specially adapted either to last in the gizzard of animals or even to germinate better after passing through them.{I98) They can be eaten by birds (ornithockory), bats (chiropterochory), rodents, primates, ants (myrmecochory),°4) non-bird sauropsids (saurochory), marmals in general (mammaliochory), 921 and even fsh.°5) Typically their fruit are Neshy, have a high nutetional value, and may have chemical atractants as an additional "reward" for ispersers. This is reflected morphologically in the presence of more pulp, an'arl, and sometimes an elaiosome (primarily for ants), which are other eshy structures.94) zoochory accurs in plants whose seeds are adapted to cling on to animals and be dispersed that way, such as many species in the genus ‘eens ypaly tse plana ees ve Hole or vacou race easier pt nial wich ice bird apd gnaw fer. Some Pants use mimesis, or imitation, to tick animals into dispersing the seeds and these often have specially adapted colors S138) ‘The final type of Zoochory is called Synzoochory, which involves neither the digestion ofthe seeds, nor the unintentional carrying of the seed on the body, but the deliberate carrying of the seeds by the animals. This is usually in the mouth or beak of the animal (called Stomatochory), which Js what is used for many birds and all ants.221 Abiotic vectorsIn abiotic dispersal plants use the vectors of the wind, water, or a mechanism of their own to transport their seeds away from them. Anemochory involves using the wind as a veetor to disperse plant's seeds. Because these Seeds have to travel in the wind they ae almast always smal - sometimes even dust-like, havea high surface-ares-to- volume ratio, and are produced ina large number - sometimes up toa million. Plants such as tumbleweeds detach the entire shoot to let the seeds roll away with the wind. Another common adaptation are wings, plumes or balloon like Structures that let the seeds stayin the ar for longer and hence travel farther. In Ilydrochory plants are adapted to disperse their seeds through bodies of water and so typically are buoyant and have a low relative density with regards tothe water. Commonly seeds are adapted morphologically with hydrophobie surfaces, small size, hairs, slime, oll and sometimes air spaces within the seeds2° These plants fall into three tategories: ones where seeds are dispersed on the surface of water currents, under the surface of water currents, and by rain landing on a plant. 291 ‘Autochory In autochory, plants create their own vectors to transport the seeds away fom them. Adaptations for this usually involve the fruits exploding and forcing the seeds away ballistically, such as in Hura erepitans,!I or sometimes in the creation of creeping diaspores.*l Because ofthe relatively small distances that these methods can disperse their seeds, they are often paired with an external vetor 94] Evolution weed in New Zealand 8 iy ands “ayant re While land plants bave existed for about 425 millon years, the first ones reproduced by a simple adaptation oftheir aquatic counterparts: spores In the 2, plants—and some animals—ean simply scatter out genetic clones of themselves to float away and grow elsewhere. This is how early plants reproduced. But plants soon evolved methods of protecting these copies to deal with drying out and other damage which is even more likely on land than in the sea. The protection became the seed, though it had not yet evolved the flower. Early seed-bearing plants include the ginkgo and conifers. theory of evolution that it was ealled an "abominable mystery” by Charles Darwin, Several groups of extinct gymnosperms, particularly seed ferns, have been proposed as the ancestors of lowering. plants but there is no continuous fossil evidence showing exactly how flowers evolved. The apparently sudden appearance of relatively modern flowers in the fossil record posed such a problem for the Recently discovered angiosperm fossils such as Archaeffuetus, along with further discoveries of fossil gymnosperms, suggest how angiosperm characteristics may have been acquired in 2 series of steps. An early fossil of a flowering plant, Archaefructus liaoningensis from China, is dated about 125 million years old.!102109) Even earlier from China is the 125-130 million years old Archaefructus sinensis, In 2015 a plant (rchaciictisjaonngense, one ot (230 million-year-old Montseckia vidal, discovered in Spain) was claimed to be 130 million years old. 1m ses! own ynerng lan 2018, Seentists reported thatthe exries flowers began about 180 aillion years ago. 8)Recent DNA analysis (molecular systematies)*®51 shows that Amborella trichopoda, found on the Pacific Island of New Caledonia, is the only species in the sister group to the rest of the flowering plants, and ‘morphologies! ses suggest that thas features which may have been characterise of the earliest flowering plants 07 Besides the hard proof of flowers in or shortly before the Cretaceous,/2#I20%1 there is some circumstantial evidence of flowers as much as 250 million years ago. A chemical used by plants to defend their lowers, oleanane, has been detected in fossil plants that old, including gigantopterids,"°) which evolved at that time and bear many of the traits of modern, flowering plants, though they are not known to be flowering plants ‘themselves, because only their stems and prickles have been found preserved in detail; one of the earliest examples of petrification, ‘characte features ofthe earls fering plants The similarity in leaf and stem structure can be very important, because flowers are genetically just an adaptation of normal leaf and stem components on plants, a combination of genes normally responsible for forming new shoots] The most primitive flawers are thought to have had a variable numberof flower parts, often separate from (but in contaet with) each other, The flowers would have tended to grow in a spiral pattern, to be bisexual (in plants, this ‘means both male and female parts on the same flower), and to be dominated by the ovary (female part). As flowers grew more advanced, some variations developed parts fused together, with a much more specific number and design, and with either specific sexes per lower or plant, or at least “ovary inferior ‘The general assumption is that the funetion of flowers, from the start, was to involve animals inthe reproduction process. Pollen can be scattered without bright colors and obvious shapes, which would therefore bea liability, using the plants resources, unless they provide some other benefit. One proposed reason for the sudden, fully developed appearance of flowers is that they evolved in an isolated setting like an island, or chain of islands, where the plants bearing them were able to develop a highly specialized relationship with some specific animal (a wasp, for example), the ‘way many island species develop today. This symbiotic relationship, with « hypothetical wasp bearing pollen from one plant to another much the way fig wasps do today, could have eventually resulted in both the plants) and their pariners developing a high degree of specialization. Island genetics is believed to be a common source of speciation, especially when it comes to radieal adaptations which seem to have required inferior transitional forms. Note that the wasp example is not incidental; bees, apparently evolved specifically for symbiotic plant relationships, are descended from wasps. Likewise, most fruit used in plant reproduction comes from the enlargement of parts of the lower. This fruit is frequently a tool which depends upon animals wishing to eat it, and thus seattering the seeds it contains. While many such symbiotic relationships remain too fragile to survive competition with mainland organisms, flowers proved to be an unusually effective means of production, spreading (whatever their actual origin) to become the dominant form of land plant life Flower evolution continues to the present day; modern flowers have been so profoundly influenced by humans that many of them cannot be pollinated in nature. Many modern, domesticated flowers used to be simple weeds, which only sprouted when the ground was disturbed. Some of ‘hem tended to grow with human crops, and the prettiest did not get plucked because of their beauty, developing a dependence upon and special adaptation to human affection. {41Colour ‘Many flowering plants reflect as much light as possible within the range of visible wavelengths ofthe pollinator the plant intends to attrat. lowers that reflect the fll range of visible ight are generally perceived as white by ‘human observer. An important feature of white flowers is that they reflect equally aeross the visible spectrum. While many flowering plants use white to attract pollinators, the use of color is also widespread (even within the same species). Color allows a lowering plant to be more specific bout the pollinator it seeks to attract. The color model used by human color reproduction technology (CMYK) relies on the modulation of pigments that divide the spectrum into broad areas of absorption. Flowering planis by contrast are able to shift the transition point wavelength between absorption and reflection, if tis assumed that the visual systems of most pollinators Re"e!snc spectators flowers View the visible spectrum as circular then it may be sad that lowering plants produce color by absorbing the o/sverl ernie ol os. Ared Tigh in one region ofthe spectrum and reflecting the light inthe other region, With CMYK, colori produced as" absorbs about 8.7% oft function of the amplitude of the broad regions of absorption. Flowering plant by contrast produce color by 728 toad ar ‘modifying the frequency (or rather wavelength) of the light reflected, Most lowers absorb light inthe blue to yellow regio ofthe spectrum and reflect light from the green to red region ofthe spectrom, For many species Of flowering plant, tis the transition point that characterizes the eolor that they produce. Color may be ‘modulated by shifting the transition point between absorption and reflection and in this way a flowering plant ‘may specify which pollinator it seeks to attract. Some flowering plants also have a limited ability to modulate areas of absorption. This is typically not as precise as control over wavelength. Tumans observers will perceive this as degrees of saturation (the amount of white inthe color, wavelengths ofthe specrum Toadng to an exceptional Ayotow rose wl rect bout 5% Classical taxonomy In plant taxonomy, which is the study of the classification and identification of plants, the morphology of plant's flowers are used extensively — and hhave been for thousands of years. Although the history of plant taxonomy extends back to at least around 300 B.C. with the writings of Theophrastus," the foundation of the modern science is based on works inthe 18th and 9th centuries 1S. Carl Linnacus (1707-1778), was a Swedish botanist who spent most of his working life as a professor of natural history. His landmark 1757 book Species Plantarum lys out his system of classification as wel asthe concept of binomial nomenclature, the liter of which is stil used around the world today 9510021 j4¢ identified 24 classes, based mainly on the number, length and union of the stamens. The first ten classes follow the umber of stamens directly (Octandria have 8 stamens ete),l while clas eleven has 11-20 stamens and classes twelve and thirteen have 20 stamens; differing only in their point of attachment. The next fve classes deal with the length of the stamens and the final five with the nature of the reproductive capability of the plant; where the stamen grows; and i the flower is concealed or exits at all (such as in ferns). This method of classification, despite being artificial was used extensively for the following seven decades, before being replaced bythe system of another botanist Antoine Laurent de Jussieu (1748-1836) was a French botanist whose 1787 work Genera plantarum: secundum ordines naturales disposta set ot a new method for classifying plant; based instead on natural characteristics, Plants were divided by the number, if any, of etyledons, and the location ofthe stamens !"°1 The next most major system of elasiiation came inthe late 1gth century from the botanists Joseph Dalton Hooker (G817-1911) and George Bentham (:800-1884). They bult on the earlier works of de Jussiew and Angustin Pyramas de Candolle and devised a(Ca Lnnaaue's math er ttassying plans fociaed solely fon he sneure and nature of te fora, soldiers who have died in times of war lily are used in burials as a symbol refering to *resurrectionife™. It's also associated with stars (Gun) and its petals blooming/shining system which i still used in many ofthe world’s herbaria, Plants were divided atthe highest level by the number of cotyledons and the nature of the lowers, before falling nto orders fame), geners, and species, This system of elasfcation was published in their Genera plantarum in three volumes between 1862 and 1883.71 Is the ‘most highly regarded and deemed the "bes system of lassifiation,” in some settings 8) Following the development in scientific thought after Darwin's On the Origin of Species, many botanists have tused more phylogenetic methods and the use of genetic sequencing, cytology, and palynology has become increasingly common, Despite this, morphological characteristics such as the nature of the flower and lorescence still make up the bedrock of plant taxonomy. Symbolism Many flowers have important symbolic meanings in Western culture #91 ‘The practice of assigning meanings to flowers is known as floriography. Some of the more common examples inchide: Red roses are given as a symbol of love, beauty, and passion {1241 Poppies are a symbol of consolation in time of death. In the United Kingdom, New Zealand, Australia and Canada, red poppies are worn lo commemorate + Daisies are a symbol of innocence, les ae afer use to dente eo Because of their varied and colorful appearance, flowers have long been & favorite subject of visual artists as well. Some of the most celebrated paintings from well-known painters are of flowers, such as Van Gogh's sunflowers series or Monet's water lilies. lowers are also dried, freeze dried and pressed in order to ereste permanent, three-dimensional pieces of floral ar. Flowers within art are also representative ofthe female genitalia"! as seen in the works of artists such as Georgia O'Keefe, Imogen Cunningham, Veronica Ruiz de Velasco, and Judy Chicago, and infact in Asian and western classical art, Many cultures around the world have a marked tendency to associate flowers with femininity. ‘The great variety of delicate and beautiful lowers has inspired the works of numerous poets, especially from the 18th~19th century Romantic era. Famous examples include William Wordsworth’s I Wandered Lonely as a Cloud and William Blake's AK! Sun-Flower. ‘in dreams has also been discussed, with possible interpretations including "blossoming potential’ "23‘The Roman goddess of fowers, gardens, and the season of Spring is Flora. The Greek goddess of spring, lowers and nature is Chloris. In Hindu mythology, lowers have a significant status. Vishnu, one of the three major gods in the Hindu system, is often depicted standing straight ona lotus flower!" Apart from the association with Vishnu, the Hindu tradition also considers the lotus to have spiritual significance.51 For example, it figures in the Hindu stories of creation Human use History shows that flowers have been used by humans for thousands of years, to serve a varity of ‘purposes. An early example ofthis is from about 4,500 years ago in Ancient Egypt, where flowers would be used to decorate women's hair. Flowers have also inspired art tne and time again, such as in Monet's Water Lilies or William Wordsworth's poem about daffodils entitled "I Wandered Lonely as a Cloud™."#7) In modem times, people have sought ways to cultivate, buy, wear, or otherwise be around flowers and blooming plants, partly because of their agreeable appearance and smell. Around the world, people use flowers to mark important events in their lives: = Fornew births or christonings 1 As a corsage or boutonniere wom at social functions or for holidays = As tokens of love or estoom = For wedding flowers forthe bridal party, and for decorations forthe hall, As tightening decorations win te homme ‘As agit of rmembranc or bon voyage partes, welcome-home partes, ad "inking o you" is Forfinerafowers and expresions of sympathy othe geving ‘= For worship. In Christianity, chancel flowers often adom churches |"2¢! In Hindu culture, adherents Camerony bing towers a ait topes = lowers like jasmine have been used as a replacement for traditional tea in China for centuries. Most recently ‘many other herbs and flowers used traditionally aeoss the world are gaining importance to preapare a range of floral tea. ‘teh navalfiagofcer Thomas People therefore grow flowers around their homes, dedicate parts oftheir living space to lower gardens, pick wildflowers, o buy commercially-grown fowers from florists. Flowers provide less food than other major plant parts (seeds, fruits, roots, stems and leaves), but stil provide several important vegetables and spices. Flower vegetables include broccoli, cauliflower and artichoke. The most expensive spice, safton, consists of dried stigmas ofa erocus. Other flower spices are cloves and capers. Hops flowers are used to lavor beer. Marigold flowers are fed to chickens to ive their egg yolks a golden yellow color, which consumers find mote desirable; dried and ground marigold flowers are also used as a spice andcolouring agent in Georgian euisine, Flowers ofthe dandelion and elder are often made into wine. Bee pollen, pollen collected from bees, is considered a health food by some people. Honey consists of bee-processed flower nectar and is tften named for the type of flower, e.g. orange blossom honey, clover honey and tupelo honey. Hundreds of fash flowers are edible, but only few are widely marketed as food. They ae often added to salads as gamishes. Squash blossoms are dipped in breaderombs and fried. Some edible Mowers include nasturtium, shnsanthemum, carsation, cata, Japanese honeysuckle, chicory, comflower, canna, and sunflower!) table Flowers such a daisy rose, and violet are sometimes candied Flowers such as chrysanthemum, rose, jasmine, Japanese honeysuckle, and chamomile, chosen for their fragrance and medicinal properties, are used as tisanes, ether mixed with tea or on their own. Flowers have been used since prehistoric ines in funeral situa: races of pollen have been found on a woman's tomb in the El Miron Cave in Spain 31 Many cultures draw a connection between flowers and life and death, and because of their seasonal return flowers also suggest rebirth, which may explain why many people place fowers upon ‘Awoman speeding fevers “The ancient Greek, as recorded in turipides's pay The Phoenician Wornen, placed a crown of flowers onthe head of overs ingenin temple n the deceased: 1" they also covered tombs with wreaths and Dower petals. Flowers were widely used in ancient Varavsi Egyptian bural/51 and the Mexicans to this day use lowers prominently in their Day ofthe Dead celebrations) inthe same way that their Artec ancestors Flower colt or worship of 13th ty, 5 Hi des in morning, West Beng Giving “The flower-giving tradition goes back to prehistoric times when flowers often had a medicinal and herbal attributes. Archaeologists found in several grave sites remnants of lower petals. Flowers were first used as sacrificial and burial objects. Ancient Eayptians and later Greeks and Romans used flowers. In Egypt, burial objects from the time around 1540 BC were found, which depicted red poppy, yellow Araun, cornflower and lies. Records of lower giving sppear in Chinese writings and Egyptian hieroglyphies, as well as in Greek and Roman mythology. The practice of siving a lower lurished in the Middle Ages when couples showed affection through flowers‘The tradition of fowergiving exists in many forms. I is an important part of Russian culture and folklore. I is common for students to give flowers to their teachers. To give yellow flowers in a romantic relationship means break- ‘pin Russia, Nowadays, lowers are often given away in the form ofa lower bouquet C3839) See also += Flora color change = Flower preservation = Garden List of garden plants Plant evolutionary developmental biology Plant reproductive morphology Soning Notes 1. His earlior works: Systema Naturae (1735) and Genera plantarum (1737) wore also influential in th fek.°51 References Citations 4. 'Sell-Polination and Cross-Polination | Biology for Majors I" (hiipsiicourses.lumenlearning.comiwm-biology2icha Fer markat~ Oat pterise¥-polination-and-cross-polination). courses lumeniearming com. Archived (https:iweb archive.org/web/202 ssl Maris (007211486S4ihtins:/courses lumenlearning.com/wm-biology2/chapter/so-polination-and-cross-polinaiany) ‘fom the orginal on 2020-07-21, Retrieved 2020-07-21 2. *Plant Polination Strategies” (hitos:)www fs.usda goviwildlowers/pollnators/Plant_Strategiasiindex shim) ‘Ieusda.gov. Retrieved 18 February 2023, 3. *Polinators in the Landscape I: Plants and Polinators" (hitps/iag.umass.edullandscape/fac-sheets/polinators-in- iandscape-i-plants-polinators).ag.umass.edu. Unversity of Massachusetts Amherst. 9 September 2015, 4. Cresswell, Julia (2010). Oxford dictionary of word origins (hitplfarchive.org/details/oxforddtionary0000unse 3). Intomet Archive. Oxtord University Press. pp. 155 & 172. ISBN 978-0-19-954793-7. "Definition of BLOSSOM" (hitps:/iwow.merriam-webster comiditionarylblossom). winw.merriam-webster com, ‘Archived (htips:liweb archive orgiwebi20210626 19530otips:/ivww.merriam-webster.com/cictionary/blossom) ‘rom the original on 2021-06-24. Retrieved 2021-06-16.6. "Morphology | Definition of Marphology by Oxford Dictionary on LLexico.com also meaning of Morphology” (nlipsi/web.archive.orghw 27. Prenner, Gernard (February 2010). “Floral formulae updates for ‘outing inclusion in formal axonomic descriptions” (hipsiiwww.aca '2b/2020030517309/htps iw lexico.comidelinon/marphology) LLexieo Dietionaries | English. Archived ‘rom the original (tips/ww wlexico,comidefnitontmerphalogy) on March 5, 2020, Retrieved 2021-07-08, 7, De Graene & P, 2010, p. 4 8. De Craene & P. 2010. pp. 5-5, 8, De Craene & P. 2010. p. 7. 10. D. Mauseth 2018, p, 225. 17, D. Mauseth 2016, 9.226, 12. De Craene & P. 2010, p. 8. 13.D. Mauseth 2016, p. 229. 14. Dec P.2010, p. 14 18, Sattler, R, (1973), Organogenesis of Flowers. A Photographic Text- Alas. University of Toronto Press. ISBN 978-0-8020-1864-9, 16, Endress, Peter K, (1996-07-25). Diversity and Evolutionary Biology of Tropical Flowers (https:lbooks.google,combooks7id=8_ DIMSSor '8c0), Cambridge University Pross. p. 11. ISBN 978-0-52156510-3, 417. Reynolds, Joan; Tampion, John (1983). Double flowers: a scientific study. London: [Published fr the] Polytechnic of Central London ross [by] Pembridge Pross. p. 41. ISBN 978-0-86206-004.6, 18. De Craene & P. 2010, p. 25, 19. Weberting, Focko (1992). Morphology of Flowers and Inilorescences (hiipsllbaoks.google.com/books id=-ZIOAAAAIAAL ‘qevalerian*flawer=sy /Apg=PA19). Cambridge University ross, pp. 17-18. ISBN 0-521-25134-6. 20, D. Mauseth 2016, p. 243, 2, De Craene & P. 2010, p. 410, 22, D, Mauseth 2016, p. 259, 23, De Graene & P. 2010, p.21 24, "Zantedeschia aethiopic” (htps:Iwww.napen.org.nzlloralspeciesl2 antedeschia-aethiopica). Now Zealand Plant Conservation Network. Retnieved 2022-05-08. 25, D, Mauseth 2016, ». 228, 25, De Graene & P, 2010, pp, 22-24 dema.edul"175374), Taxon. 89 (1) 241-250. 449 10,1002stax.531022 (hits:ldo\org/70.1002%42Ftax. 501022} ‘Archived (hips: iweb.archive,orghweb/20180329233442!ntp Www, Seademiaedul 175071 ra fomlae-upeaed for rouine- nus Jon_in_ formal taxonomic _deseripons) fom the sriginal on 2018 03-28, 28, De Craene & P. 2010, p. 38, 28, Stephen Downie; Kon Robertson. "Digital Flowors: Floral Formulas (tp: www if ilinois.euhelpsigitalflowers/FloralFormulas/indexh fm), Unversiy of lino s, Archived (ntps:iweb,archive,orgiwebr2018 (0304195425/htp:thwwwif.ilinois.eduhelpidigtallowers/FloralFor ‘mulasiindex htm) from the original on 4 March 2016. Retioved 28 January 2014. 80. "Plant Taxonomy - Biology 308" (hitps:/web archive.orgiwab20140 {624001630 Mttpiiemoloyees csbsju.edulssauperbiol808/Lecture!ior al_form.htm). empioyees.csbsju.edu. Archived from the original (htt Dilempioyees.csbsju.edu'ssaupe/bio!908/Lecture/Noral_form htm) fon Jun 28, 2074, 31, Sharma 2008, op. 165-168, 82 De Craene & P2010, p. 35, 3, Eames, A.J. (1964). Mo ofthe Angiosperms (hitps:archiv 2.0rgidetals/morphologyotangi0000eame), New York Miccraw-Hil Book Co, 34 Leins, Peter (2010). Flower and frat: morphology. ontogeny, phylogeny. function and ecology (niips:/www.workdcat orgiocle/6785 442669), Clausia Erba”. Stutgart: Schweizerbart. ISBN 978. {85251-7. OCLC 678542669 (nips /iwiew.worldeat orgloclcl6 785425 69) 35. Sattler, R. (1988). "A dynamic multidimensional approach to floral ‘development’. In Leins, P; Tucker, S.C. & Endress, PK. (eds) Aspects of Floral Development. Beri: J. Cramer/Bomizaegar. pp. 1-6, 36, Sattler, R & Jeune, B. (1992). "Multivariate analysis confirms the ‘continuum view of plant form. Annals of Botany. 68 (3): 248-262. {49:10.1093/oxfordjournals aob, 2088338 (htps:/do\.org/10, 1093942 Foxfordjournals.aob 2088336)37. Ausin, | eal, (2005). "Environmental regulation of flowering” (ht sildo\org/10.1387%.2Fijdb.052022ia). nt J Dov Biol. 49 (5-8). 68S 705. doi 10.1387fjdb.052022ia(hiips:/do. org/10.1387%2Fiidb 052 0221a), PMID 16096975 (hitos/pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/ 1609697 5) Turek, F; Forara, F; Coupland, G. (2008). “Regulation and dently of Florigen: Flowering Locus T Moves Centre Stage (hiipv/edoc.mp {.4e/359549), Annual Review of Plant Biology, 59: 573-594, {10.1 146/annurev.arplan.59,032607,092755 (hitps:/ldo.o 146%2Fannurevarplant 59.032607.092758). hdl 11858/00-001M. (0000-0012-374F-8 (htps. hal handle.net/11858%2F00-0016-0000- (0012-374F-8) PMID 18444908 (hipsljpubmed.ncbl nim.nih,govl'8 444908). S2CID 39798675 (ntips//ap, semanticscholar.org/Corpusl 0:39798675). Archived (htps:iweb.archive.org/web/201912152135 (ihitp:tedoc. mpg.de/369549) om the arignal on 2019-12-18. Rotrieves 2019-07-25, Searle; etal. (2008). “Te transcription factor FLC confers a ‘lowering response to vemalization by repressing meristem ‘competence and systemic signaling n Arabidopsis” (htps:liwww.ne bi.nim.nih.gowpmelartcles/PMC1472290). Gories Dev. 20 (7). 898 92, doi 10,110 1igad,373506 (https:/do\org/0.1101%42F gad 37350 8). PMC 1472290 (htps:liwww.ncb.rim.nih.govipmearicles PMC 472290), PMIO 16600915 (hitps//pubmed.nebi.nimunih gov! 166009 15), . Mauseth 2016, pp. 392-395. ‘Beekman, Madeleine; Nieuwenhuis, Bart; Oriz-Bartientes, Daniel Evans, Jonathan P, (2016). "Sexual selection in hermaphrodites, sperm and broadcast spawrers, planis and fungi (niosi/inww.nebi ‘rim .nih.govipmeJaricles/PMC5031625). Philosophical Transactions Biological Sciences. 371 (1708) §. dot 10.1098/rstb.2016,0541 (hitp sldo\.org/10.1098%2Frstb 2015.0541). ISSN 0967-6436 (htps:iiw ww. worldcat.orgissn/0962-8436) JSTOR 26143395 hitps:ihwww jst ororgistable/26143395). PMC 5031625 (hits: /iwwwancbi.nim.rih.go ‘vipme/artcies/PMC5031625). PMID 27619704 (hiipspubmed.ncb. ‘lm,nih.govi27619704), “The sole purpose of flowars sox.” 42, Walker 2020, p. 9 43. D. Mauseth 2016, 238, 38, 39, 49, a 44 45, 46. a7, 48, 49, “Tumer, Vivienne (1984). "Banksia Pollen as a Source of Protein in the Diet of Two Australan Marsupials Cercartelus nanus and Tarsipes rostratus”(htps:/iwwn stor orgistable/3544245), Oikos. 43 (7): 53-6 1 doi 10.2307/3544245 (htips ool org/0.2307%42F 35442 ISSN 0030-1299 (hiipssiwzw.worldest,org/issr/0030-1298) STOR 3544246 (nts wander og sabe/S544248) Archived (h ttps:tivab archive.orgweb/20210624215040MtipsJwwwjstor.orgist _able/3544246) from the original on 2021-06-24. Retrieved 202'-06-20 - via JSTOR. “The honey possum, Tarsipes rostratus (Turner 1988), This marsupials highly specialized for feeding at flowers and known to visit several species of Banksia’ Walker 2020, p. 65. Walker 2020, pp. 69-83 Walker 2020, p, 120, Baker, Herbert G. (7989-01-01), "CHAPTER 2- an Outine of the History of Anthecology, or Pollination Biology"*Based on, but ‘expanded and updated from, a paper published in the NZ, J. Bot (Baker, 1978), ission ofthe editor’ (hitps:Ihwww.Sciencedirec {Lcomiscience/artciepi/B89780125839808500090). A) Outline of the History of Anthecology, or Polination Biology. Polination Biology 8. dl:10,101618978.0-12-585980-8,50009-0 (nips /idol org/10.1 (916%:2F8978-0-12-583980-8,50008-0), ISBN 9780125839508, Archived (hitos:/veb.archive.orgweb/202 10824201 108/ttpsihww \w.sciencedirect. com/science/artcla/p v89780125839808500090) {om the orignal on 2021-06-24. Retrieved 2021-06-20 — via Elsevier Science Direct, Friedman, Jannice (2011). "Gone with the wind: understanding ‘evolutionary transitions between wind and animal pollination in the angiosperms” (htlps:/ivwjstororg/stable/20869225). Tho Now Phytologist. 191 (4) 911-913. dol 10,11117, 1469- £8137.2011.03845.x(htps:ldoiorgit0.1111%2F,1469-8137.2011.03, '345.x). ISSN 0028-646X (https /iwww workdcat orgissr/0028-645X) “STOR 20869228 (htps:/iwww jsororgistable/20869225), PMID 21834912 (hitps:i/pubmed.nebi.rim.nin.govi21834312) ‘Archived (htosiweb archive. orgweb/202 10824225258/nps:iaw ‘stor org/stable/20869225) ‘rom the orginal on 2021-05-24 Retrieved 2021-06-20 — via JSTOR.'50. Ackerman, J.D. (2000-03-01). “Abiotic pollen and pollination: Ecological, functional, and evolutionary perspectives" (hlpssdo\.or 9/10. 1007/8 00984101). Plant Systematics and Evolulion. 222 (1) 167-185, dol 10,1007/3F00884101 (https lid org!10,1007%2FBFO 0984101). ISSN 1615-5110 (hips Jiwwu.worldcatorgiissn/1615-611 0} $2010 36015720 (rpopsomartcscoler organs 3601 5720), Archived (htips:/wab archive.orgiweb/20220221171454http Sillink springer.comvarticle/10,100715F00984101) fiom the orginal ‘an 2022-02-21. Retioved 2021-06-20. 51, Walker 2020, p. 46 52. D. Mauseth 2016, pp. 239-240. 53, Walker 2020, p. 68 ‘54, Knuth, Maller & Ainsworth Davis 1906, pp. 72-80. 55, Voreecken, Nicolas J; Wilson, Carol A.; Halling, Susann; Schulz, Stefan; Banketov, Sergey A.; Mardulyn, Paik (2012-12-07), "Pre ‘adaptations and the evolution of polination by sexual deception: Cope's rule of specialization revisited” (htlps:/ivaw.neb.nim.ni.go Vipmelaricles/PMC3497092). Proceedings of the Royal Society & Biological Scioncos. 279 (1748): 4786-4794 ol: 10.t098/repb,2012, 1804 (hit.fdo.org/10.1098%42Frspb.20°2. 1804). PMC 3497092 (htps:/iwwnw.ncbi.nim.nih.gavipmclaricles/PM (2497092) PMD 23085065 Jpmed.neb nm. rih. govi2305 5065) Walker 2020, p. 81 Walker 2020, pp. 112-118, 158, Walker 2020, pp. 107-108. 59, Walker 2020, p. 121 60. Walker 2020, p. 173 61, D. Mauseth 2016, p. 24% 62. Peakall, Rod; Ebert, Daniel Poldy, Jacqueline; Barrow, Russell A Franko, Wit: Bower, Colin C.; Schest, Florian . (2010). *Polinator specifcty, floral dour chemistry and the phylogeny of ‘Australian sexually deceptive Chilogitis orchids: implications for polinator-drven speciation” (htis:/do.org/10.1111%42F| 1469-8137 2010.03308.x). New Phytologist 188 (2) 437—450. oi: 10.1111), 1469-8137 2010,03308.x (Mps'/doi org/10.1111%2F} “1459-8137.2010.03308x). ISSN 1469-8137 (htps:lhwwwworkdcat.o ‘gyissrv'1469-6137), PMID 20581345 (htps:Ipubmed ned nim.nin.g .0v'20561345) 63, D. Mauseth 2016, pp. 240, 64, Bawa, K. S, (1990), "Plant-Polinator Interactions in Tropical Rain Foresis"(htps:liwww stor orgistable!2097031). Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics. 21: 415. d9/:10.1146/annurev.es.21.110190,002151 (hpslidoorg/10.1146% 2Fannurev.es.21.110190,002151), ISSN 0066-8762 (hitpe:www vo tidcat orgfssri0086-4162). JSTOR 2087031 (htps:fwww jor. orgist ‘abje!2097031), Archived (ntips:iweb,archive,org/web/20210625000 ‘352ihtips:wwwstor.org/stable!2097031) ‘rom ine original on 202'- (06-25, Retieved 2021-06-20 - via JSTOR. "First, the effect may be direc, as, for example, the loss of one of the interacting partners in ‘species-specific interactions may lead tothe extinction ofthe other” Robledo-Arnuncio, Juan José (April 2011). Wind pollination over ‘mesoscale distances: an investigation with Scots pine” (itpsj/onin ‘library. wiley.comdov 10,1119, 1469-8137 2010,03588.x). Now Phytologist, 190 (1): 222-233, doi 10.1111, 1469- 18137.2010,03688 x (https dol org/10.1111%2F) 1469-8137 2010.03, '588.x). ISSN 0028-646X (https. /iwww worldcat.orgissri0028-646X) PMID 21175640 (nitpsffpubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.govi21* 75640) 66, Sofiev, M. Sijamo, P; Ranta, H.;Linkosalo, 7; Jaeger, S.; Rasmussen, A; Ranto-Lehtimaki, A; Severova, E.; Kukkonen, J (2013-01-01). "A numerical model of birch pollen emission ang dispersion inthe atmosphere, Description of the emission modulo" (htips/aoiorg/10.1007/s00484-012-0582-2). Intomational Joumal of Biometeorology. 57 (1): 45-68. Blbcode:20131J8m..67..45S (hit pst adsabs harvard edu/abs/20 131J8m...67...45S) 149,10. 1007/e00484.012.0832-2 (htip/do.org/10, 1007%42F 00484 -012-0532-2), ISSN 1432-1254 (htps:/hmwwworldcat orgissn/1432- 41254), PMC 3527742 (ntips:siww.ncbi.nim.nih gov/pmerarticles/PM (63527742), PMID 22410824 (hitps//pubmed.nebinim.nih govr2241 (0824) Archived (htps:/web.archive.orgweb/20220221171449)hp ‘ling springer convariele/10,*007/s00484-012-0532-2) Irom the original on 2022-02-21, Retrieved 2021-06-15, 67. Knuth, Muller & Ainsworth Davis 1908, pp. 68-72 65,68, cy 70, n 72. 73, 74, 75, Hcher, Nicole; Siede, Reinhold Iles, Ingrid; Gatschenberger, Heike; Tautz, Jirgen (2012-02-01). "Evaluation ofthe nutive value of maize for honay bees" (nips /iwmw.sciencedirect comiscience/art iclefabsipiv$0022191011003374), Journal of insect Physiology. 58 (2), 278-285, doi 10.1016),insphys.2011,12,001 (htps:fdoi.org/t0, {o16%2Fgmophys.201, 18,004) {SSN 00251810 (hs ara or deat orgissr/0022-1910), PMID 221 72382 (nitpsJipubmed.ncbi.n ‘munih gov'22172382). Archived (hitps:Jweb archive.orglwebi202106 24202" 56/htps:livww sclencedlrect com/sciencelaricle/absipilSO0 2219101003374) from the orginal on 2021-05-24, Retrieved 2021-06-20. Walker 2020, p. 51 uth, Miller & Ainsworth Davis 1908, pp. 68-69. Cox, Paul Alan (1988-11-01), "Hydrophilous polination” (htps:iww_ wannualreviews.org/doi/10,1146/annurev.es, 19,110188,001401 Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics. 19 (1): 261-279 60l:10.1146/annurev.es.79.110188,001401 (hips do. org. 1146%% 2Fannurov.es,19.110188,007401), ISSN 0068-4162 (hilpsilivww.wo Fldcat orgissr/0068-4162), Archived (ntips/iweb.archive.orghvebI20 710624204 105mtps:/iwwnw.annualreviews.orgidoi'10,"146/annurev. 5. 19.110188.001401) from the original an 2021-06-24. Retriavea 2021-08-20. Walker 2020, ». 36-37. D. Mausoth 2016, 222, Walker 2020, p. 42, Charlesworth D, Wills JH. The genetics of inbreeding depression. [Nat Rev Genet. 2008 Nov:10(11):783-96. doi 10,1038inrg2564, PMID: 19834483 Bemstein H, Hopf FA, Michod RE. The molecular basis ofthe ‘evolution of sex. Adv Genet. 1987:24:323-70. do’: 10.1016/s0065- '2660(08)60012-7. PMID: 3324702 7. 78, 19, 80, 2 83, McPeek, Tamara M; Wang, Xinzhong (2007). “Reproduction of Dandelion (Taraxacum afficinala) in a Higher CO2 Environment” (ht pedlwivnjtorogistable/4539560). Wood Scionco. 95 3) 334 $50: 10.1614!WS-07-021 (nips do org/10.1614%42FWS-97-021 ISSN 0043-1745 (tps vw. wortea!oriissn/0083-1745), USTOR 4859600 [tps hrnstor os otnas00s80),— S2CID 86250272 (hips ap semanioscholarorgCorpusID:862502 72) Active (ips. lweb archive rgiweb/2021062500049MRps i! ‘wi stororglstablel4530580) om the orignal on 2021-06-25, Retrieved 2027-05-20 ~via JSTOR. Glimartn, A.J; Brown, Grogory K. (1985). *Clistogamy in Tilandsia capilarts(@romelaceae) (psa tor orgistable238 8227), Botropica. 17 3). 256, dot 10.2907/2388227 (ntps 40.79 410-2307%2F2288227), ‘SSN 0006-3606 (itpssiwaw wordcal org ‘s3n10006-3605) JSTOR 2386227 (ntpshwmstorogltabe!2368 227). Archived (hitp:web, archive orgweb/202 1062503010 ‘stor orgstabe/2988227) from the orginal on 2021-08-25, Revieved 20270520 Walker 2020 . 24, Chen, Miaoln; Xu, Je: Devi, Deborah; Shi ianxin; Ren, Kang: Searle lain; Zhang, Dabing (2010). “Origin and Functional Prediction of Plln Allergens in Plas” (nos wm. ncbl ih. go wipmeartces/PMCSO74609), Plant Physiology. 172 (1) 341-287 {61 10.1104%pp 16,0825 (tps: org 10, 1104%2Fpp.16.00825) ISSN 0032-0889 (tps:iwwa worldat.orgissn/0032-0889) PMC 5074609 (hitps/hwnw nc nim. nn gowlpmearicies/PMOSO7A £509). PMID 27436829 (itps!/pubmedne in. rih.gov!27436829) Consible, Juanita; Sandro, Luke; Lee, Richard E. (2008). "Ah-choo! Increased Risk of Polen Allergies in the Norther Hemisphere” (tp iva jl orgslale/42992782). Journal of Calege Sconce Teaching. 37 (8) 62-69, ISSN 0047-731 (wtpstivmw wordcator yssn0047-251X), JSTOR 42992782 (nos vt stor ogstaDele 12992782), Archived (nips fied arehive.orghweb/202 105250000321 inlassvwstororgstabe/42092782) fom te orginal on 2021-06- 25, Retoved 2021-06-20 D.Mauseth 2016, p. 234 D.Mauseth 2016, pp. 235-297.'34. Wyman, Tarryn; Kelly, Dave (2017). “Quantifying seed dispersal by birds and possums in a lowland New Zealand forest (lp:/newzeal 90. Forget, Pierte-Michel (2005). Seed fate: predation, dispersal, and ‘seedling establishment (htips:tivww worldcal.org/ocis4803660), andecology.orginzie/3286). New Zealand Journal of Ecology. 41 (1) d01:10.20417inzjecoL.41. (hips:ldol.org/t0.20417%2Fnzjecol. 41. Walingford, Oxfordshire, UK. CABIPub. p. 21. ISBN 0-85199-806- 2. OCLC 54803650 (hitps:/www.worldeat org/ocic/54803850). 4). Archived (htips:/iweb archive. orgiweb/20210630133448/ttps:in ‘Archived (htips:web.archive.orghweb/20220221171457/hitps:Ihww ‘ewzealandecalogy.orginzje‘3286) om the original on 2027-05-30, Retrieved 2021-07-01 85, Sipe, Timothy W; Linnerooth, Amy R, (1998). “Infraspecific Variation in Samara Morphology and Flight Behavior in Acer saccharinum (Acoraceae}" (ios iwwwstororgstabla/2445868). American sJournal of Botany. 82 (11). 412-1419, doi 10.2307 /2445868 (htip ‘ldo. org/10,23079:2F2445868), ISSN 0002-9122 (hips: ww wor Idcatorgiissr/0002-9122). JSTOR 2445868 (hips /iwvnvjstororg/st ablo/2445868). Archived (hltos iweb archive.org/web/20210709181 \waworldcat.orgiilelseed-fate-predation-dspersal-and-seeding-esta bblshmenacle!54803650) rom the orginal on 2022-02-21 Retrieved 2021-07-01. "Seeds on plants can be dispersed via a varety of primary dispersal mechanisms, including abiotic factors, lke wind or balistic projection, orbotic factors, Ike fruit-eating birds.” 91. Norsworthy, Jason K.; Gaitth, Grif, Gifin, Terry; Bagavathiannan, Mutnukumar; Gbur, Edward F. (2074). “In-Field Movement of Glyphosate-Resistant Palmer Amaranth (Amaranthus palmen) and 60B/htps: ww jstor orgistable/2448868) from the orginal on 2021- 07-09, Retrieved 2021-07-01, '85. Mount, Ann; Pickering, Catherine Marina (2009-10-01). "Testing the capacity of clothing to act as a vector for non-native seed in protected areas" (itosiwww.sciencedirect.com/science/artclepllS (0301478709002631), Journal of Environmental Managemont. 91 (1) 168-178, doi 10.1016),jenvman.2009.08,002 (htpsi//do\.org/10 1016%2F} janvman.2009 08.002). hd 10072/29656 (hitps:hel. and le ne¥/10072%229656). ISSN 0301-4797 (ntips:/iwwrw.worldcat or lissn/0301-4797), PMID 19717222 (htips:lipubmed.ncbinlm.nih.go W/19717222). Archived (hltps:iweb archive.orgiweb/2021062002240 Tihtips:fiwwnv sciencedirect.com/science/aricie/pi/$030147970900 2631) from the original on 2021-06-29. Relieved 2021-07-01 87, D. Mauseth 2016, p. 248, '88. Bowler DE, Benton TG (May 2005). "Causes and consequences of animal dispersal strategies: relating individual behaviour to spatial ‘dynamics". Biological Reviews of the Cambridge Philosophical ‘Society. 80 (2) 205-25, dat 10,1017iS148479310400664s5 (ntps/d oiorg/t0.1017%42FS1464793104006645). PMID 15921049 (htips/1 ppubmed.ncbi.nim.nih.gov'15921043). S2CID 38351147 (nitpsziapi s ‘emantiescholar.org/Corpusi0: 39351147) 89. Pil 1972, p. 71 Its Impact on Cotton Lint Yield: Evidence Supporing a Zero- ‘Threshold Strategy” (https livin stor org/stablol43700853). Wood Science, 82 (2) 237-249, doi 10.16 14NS-D-13-00145.1 (nipslido ‘.org/10.1614%42FWS-D-13-00145.1), ISSN 0043-1745 (hits: www. Worldcat orgissr/0043-1746). JSTOR 43700853 (hips /vwwnstoro ‘gistabiel43700653). S2C1D 86013249 (hitpsJ/ap. samanticscholar. ‘orgICorpusiD-86013249). Archived (htps:/web.archive.orgiweb/202, 410709205248ihttps www jstor orgstable/43700653) from th ‘original on 2021-07-09, Retrieved 2021-07-01 - via JSTOR "Wind land water are common abiotic seed dispersal mechanisms, but there are several biotic dispersal mechanisms, such as movement via animals by adhesion (eplzoochory) or ingestion (endazoachory), and even movement resulting from human activities (anthropochory)” 92D. Mauseth 2016, pp. 244247. 98, Travesel, A; Riera, N: Mas, R.E. (2001). "Passage through bird uls causes inlerspecic differences in seed germination characteristics" (hips /besjourals onlinelibrary.wiey.comidolabs!1 (0.1046.0269-8463.2001.00861.x). Functional Ecology. 15 (5). 663— 575. dot 10.1046) 0269-8463 .200 1.00561.x (htips:idoiorg/'0. 104 £6%2F,0259-8463.2001.00561.x) ISSN 1365-2435 (htipssiwvew.wor lecat.orgissi1365-2435), Archwved (ntipsiweb.archive.orglweb/20 210709182027ihtips:/besjournals onlinelbrary.wley.conidoi/abs!' 19,1046j,0269-8463,2001,00561.x) from the orginal on 2021-07-09, Retrieved 2021-07-01. “Many studies show that germination is more successful after seeds pass through the digestive tact of frugivores”94, 95, a7, LLengyel, Szaboles; Gove, Aaron 0.; Latimer, Andrew M.; Majer, Jonathan D.; Dunn, Robert R. (2010-02-20). "Convergent evolution ‘of seed dispersal by ants, and phylogeny and biageoaraphy in 8 Vittoz, Pascal; Engler, Robin (7 February 2008). "Seed dispersal distances: a typology based on dispersal mades and plant ails" (Mt pldoc.rero.chirecord311682Hfles/36_2007_Arlcle_797.pdi) (PDF). ‘Towering plants: A global survey" (htps:/imvny.sciencedirec.comisc ence/arile/abs!piS 1433831909000365). Perspectives in Plont Ecology, Evolution and Systematics. 12 (1): 43-55, oi:10.1016).pees.2009.08.001 (hitpsidoiorg/10.1016%2F}.opae Botanica Helvetica, 117 (2). 109~124, doi 10, 1007/800035-007- (9797-8 {hitpssidol.org!10.1007%2Fs00035-007-0797-5} 'S2CID 2339616 (hitps:/api semanticschola.org/Corpusi0:233961 8). Archived (ntipsfweb.archive.orgiwab/20210627101 700intpéo '.2008,08, 001). ISSN 1433-8319 (htips.iwww worldcatorgissn143 ‘ero, chitecord/311682ifles!35_2007_Aticle_787 pal) (POF) from 3.8319) Archived (hitps.wob.archive,orgwebi20210702154118/at psuliwwny.sciencedirect,comiscience/artclelabs/pi/S143383"309000 99, 365) from the original on 2021-07-02. Retrieved 2021-07-01 00, Hmalainen, Anni; Broadley. Kate; Droghini, Amanda; Haines, Jessica A; Lamb, Clayton T: Boutin, Stan; Gilbert, Sophie (2017) “The ecologieal significance of secondary seed dispersal by eamivores" (tps fdo\.org/10.1002%2Fecs2.1685). Ecosphoro. 8 (2): 001885. doi 10.1002/ees2.1685 (ntps//doiorg/10.1002%2F ecs 3160) ISN 2150 4525 (p/w noes organ? 50-82 5 6. Howe, H.F. & Smallviood J. (1982). "Ecology of Seed Dispersal” (hit +91 peilweb archive orgiveb/20060513013354/hitp/arifex.org/~ecore cessliowe 1882.pd) JOE], Annual Rewew of Eccingy aoe Systematics. 13: 201-228. ol 10.1146/annurev.es.13.110182.001221 (hiipsIdoLorg/10.1148% 2Fannurov.es,13,110182.007221),\ichved from the orginal (tp! arifex.org/~ecoreaders/ UHowe'1962.pdf) (PDF) on 2006-05-13, ‘Symon, D.E.; Whalen, M.A. Mackay, D.A. (2000). "Diversity in ‘Acaona (Rosaceae) in South Ausvala" (hips: www jsor orgistable! | 23874441), Journal of the Adelaise Botanic Garden, 19: 55-73, ISSN 0313-4083 (ntps:/iwnw morldost.orgissrv0313-4083) JSTOR 23874441 (hitps:/Wwww,stor.org/stable/23874441), Archived hii: web archive orgweb/20210626225400/ntpe: www jor org stable/23874441) from the original on 2021-06-28. Retrieved 2021-07-01 - via JSTOR. 102, 104, 106. ‘he original on 27 June 2021. Retrieved 1 July 2024 iL 1972, 99. 24-26. Hyslop, Jade; Trowsdale, Sam (2012). "A review of hydrochory (seed cispersal by water) wth implications for riparian renabiltation” (nips:liwiw stor orgistable/43945038). Journ) of Hydrology (New Zealand). 54 (2). 137152. ISSN 0022-1708 (hitps fiw. worldcat.o ‘gissrv0022-1708), JSTOR 43945038 (niips:/wewstororgstabler4 3945038), Archived (hitps:/web.archive,orgiweb/20210709211826/h ttps:tiwwjtor orgfstable/43945038) from Ihe original on 2021-07- (09, Retrieved 2021-07-01 Feldkamp, Susan (2006), Modem Biology. United States: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston. p. 618. LLowis, Susan K. (Apa 17, 2007), "Flowers Modem & Ancient” (http s/}wawipbs.orghwgoninovaflower/anatomy.him)), PBS Online, Archived (htins:ziweb.archive.orgiveb/2008090708422" tp Iw. jbhinovarfiowerlanatomy html) fom the orginal on| September 7, 2008. Retrieved 2010-08-30. '3, NOVA, 2007-04-17, PBS, WGBH, First Flower (nips:www.pbs.org! \gbhinovartranseripts‘3408_flower htm. ‘Thomson, Helen (Aug 17, 2018). "Fossilsed remains of wore's ‘olcest flower discovered in Spain” (htps:/wwww.theguardian.comisc! deretaceous). Tho Guardian. Archived (htpe:web.archive,orgiwveb! 2017030305 15S0/ntinswww.sheguardian,com/scienco/201S/aug* ‘Tossiised-remains-worles-oldestflower-discovered-cretaceous) {rom the original on 2017-03-03, Chinese Academy of Sciences (18 December 2018), "Flowers ‘originated 50 million years earlier than previously though (ntps:IWw \Ww.eurekelert.orgipub_releasesi2018-12icaos-fo6121818 php) EurekAlert! Archived (itps:web archive.org web/2018121817233 ‘ihtipssiwww.eurekalert.orgipub_releases/2018-12ica0s-fo512181 ‘xphp) from the orginal on 18 December 2018, Retrieved 18 December 2018,108. Soltis, Douglas E.; Soltis, Pamela S. (2004). "Amborella not a "basal 113. Sharma 2008, p. 21 107. 108, 109. 110, 1 12, angiosperm”? Not so fast” (hilps:/6ol.or9/10.3732%42F a. 91,6,99 17), American Joumal of Botany. 91 (6): 997~"00' ci 10.3732/a)p.91.6,997 (nips lil org/10.3732%2Fajo.91.6.997) PMID 21653455 (https pubmed ncbinim.nin.gov!2 1653455) South Pacific plant may be missing linkin evolution of flowering ants” (tip: www eurexalertorgipub_releasesi2006-05/uoca-spp0 '51506,php), Furekslert.org. 2006-05-17, Archived (htipsiweb.archi ve.orgweb/20110514101042ihtip:stuvnw.eurekalerorgipub_release '8/2006-05/uoca-spp05106,php) from he original on 2011-05-14 Rotrioves 2010-08-30, abbot, Sarah (1 August 2017), id the frst flower look like this?” ilps www bbe com/newsisclance-environment-4078049), BBC Now, Archived (htpslweb.archive.org/web/2017080123542a/htt pill bbe. convnews/scionce-enviranment-40780491) or tho original on 1 August 2017, Retrieved 1 August 2017, Sauguet, Hervé, et al. (1 August 2017), “The ancestral flower of angiosperms and is early diversification” (htips:/ivmw ned. nlm.nh ‘govipmcarticles/PMIC5543308). Nafure Communications, 8. 15047, ode 2017NatCo..816047S (htips!ul.adsabs harvard, edulabs/2 Of7NalCo..816047S). dot 10.1038incamms16047 (htigsi/doi.org/t 0.1038%42F ncomms16047). PMC 5543309 (htlps:/imww.nebinim.ni h.gov/pmc/articlos/PNIC5543309), PMID 28763051 (nips:/ioubmed. ‘cbi.nim,nih.gov/28763051 “Olly Fossils Provide Clues To The Evolution Of Flowers” (hitps:w wsclencedally con/releases/2001/04/070403071438 him ‘Sciencedaily.com, 200'-04-05, Archived (htips:/iweb.archive.orgiwe b/20100819001553/htp:Jhwww sciencedaily.convreleases/2001/04/0 410403071438.htm) from the orginal on 2010-08-19. Retrieved 2010-08-20. "Age-Old Question On Evolution Of Flowers Answered” (itp:unise i.comistories/20012/0815015.him). Unis! com. 2001-08-15. Archived (htps:/wob.archive.orgiweb/201006102128 16/htp:iWwaw. Lnisc,convstories/20012/0815015,htm) from the original on 2010- 06-10. Retrieved 2010-08-20. May 2005, Robert Roy Brit 26 (2005-05-26). "Human Affection Altered Evolution of Flowers" (itps:iwww.lvescience,comi235-hum an-atfection-altered-evolution-lowers.nim)), lvescionce com, ‘Archived (hips: eb, archive,orgiweb/20210906031029/hitps:INw wiivescience,con/295-human-affection-atered-ovoluton-lowers ht mi) from the original on 2021-09-06, Retrieved 2021-08-06. ‘14, Sharma 2008, 0.8 115. Sharma 2008, p. 10. 118, Sharma 2008, 9. 22 ‘417, Sharma 2008, pp. 24-27. 118. Sharma 2009, 9. 11 119, Sharma 2009, p. 96, 120, “The Meanings of Flowers” (ntipsifftowermag.comithe-meanings-of- flowers) Flower Magazine. 2018-05-28, Archived (tps /iweb. archi ‘v.orghweb/20200731205634/tps:Mlowermag.comihe-meanings-o lowers) from the original on 2020-07-31. Retvioved 20181212, ‘Audet, Marye, "Roses and Their Meaning” (http:/garden.lovetokno \w.comiwikiRoses_and_Their_Meaning). Archived (htis:/iveb.archi ‘ye.orgiwob/2014082617403ihttp garden lovetoknow.comwikiRos ‘e8_and_Thoir Meaning) ‘tom tho original on 25 August 2014 Retrieved 22 August 2014, Frownfoltar, Andrea. "Flower Symbolism as Female Sexual Metaphor (hitp:/eammons,omich edulegviewcontent.cgi?artclo=1 2108context=honors), Fastorn Mich gan University, Archived (hp ‘Shwe archive, orgiveb/20140810175632/ntp/icommons.emiche4 Llcgilviewcontent og ?aricle=12108context=honors) {rom tne ‘original on 2014-08-10, Dee, Nerys (1995). Your dreams & what they mean: how to Understand the secret language of sleep (nitpsiiwnv.woridcat.orglo ‘lef33208041). London. Tornsons. p. ‘42. ISBN 978-0-7225-3218- 18 OCLC 33208041 (hitps:iwwaw worldeat.orglocll3320804 1 ‘Archived (htips:/veb.archive.orgiweb/20220221171S06inttps:Ihww \wworatorgiilelyour-dreams-vhat-they-mean-how-le-understan d-the-secret-language-o-sleeplacle/33208041) from the argnal on 2022-02-21. Reliieved 2021-06-15. “Vishnu” (hitpwwn bbe. co.ukiretigionelig onsihinduismideitesivis Fhnushiml). Boc.co uk. 2009-08-24. Archived (hiips:/iweb archive.or ‘liveb/20101028091134/ntp/ivww.bbe.co.uklelgionieligionsihind Lismdeitesivishnu, shim) fom the original on 2010-10-28. Rotrieved 2070-08-30, 122, 123,125. "God's Favorite Flower” (hitps:/web.archive.orgiweb/200904131639 132. Wong, James (7 May 2017). "Grow your own herbal teas" (https: 126. 127. 128. 129. 130. 131 Sihitp www hinduismtoday com/archives!1999/7/1999-7-13.shim I) Hinduism Today, Achwvea from the erginal (htp/ww hinduism ‘day. comvarcnives/1998/7/1989-7-13 shtml) on 2003-08-13, Retrieves 2010-08-30, “The Lotus" (htps:/iveb.archive.orgiveb/20170910161534/htp: mw wiheosociety org/pasadena/sunrise/48.9-0/ge-mrook him) ‘Theosocity.org, Archived from the orginal (tip: www: theosociety.o ‘g/pasadena/sunrise/49-99-0/ge-mraok him) on 2017-09-10 Retrieved 2010-08-20, Fogden, Michael; Fogden, Patricia (2018). The Natural History of loners, Texas A&M University Press, p, 1, ISBN 978-1623496449, \wilson, Adolaige B (1987), Flowors for your church (hitps:iwww:wor 14 Ideatorg/oste!500430357), Place of publication not identified Barrows & Co, p. 25, OCLC 500430357 (niips/imw.worldeat.orgo ‘le500430357). Archived (tips/web.archive.orgiwabi2021062819 37 19ittps sw worldeat.orgttleMowers-or-your-churehocte/500, 4430367) from the original on 2027-06-28. Rotioved 2021-08-15. "VISITING A HINDU TEMPLE; A BEGINNER'S GUIDE” (htps:/ivw whinduismioday.com/modules/smartsectionitam php?itemid=818) Hinduism Today. Apri 1291. Archived (hitps/web archive. orgiwebi2 (0210416172e44mttps:ww.hinduismioday,com/modulesismartsect ‘onfitem php ?itemid=818) fom tho original 9n 2027-04-16 Retrieved 2018-11-27. \Wood, Zoe (30 June 2017), "Blooming tasty — edible flowers are ‘summer's hottest food trend” (hiipsifiwwrwAheguardian.convlifeandst Yyle?2017jun/30/blooming-tasly-edible-lowers-are-summers-hollest{ ‘.od-trend). The Guardian. Archived (hitps:/web.archive.orgiweb/20 137. 181127 183645/hitosiwwwtheguardian.com/ifeandstyle/2017jun/3 Olblooming-tasty-ediole-lowers-are-summers-hottest-“o0d-rend) {rom the original on 27 November 2018. Retrieved 27 November 2018. Bradley, Sue (8 May 2015). "How to crystalise flowers like the Victorians” (hitps:ww-telegraph.co.uk/gardeninglgardenprojects/1_ 198. +1590050/How-to-crysallselowersslke-he-Victorans.htmi). The Telegraph. Archived (htips:ighostarchive.org/archive/20220111/htp 133. 136. 136, \.thaguardian,comllfeandeiyle/2017imayi0igrow-your-own-herba Has). The Guardian. Archived (hitps Jeb archive.orgiwebi/201811 27195123/htps www thequardian.corvifeandstyiel2017Imay/7igr ‘ow-your-own-herbsl-teas) rom the orginal on 27 Noversber 2018, Retrieved 27 November 2078, "Stone Age mourners ‘placed flowers on graves'* (itps:/wwu.teleg ‘aph.co,uknews/science/11596312/Stone-Age-moumers-placed-fo \wers-on-graves.himl) The Telegraph, 10 Nay 2015, Archived (htip ilghostarchive.orglarchive/20220'1‘fhitps:Imww.telagraph.co.ukln ‘ews/scionce/11596512/Stone-Age-moumers-placedflowers-on=yrav es him) from the original on 2022-01-11 “Burial Rites” (htlp:Jww.hellenicaworld.com/Greece/AncionVan/Bur {alRites him), Flion.ca World. Archived (hips: iweb archve.orgiwe 2016 11290843 10/ntp wwwhellenicaworld.com/Greace/Ancierve ‘iBurialRiteshim)) fromthe onginsl on 29 November 2018, Retrieved 28 November 2078. Hays, Christopher B. (2011). Death inthe Iron Age Il and in First Isaiah (httos:ibooks, google. comvbooks 7idIcodmHWB7EAC&pg=P ‘A302). Mohr Siebeck. p, 302, ISBN 978-3-16-150785-4, Archived (ht {ps:lWeb.archive.orgiweb/20191228235720ihtps:|Ibooks.googl.co ‘mfoooks ?id=lopdmHW7EAC&pg=PA302) from the original on 2019-12-28. Rotieved 2018-11-26. Day, Frances Ann (2003). Latina and Latino Voices in Literature (hit psilarchive.orgidetalsfainalatinavoic0000dayt/page/72) Greenwood. . 72 (hitpsi/archive.orgidetalslatinalatinovoic0000da yilpager72). ISBN 978-0-313-32394-2, By (2015-08-11), "The Fascinating Tradition of Giving Flowers” (hit pillwwwuflowersofihefieldh.comihe-ascinating-tradiior-of-giving-lo \Wers!). Flowers ofthe Feld Las Vegas. Archived (htps:web.archiv ‘.orgiweb/20190316064821 http ivwwflowersofinefieldh.convtne-t ascinating-tradition-of-gving-lowers) Irom the orginal on 2019-03- 416, Retrieves 2078-03-15, ‘The Cross-Cultural Rhetoric Blog: Flowers in Russia" (hipsifweb.a ‘chive.org/web/20190413030650/htp:/web.stantord.edulgrouplocric ‘rblog/2010/03Mlowers_in_russia.him)) web slanford edu. Archives Suu. telegraph co.ukigardening/gardenprojects/11520050Howt o-crystalise-fowers-lke-the-Victorians himl) om the orginal on 2022-01-11. ‘rom the original httos web stanford, edulgroupicer/cerblog/2010/0 Mowers in_russia,him)) on 2079-04-13, Relieved 2013-03-15.1139. "Folk Artin Russia and Ukraine | News & Info” (htp:/kurachkacothi 'ng.comMnewsifolart-in-russia-and-ukrainel). Archived (hipsiweb.2 ‘chive.orgiweb/20 190324 1200¢3/htp/kurochkaclothing.cominewsif olkcarbintussi-and-ukrainel) from tie orginal an 2018-03-24, Retrieved 2019-03-15, Sources = De Craene, Ronse; P., Louis (2010). Floral Diagrams (ntps:iéx.doiorg/10.1017/eb09780511806711), Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, doi 10,1017/cb08780511806711 (ntips/doi.org/10,1017%2Fcbo97805 11806711), [SBN 978-0-511-B0671-1 + Knuth, Paul; Muller, Hermann; Ainsworth Davis, J. R, (1908). Handbook of flower pollination: based upon Hermann Miller's work The {ortisation of flowers by insocts (hips:4o1.org10.5962/bN.tile.54973), Vol, 1. Clarendon Press. dol 10.5962/bn. ile 54973 (hitpslidl.org/t 0.5962%42F bite 54973). OCLC 1847036 (ntps:iiwww.worldeat orglocic!1841036). Archived (hips:/iweb. archive orghweb/70220221171547) tips: /iwuw.bioaiversityibrar.orgibiblographyi54973) Irom the original on 2022-02-21, Retrieved 2021-06-15, + Fritsch, Felix Eugene: Salisbury, E. J. (Edward James) (1920). An introduetion to the structure and reproduction of plants (htp!larchive.orgidot ailsicu3 1924001698908). Cornell Unversity Library London: G. Bell and Sons Lt = Walker, Timothy (2020) 20375-4 + D. Mauseth, James (2016). Botany: An introduction fo Plant Biology (6th ed). Jones & Bartlet Learning. ISBN 978-1-284-07753-7. * Pil L. van der (1872). Princes of Dispersal in Higher Plants (tps www. springer comigp/book/9783642961083) (2nf ed). Berlin Heidelberg: Springer-Verlag, ISBN 978-3-642-96108-3, Archived (niips/iweb.archive.orgiveb/202107091818 4/htps:/wnw.springer.com/gpr (90k/9783642961083) from tne orginal on 2021-07-08. Retrieved 2021-07-01 ' Sharma, 0. P. (2008). Plant Taxonomy (2nd ed). New Delhi, India: Tata MeGraw Hil Education Private Limited. ISBN 978-0070141593. ination: The Enduring Relaionship Between Plant and Pollinalor. Peineatan University Press. ISBN 978.0-691 Further reading ‘= Buchmann, Stephen (2016). The Reason for Flowers: Their History, Culture, Biology, and How They Change Our Lives. Scrivner. ISBN 978. 4767-5553-3, * Esau, Katherine (1985). Plant Anatomy (hitps:ifarchive.org/details/plantanatomy00esau._0) (2nd ed,). New York: John Wiley & Sons, ISBN 978-0-471-24455-4 * Greyson, Ri. (1994). The Development of Flowers (tos:/archive.orgidetals{developmentoffod000grey). Oxford University Press. ISBN 978- 0-19-50868e-3, * Leins, P.& Exbar, C. (2010). Flower and Fruit. Stuttgart: Schweizerbart Science Publishers. ISBN 978-3-510-65261-7. + Sattler, R. (1973). Organagenesis of Flowers. A Photographic Text-Atas. University of Toronto Press. ISBN 978-0-8020-1864-9, External links ' #) Quotations related to Flowers at Wikiquote* Naive Plant information Network (hitos:/ivebarchive.orgiweb/200905110230926/ntt:!vildower.utexas.edul)