4.

MAPPING ENUMERATION AND OTHER AREALLY AGGREGATED DATA: THE

CHOROPLETH MAP

The choropleth technique is defined by the International Cartographic Association as follows:

“A method of cartographic representation which employs distinctive color or shading applied to
areas other than those bounded by isolines. These are usually statistical or administrative areas.
Because this form of mapping is used to depict bounded areal classified or aggregated data (often
defined by administrative areas), it is sometimes called enumeration mapping, see Figure below.

Examples of typical enumeration units used in choropleth maps include countries, states,
provinces, counties, census tracts, or any other unit that has associated attribute data that
correspond to the enumeration units.

A Typical Choropleth Map: Each enumeration unit, in this case a county, has an areal symbol applied to
it, depending on the class in which its data value falls. Over the entire map, it is possible to determine
spatial variation of the data.

Choropleth mapping may be thought of as a three dimensional histogram or stepped statistical

surface, see Figure Stepped Surface. A choropleth map is simply a planimetric representation of
this three-dimensional prism model. In black-and-white mapping, the higher prisms are
normally represented by darker area symbols; conversely, the lower prisms are represented by
lighter-area symbols. In color choropleth map production, generally darker or more saturated
hues represent higher values, and lighter or less saturated represent lower values.
Figure Stepped Surface: The Three-Dimensional Histogram or Stepped Statistical Surface in Choropleth
Mapping

Choropleth mapping technique normally requires the cartographer to collect attribute data by
statistical or administrative areas. These attribute data correspond observation for observation to
the individual enumeration units. An areal symbolization scheme is selected or devised for these
values, and symbols are applied to those areas on the map whose data fall into the symbol
classes. See Figure Choropleth Construction.

Figure Choropleth Construction: Cartographic designers begin with the enumeration units and associated
attribute values. Class ranges are selected, as are the area symbols that will represent those ranges. The
final map is the result of the application of appropriate area symbols to the enumeration units, based on
each unit‟s attribute data value.

Map readers use choropleth maps in three ways: to obtain a sense of the overall geographical
pattern of the mapped variable with attention to individual values; to compare one choropleth
map pattern to another; and to ascertain an actual value (or the class range) associated with a
geographic area. When using printed and some static virtual maps, the reader who wants to find
only individual values would be better served to consult a table of values. With many online
interactive choropleth maps and choropleth maps in a GIS environment, individual values often
can be seen as the reader moves the cursor over the surface of the map, as a complement to
visualizing the overall distribution.

Enumeration attribute data may be of two kinds: totals or derived values (rates or ratios).
The number of people living in a census tract is an example of the former and average annual
income is an example of the latter. Traditionally, it is not acceptable to map total values when
using the choropleth technique. In most choropleth mapping situations, the enumeration units are
unequal in area. The varying size of areas and their mapped values will alter the impression of
the distribution. It has therefore become customary to use either ratios involving area or ratios
independent of area.

When to Use the Choropleth Map

The choropleth technique is appropriate whenever the cartographer wishes to portray a

geographical theme whose data occur within well-defined enumeration units. If the data cannot
be dealt with as ratios or proportions, they should not be portrayed by the choropleth technique.
Also choropleth (or any other mapping technique) should not be used if the interest is only to
show actual, precise values within enumeration units. Choropleth mapping is simple and should
be used only when its assumptions are acceptable to the cartographer and to the eventual reader.

Preliminary Considerations in Choropleth Mapping

Important considerations in the design of a choropleth map include thorough examination of the
geographic phenomenon and its elements, map scale, number and kind of areal units, data
processing, data classification, areal symbolization, and legend design.

Geographic Phenomena

All map design begins with careful analysis of just what it is that is being mapped. A careful
designer assembles facts that will help in understanding the mapping activity. In a mapping
problem to illustrate the geographical aspects of retailing, what measures should be used? Dollar
sales, payrolls, and number of employees might be appropriate. What industrial or trade indices
are commonly accepted and used by analysts? What surrogate measures might be used? What
other geographical variables accompany the one being mapped? How does this phenomenon
behave spatially or aspatially, with or without other geographic phenomena?

Map Scale

Map scale as it relates to choropleth design involves two considerations: necessity and available
space. Necessity dictates that the scale is sufficient to accommodate symbol recognition—the
areal units must be large enough for the reader to see and differentiate areal patterns. With the
increasing availability of large format plotters (such as, for printing a large poster), it is also
possible that choropleth maps with less detail could be printed at too large a size. The increased
size provides no additional detail or information, and simply occupies more space.

Number and Kinds of Enumeration Units

The larger the number of enumeration units used for the entire study area, the more details of the
geographical distribution the map can show. Scale is significant in this respect. Spatial detail is
added as the number of enumeration units is increased; conversely, spatial coarseness increases
as the number of units is decreased. See Figure below. The choice of how many enumeration
units to use depends also on such variables as time, cost, map purpose, map size and scale, and
symbolization. Each design task will have its own set of constraints.

Choropleth map detail and the number of enumeration units. Greater distributional and attribute
detail is possible with a larger number of enumeration units.
Data Processing

Ideally, the designer would like to live in a world in which data are available in mappable form.
Data from many online sites can easily be imported into a GIS or mapping program. However,
it‟s highly recommended that the cartographer „knows your data‟. It is also important to
remember that choropleth mapping requires that data be in derived form, such as ratio or rate,
most often necessitating the processing of data according to the purpose of the map. One
common derivation is to divide a column containing the total data (such as total population
values per county) by a column containing the areas of each enumeration unit (for example,
square miles), creating a new column of derived data (for example, people per square mile).

Data processing may require consultation with experts familiar with the purpose of the map, such
as the map client.

Data classification

We have looked at this in previous classes. Remember? We considered classification schemes

like; equal interval, equal frequency, arithmetic and geometric intervals, nested means, mean
and standard deviations, natural break methods (including traditional natural breaks and
optimization) and user defined. See your class notes. Indeed, there is perhaps no other issue so
central to choropleth mapping as data classification. Values are grouped into classes to simplify
mapped patterns for the reader. Assigning values to groups on the choropleth map is a form of
data classification that leads to simplification and generalization.

Equal interval schemes are often used when constant intervals are desired. Some cartographers
feel that irregular class intervals are harder to understand. Equal interval classification is one
logical choice in this case. The class ranges may be equal, but the number of observations per
class will vary. If the equal interval classification produces classes with no observations, then
this classification method should not be selected. Equal interval classification is a great choice
for layouts that include multiple choropleth maps that use the same legend for all maps. It also
works well for animated choropleth maps, where enumeration units may change classes
throughout a given time period.

Equal frequency schemes; in which the goal is to generate an equal number of observations per
class produce different class ranges from class to class. An equal number of observations in each
class may be important if you are performing some statistical tests between the classes.

Arithmetic and geometric schemes are used for data that replicate mathematical progressions.
Data that has a propensity for increase, or increase at increasing rates, may be good candidates
for one of these methods.

Mean and standard deviations, also called simply standard deviations, can be used in choropleth
mapping if the data set displays a normal frequency distribution. Class boundaries are calculated
by adding or subtracting the standard deviation from the data set mean. Note that if this scheme
is applied to data that are skewed (that is, not normally distributed) it may be possible, for
example, to have three standard deviations above the mean and only two standard deviations
below the mean (or vice versa), and thus create an uneven number of class ranges. This
classification is often applied to data sets such as income increase or decrease as a percentage, or
education levels above and below an average indicator.

Natural break methods, group like values by minimizing the within class variance (making sure
that all values within a class are as alike as possible), and by maximizing the between class
variance (making sure that class breaks fall where there are larger breaks in the data). This is also
called classification for maximum homogeneity.

Legend Design

One of the most important elements of a choropleth map is the legend.

Box Shape, Size, Orientation, and Range Placement

Choropleth legend boxes are usually rectangular in form, and need to be large enough to provide
a visual anchor for the map reader to correctly interpret the symbolization (fi lls) but not so large
as to detract from the map. The size of the enumeration units can provide a starting point in
determining box size.

Examples of Choropleth Legend Designs

The boxes are most commonly displayed in a vertical presentation, although horizontal
presentations are possible on maps where the map body has a longer east-west orientation. Class
ranges (and outliers, if present) are usually placed on the right side of the boxes in a vertical
presentation, and underneath the boxes in the horizontal presentation. The legend boxes may
represent data from lowest to highest classes in a vertical presentation or highest to lowest from
the top to the bottom box. In the case of a horizontal presentation, the boxes are placed from
lowest to highest from left to right
Typically, there is some space between the legend boxes, but some cartographers feel that
compressing the boxes gives a sense of continuity to the data.

Continuous and Noncontinuous Class Ranges

Class ranges may be presented using either continuous or noncontinuous styles. The
continuous style (see Figure below (a)) is the more traditional style of reporting the class ranges.
In this style, there are no gaps or overlaps in the class ranges. The class ranges as originally
calculated during classification usually have to be expanded to achieve continuity. The
noncontinuous style (see Figure below (b)) configures the class breaks so that only the values
actually existing in each class form the class ranges. If there are gaps in the data, then there will
be gaps between class breaks.

The continuous style is used by map designers for two major reasons. The first is that
“exhausting the data” is part of the original requirements of choropleth map classification.
Second, and perhaps more importantly, is that the same legend is often applied to a series or
sequence of maps (for example, three population density maps for a region from 1950, 1975, and
2000) in order for there to be an accurate comparison between the maps.

Continuous and noncontinuous reporting styles for class ranges: Two class range reporting styles,
including the continuous style (a) and the noncontinuous style (b).

Symbolization for Choropleth Maps

Selecting symbolization for filling enumeration unit areas is one of the most important aspects of
choropleth mapping. Automation via GIS, mapping, and other graphics software packages allow
for visualizing many symbolization schemes in a relatively short period of time. How do we
know what symbolization schemes will be effective? With what media will they work? In
seeking answers to these questions, we need to examine black and white (or grayscale) and color
symbolization for the class ranges.

Black and White Mapping

Black and white choropleth maps appear in many textbooks, journals, newsletters, brochures,
pamphlets, and other venues where the higher costs of color printing is a factor. They also pose
few problems for readers who have deficiency in perceiving color. In black and white mapping,
patterns or shades are used to create the impression of a light-to-dark gradation. In pattern fills,
dot, line, or hachure patterns have the greatest density (smallest spacing between elements, also
called texture) in areas of highest values (see Figure Black and White).

Figure Black And White: Using pattern fills such as crosshatches (a) are not as common as grayscale fills
(b).

If pattern fills must be used, we recommend against using lines as enumeration fills. Lines as fills
are harsh, and create undesirable patterns in the map that are very distracting. Dots and hachure
patterns are usually preferred as they pose fewer visual problems for the map reader. Patterns
that are meant to be used as nominal area fills (swamp symbols, water waves, bush symbols, and
so on) should likewise be avoided.

Color Map Symbolization

Color gives more symbolization options than with black and white, but it also introduces a higher
degree of complexity and subjectivity into the design process. With color choropleth mapping,
the choice of hue, the color value, and color saturation all play an important role. Darker values
and/ or more saturated colors indicate more of a quantity.

The term color ramp seems to have been popularized with GIS software, in which the color
variation is automatically applied by the software to each of the class ranges. Most mapping
software provides quite a variety of color ramps that can be used as a starting point. The
cartographer can change the color parameters (for example, hue, saturation, and value) for each
class, to his or her liking.
How does one choose a good color scheme?

1. Make sure that there is enough differential between the symbolization in the class ranges
so that the difference can be clearly seen in the map, and yet at the same time has a hue-
value-saturation change that suggests more and less. One simple technique that we have
used with great success is to cover up or temporarily delete the legend, and then ask
yourself and/or trusted colleagues if the symbolization appropriately suggests “more” and
“less” for each class range.
2. If the map is to be a virtual map, understand that “display monitor types and brands,”
their settings, and the graphics cards that drive the monitor cause a wide range of virtual
viewing environments. Make sure that there is enough visual separation of class ranges so
that slight variations in monitor brightness, for example, won‟t change the map reader‟s
ability to distinguish classes.
3. If you will be making a number of printed maps that are going to the same printer or
plotter, then printing a color table of selected color ramps or other hue/value/saturation
combinations is often helpful, since the onscreen appearance often varies from the printed
product
 DASYMETRIC MAPPING

A form of mapping somewhat linked to choropleth and enumeration mapping is called

dasymetric mapping. This form of mapping has been mostly identifi ed with mapping
population density.

Choropleth enumeration units portray data uniformly throughout the enumeration unit, but the
real distribution (for example, population density) often does not conform to those units. For
example, a county that has a city or part of a city within its borders may be partially urbanized
and partly rural, but the choropleth map does not make this distinction. Likewise, farm
productivity will be nonexistent in places such as urban areas, lakes, or forested areas. In
dasymetric mapping, the idea is to create zones of uniform statistical value that may not
necessarily follow enumeration unit boundaries. These zones are based on other data layers such
as a land use map, land use imagery, or other relevant information. Once the zone boundaries are
created, the (derived) data can be mapped in a manner similar to a choropleth map (see Figure
Dasymetric Mapping).

Figure Dasymetric Mapping: choropleth and dasymetric mapping. Standard choropleth presentation in
(a); dasymetric presentation in (b)