A.

Planetary System and Wind Pressure

1. Draw a diagram showing the global pressure belts and associated surface wind systems over a uniform
rotating earth.

2. Describe the characteristics and locations of the doldrums, ITCZ, Trade Winds, Sub tropical oceanic
highs, westerlies and polar easterlies.
• ITCZ – The ITCZ is the equatorial trough of low pressure at low latitudes, containing a zone of calm and
variable winds known as Doldrums. The ITCZ shifts north or south following the overhead sun. It is a region
near the equator where trade winds from each hemisphere meet. It is hot, humid weather with frequent heavy
showers/ thunderstorm and light winds. It is a zone of weak horizontal air flow and a zone of instability and
rising air (updraft) during thunderstorms.
• Subtropical oceanic high – A region of high pressure associated with sinking air located around latitude 30˚-
35˚ known as “horse latitudes”. Air cools and descends in the subtropics, creating areas of high pressure with
associated clear skies and low rainfall. The descending air is warm and dry and deserts form in these regions.
Weather in this region is usually clear and fresh with light and variable winds.
• Trade winds – The trade winds originates from the subtropical high pressure belt (near latitude 30˚) towards
the equatorial trough of low pressure. The wind is deflected to the right by the Coriolis force in its movement
to the equator and blow as the NE trade winds in the northern hemisphere and SE trade winds in the southern
hemisphere. Trade winds are persistent with a steady direction. It originates as warm dry winds and prevails
between the equator and latitude 30˚ and could cause heavy precipitation over tropical oceans.
• Westerlies – The Westerlies blow outward from the subtropical high pressure belt (horse latitudes 30˚)
towards the sub-polar low pressure (near latitude 60˚). The wind is deflected to the right by the Coriolis force
and blows SW’ly in the Northern Hemisphere and Nw’ly in the Southern Hemisphere. They are largely
disrupted by landmasses in the Northern Hemisphere but are strong and persistent winds in the Southern
Hemisphere. The wind velocities increase poleward in the south and sailors called there the “roaring forties”.
Mid-latitude depressions are associated with this wind.
• Polar easterlies – the high pressure areas in the poles causes the wind to blow outward from east to west. The
wind blows NE’ly in the Northern Hemisphere and SE’ly in the Southern Hemisphere due to deflection by the
Coriolis force. The easterlies consist of cold and dry wind.
• Doldrums – Oceanic regions between the NE and SE trade winds and within which are light variable winds
and calms accompanied by heavy rains, thunderstorms and squalls. It moves north and south, following the
sun about 5˚either side of their mean positions.
3. What are monsoons?
Monsoon winds are seasonal wind that blows from continental interiors (or large land areas) to the ocean
during the winter and blows in the opposite direction during the summer. Monsoon winds are a result of
unequal heating and cooling of land and water surfaces. Monsoon winds are well developed in the trade wind
belts due to shifts in positions of ITCZ. The monsoon wind is most pronounced over the coastal areas in India,
China, West Africa. Minor systems are recognized in North Australia and Brazil. It brings heavy monsoonal
rain to these regions in summer and dry dusty winds in winter.

4. Describe with the aid of sketches the following monsoons:

a) NE monsoon of the China Sea
b) SW monsoon of the Indian Ocean
c) NW monsoon of North Coast of Australia
d) SW monsoon of West Coast of Africa
e) NE monsoon of North East coast of Brazil

A) NE MONSOON OF THE CHINA SEA

• During the northern winter, the Asian continent is cooled and an intense high pressure area forms over
Eastern Siberia and a low pressure area forms over the deserts of Australia.
• The winds will blow from the high pressure area (Asia) to the low pressure area (Australia) due to large
pressure gradient and winds are likely to be NE’ly force 6-7.
• This monsoon winds from Asia will blow down towards the equator in a North Easterly direction in the
China Seas typically force 6-7.
• The NE monsoon blows from December to April and brings heavy rainfall to the windward coasts in the
China Seas and east coast of India.
B) SW MONSOON OF THE INDIAN OCEAN
• During the northern summer, from June until October the Asian continent is warmed.
• A low pressure area forms over NW India and a high pressure area forms over the South India Ocean and
the cold Australia continent.
• The winds will blow from the high pressure area (Australia) to the low pressure area (Asia) due to
pressure gradient.
• The winds from Australia will blow down towards the equator in a south easterly direction.

C) NW MONSOON OF NORTH COAST OF AUSTRALIA

• During the southern summer, a low pressure area forms over deserts of Australia.
• The wind blows from the high pressure area in Asia to the low pressure area in Australia.
• This monsoon winds from Asia will blow down to and past the equator. On crossing the equator these
winds are deflected to the left due to the Coriolis Effect giving NW’ly winds on the coasts of Australia.
• Having blown over thousands of miles of ocean, the air has a high relative humidity bringing rain to the
region.
• The wind force is typically force 6-7 and occurs from December to April.
D) SW MONSOON OF WEST COAST OF AFRICA
• During the northern summer, a low pressure area forms over the warm Africa continent and a high
pressure area over the cold South Atlantic Ocean.
• The winds will blow from the high pressure area (South Atlantic) to the low pressure area (Africa) due to
pressure gradient.
• The winds from South Atlantic will blow down towards the equator in a south easterly direction.
• On crossing the equator, these winds are deflected to the right and blow as a SW wind called SW
monsoon on the west coast of Africa.

E) NE MONSOON OF THE NE COAST OF BRAZIL

• During the southern summer, a low pressure area forms over the warm NE of Brazil.
• The South Atlantic Ocean pressure is higher compared to the land, causing the wind to blow from the
high pressure area to the low pressure area.
• The SE trade winds of this region are deflected by the equator to circulate clockwise around the low
pressure, giving NE winds on the coast of Brazil.
• During northern winters, the continent of Asia gets cold and the resultant high pressure over it centers
over Siberia with a pressure of about 1036 mb. The equatorial low of 1012 mb, being oceanic, remains
practically unaffected by the change of season.
• The South American continent is heated during the southern summer and a low-pressure area forms over
N.E. Brazil.
• The S.E. Trade is deflected to circulate around this low giving East to N.E. winds on the coasts.
• Having traveled over thousands of miles of sea, the relative humidity of the air is high bringing heavy
rainfall to the coastal areas of Brazil.
• The NE monsoon blows from December to April.
B. Air Mass Types and Weather

1. What is the definition of an air mass and explain the formation of air masses.
An air mass is a body of air extending over a large area (usually 1,000 miles or more across). It is generally an
area of high pressure that stagnates for several days where surface terrain varies little. During this time, the air
mass takes on characteristics of the underlying surface.

2. Describe briefly how an “air mass” is formed?

The formation of air masses is due to the heating and cooling of the earth’s surface. This continuous process is
established in order to achieve an equilibrium state between the ground and air. Heat is transferred by:
• Turbulent convective transport of heat upward into the higher levels of air.
• Cooling of air by radiation loss of heat.
• Transport of heat by evaporation & condensation.
During the heat transferring process, there will be a large divergent flow that tends to destroy temperature
contrasts. As a result, a surface with relatively uniform temperature and moisture is produced. Hence, any
large body of air floating above this surface will develop into an air mass with similar properties as the
underlying surface.

3. Explain the significance of a source region for an air mass

Significance of a source region
• The surface of a source region will determine the original characteristics (temperature and moisture
properties) of an air mass floating above it.
• When an air mass leaves its source region and begins to travel, it modifies its original characteristics
and adopts some of the properties from the surface over which it travels.
• The difference of temperature and moisture that the air mass experience when it travels from one
source region to another will affect the weather condition that develops within it.

4. Describe the characteristics of a region acting as the source region for an air mass.
Characteristics of a source region
• Air mass can either originate from a polar or tropical region and can develop over land (continent) or
ocean.
• If it is of polar (P) origin, the air mass will be cold and if of tropical (T) origin, the air mass will be
warm.
• If it forms over a continent (c), it will be dry and if it forms over an ocean (m), it will be moist.

5. Describe the temperature and moisture content of the following air mass type:-
AIR MASS TYPE TEMPERATURE CHARACTERISTIC MOISTURE CHARACTERISTIC
Arctic or Antarctic Extremely cold, formed over poles. Very dry due to extreme cold.
(A or AA)
Polar Continental Very cold, having developed over sub-polar Very dry, due to the cold and having
(cP) regions. developed over land.
Polar Maritime Very cool because of the high latitude but Moderately moist because of the cool
(mP) not cold, due to moderating influence of the temperature, but not as dry as polar
sea and the warm ocean currents at these continental air because of evaporation
latitudes. from the water surface.
Tropical Very warm because of the lower sub-tropical Dry because it formed over land
Continental latitude of formation.
(cT)
Tropical Maritime Very warm because of the sub-tropical Very humid because of the warm
(mT) latitudes at which it forms. tropical waters below.
Equatorial Hot Extremely humid. Continental is not
(E) differentiated from maritime because
much of equatorial land is covered with
humid tropical rainforests.
6. Describe the subsequent modification of an air mass by the nature of the surface over which it travels.
When an air mass travels from one source region to another, its subsequent modification is affected by:
A) Surface Temperature
• Air mass properties and stability can be modified due to the difference of temperature between the air
mass and the surface.
• When warm air mass moves over a colder surface, it will be cooled from below and will become
extremely stable in the lower layers.
• When cold air mass moves over a warmer surface, it will be heated from below and becomes unstable and
consequently spreads to higher layers.
B) Surface moisture
• The moisture content of an air mass may be modified by the addition of moisture (evaporation) or by the
removal of moisture (condensation and precipitation).
• The movement of air mass from land to ocean increases the moisture content of the lower layers by
evaporation from the underlying water surface.
• The movement of air mass from ocean surface to land decreases the moisture content of the lower layers
by condensation and precipitation.
C) Topography
• Evident primarily in the mountainous regions.
• Moisture is removed from the air mass through precipitation on the windward side thus decreasing its
stability.
• When it descends on the leeward side of the mountain, the air becomes warmer and drier and stability
increases.
D) Trajectory
• The trajectory path (cyclonic and anticyclonic) that an air mass follows will affect its stability.
• If it follows a cyclonic trajectory (convergence at the lower levels and divergent at the upper levels), its
stability in the upper levels is decreased. This reflects a cyclonic relative vorcity.
• If it follows and anticyclonic trajectory (divergence at the lower levels and convergence at the upper
levels), its stability in the upper levels is increased. This reflects an anticyclonic relative vorcity.
E) Age
• Time that an air mass spent on its journey from its source and how long it has been in contact with the
surface over which it travels.
• Determines the amount of modification that takes place within an air mass.
• Air mass that moved into a new region from its source region and stagnated for some time will acquire
the properties of the underlying surface of the new region and lost its original characteristics.

7. Explain what is a stable air mass with the aid of a diagram.

A stable air mass is an air mass where vertical motion is suppressed within it and has a tendency to return to
its original state after a disturbance occurred within it. If a rising parcel of air is cooler than the surrounding
atmosphere it will tend to sink back to its original position. This is because cool air is more dense or heavier
than warmer air. Stable air masses generally imply the absence of 'free' vertical motion, and any ascent that
does occur must be forced, i.e. frontal (dynamic or mass) or orographic (mechanical) ascent, and the cloud
structure is essentially layered. (NB: Forced ascent comes about in several ways: frontal ascent due to large-
scale air motion within frontal systems, with of course adjacent descent; convergence into an area of low
pressure - the converging air can't go down near the surface - it has to go up; and topographical forcing, ie air
is forced to rise over major upland ranges.)
8. Explain what is an unstable air mass with the aid of a diagram.
An unstable air mass is an air mass where vertical currents (convection) is developed within it and has a
tendency to move further away from its original state after a disturbance occurred within it. The stability of an
air mass indicates the weather, cloud types that will form, type of precipitation to be expected and occurrence
of turbulence and visibility of the lower layer. It can be changed by either thermodynamic (heat loss / gain or
moisture increase / decrease) or mechanical (movement) means. If a rising parcel of air is warmer than the
surrounding atmosphere it will continue to rise. This is because warm air is less dense or lighter than cool air.
Unstable air masses imply free vertical motion (given an initial trigger action), and the cloud structure is
'heaped' or cumuliform. If the vertical motion is vigorous and deep enough, and there is sufficient moisture,
then heavy showers / thunderstorms are likely. (NB: Trigger action: method of causing air to rise initially,
which in the lower troposphere include not only the 'wide-area' triggers noted above under stable conditions,
but also smaller/meso scale mechanisms such as differential heat response between land and sea, coastal
convergence, etc.)

H. Principal Frontal Systems

1. Explain the formation of a front or frontal zone.

Two air masses, especially in the middle latitudes, develop a sharp boundary or interface, where the
temperature difference between them becomes intensified. Such an area of intensification is called
a frontal zone or a front. The boundary between the warm and cold air masses always slopes upwards over the
cold air. This is due to the fact that cold air is much denser than warm air. The sloping of warm air over the
cold air leads to a forced uplifting (frontal lifting) of the warm air if one air mass is moving toward the other.
In turn, this uplifting causes condensation to occur and the possibility of precipitation along the frontal
boundary.

2. Explain in brief what is a “cold front”

A cold front is the transition zone in the atmosphere where an advancing cold, dry stable air mass displaces a
warm, moist unstable subtropical air mass. On a weather map, the cold front is drawn as a solid blue line with
triangles. The position of the triangles shows the direction of frontal movement. Cold fronts move between 15
to 50 kilometers per hour in a southeast to east direction. The formation of clouds and precipitation at the
frontal zone is caused by frontal lifting. High altitude cirrus clouds are found well in advance of the front.
Above the surface location of the cold front, high altitude cirrostratus and middle altitude altocumulus are
common. Precipitation is normally found just behind the front where frontal lifting has caused the
development of towering cumulus and cumulonimbus clouds.
3. Explain in brief what is a “warm front”
A warm front is the transition zone in the atmosphere where an advancing warm subtropical, moist air
mass replaces a retreating cold, dry polar air mass. On a weather map, a warm front is drawn as a solid red
line with half-circles. The position of the half-circles shows the direction of frontal movement. Warm fronts
move about 10 kilometers per hour in a northeast direction. This is less than half the speed of a cold front. The
formation of clouds and precipitation ahead of the frontal zone is caused by gradual frontal lifting.

High altitude cirrus, cirrostratus and middle altitude altostratus clouds are found well in advance of the front.
About 600 kilometers ahead of the front, nimbostratus clouds occur. These clouds produce precipitation in the
form of snow or rain. Between the nimbostratus clouds and the surface location of the warm front, low
altitude stratus clouds are found. Finally, a few hundred kilometers behind the front scattered stratocumulus
are common in the lower troposphere.

4. Describe the sequence of weather associated with the passage of an idealized cold front with the aid of a
diagram

Weather Prior to the Passing of the Front Contact with the Front After the Passing of the
Phenomenon Front
Temperature Warm Cooling suddenly Cold and getting colder
Atmospheric Decreasing steadily Levelling off then Increasing steadily
Pressure increasing
Winds South to southeast Variable and gusty West to northwest
Precipitation Showers Heavy rain or snow, hail Showers then clearing
sometimes
Clouds Cirrus and cirrostratus changing later to Cumulus and Cumulus
cumulus and cumulonimbus cumulonimbus
5. Explain the sequence of weather associated with the passage of an idealized warm front with the aid of
diagrams.

Weather Prior to the Passing of the Front Contact with the Front After the Passing of the
Phenomenon Front
Temperature Cool Warming suddenly Warmer then leveling off

Atmospheric Decreasing steadily Leveling off Slight rise followed by a

Pressure decrease
Winds South to southwest Variable South to southwest
Precipitation Showers, snow, sleet or drizzle Light drizzle None
Clouds Cirrus, cirrostratus, altostratus, Stratus, sometimes Clearing with scattered
nimbostratus, and then stratus cumulonimbus stratus, sometimes
scattered cumulonimbus

6. Explain the process of frontogenesis and frontolysis

Frontogenesis
• Formation and beginning of a frontal depression.
• The warm air travels faster than the cold or travelling in opposite direction.
• It begins as a small wave like disturbance (bulge) of warm air in the cold air.
• The cold air undercuts the warm air (cold front) and the warm air overrides the cold air (warm front).
• This causes a fall of pressure over the centre, the depression deepens, the bulge increases in size and the cold
air bend accordingly.
• Because warm air is less dense than cold air, the bulge is an area of low pressure, surrounded by three sides of
high pressure areas. The bent isobars then take closed shapes and the wind takes on a spirally inward
circulation, anticlockwise in the Northern Hemisphere and clockwise in the Southern Hemisphere.

Frontolysis
• Decaying or weakening and final dissipation of a frontal depression.
• The first step in the formation of an occlusion.
• When a depression is fully occluded in the Northern / Southern Hemisphere, it will move well north / south of
the surface boundary between the original warm and cold air.
• The depression will be away from the temperature contrast that originally provides the energy for its
development.
• When this temperature contrast across a front lessens, the front will weaken and dissipates.
7. Explain with the aid of diagrams, the formation of, and weather associated with a “line squall”

Formation of line squall

• Line squalls generally, form along or ahead of a cold front.
• Extend hundreds of miles in length and travels quickly.
• Form in unstable atmospheric environment in which low level air can rise after being initially lifted by a front
to the point where condensation of water vapour occurs.
• Heat is released during condensation, resulting in rising air become lighter than nearby air.
• Before a cold front passes, a long line of low based cumulonimbus clouds is visible.
• Produces severe weather – heavy rain fall, strong winds, large hail and frequent lightning.

Weather associated with squall lines

• Sudden rise in barometric pressure.
• Sudden drop in temperature.
• Change in wind direction and increase in velocity.
• Heavy black clouds often appearing to roll along just above the surface.
• Heavy rain.
• Thunder and lightning.
I. Frontal and Non Frontal Depressions

1. Describe with the aid of diagrams, the formation, development and decay of frontal depressions.

Two different air masses are travelling at opposite direction. The warm air travels faster than the cold air.
They meet along a line, which is called frontal boundary at the polar front.
• A small wave like disturbance develops on the frontal boundary between the two air masses.
• The system develops and two distinct fronts (warm and cold front) are formed as part of the system.
• There is a fall of pressure over the centre, the depression deepens, the bulge increases in size and the
cold air bend accordingly. The cycle is completed and the depression is formed, with wind circulation
inward direction, anticlockwise in the northern hemisphere and clockwise in the southern hemisphere.
• The cold front which moves faster than the warm front will catch up with it, first near the centre where
the fronts are close together, then successively greater distance from the centre.
• When a depression is fully occluded in the Northern / Southern Hemisphere, it will move well north /
south of the surface boundary between the original warm and cold air.
• The depression will be away from the temperature contrast that originally provides the energy for its
development. When this temperature contrast across a front lessens, the front will weaken and
dissipates.

2. What is a “family of depressions” and how it is formed?

A family of depression is defined as the phenomenon when a series of depression develops following the
occlusion of the parent (original) depression.

The conditions (strong temperature contrast) at the polar front which favoured the development of the original
depression tend to reproduce on the relatively slow moving part of the trailing cold front which lies to the
south west of the original depression position. When the original depression is occluded, the new depression
deepens and intensifies on the trailing cold front. This process will be repeated several times and gives rise to
a series of depressions (family of depressions). The conditions that favored the formation of the first
depression will favor the formation of the next one until its tail reaches the ITCZ.
3. Draw a typical synoptic pattern showing a family of frontal depressions and the associated
pressure distribution.

4. Describe the formation of an occluded front with the aid of a diagram

Usually an occluded front is formed in areas of depression caused by low pressure. When a cyclone develops
behind a warm front, the cold front that was formed behind the warm front moves towards it. As a result of
the storm, its speed will be higher than that of the warm front. The air mass behind the cold front is colder
when compared with the cool air mass that was ahead of the warm front. These two masses of air, cold and
colder, will come in contact with one another as the warm air mass will move upwards. Thus, the front that is
formed when the two cold air mass come in contact with one another is known as an occluded front. The
direction of its movement will be towards the cold air mass from the colder air mass. The warm air that had
moved upwards cools and expands which leads to the formation of clouds.

5. Describe the difference between a cold type occlusion and warm type occlusion.
In a cold occlusion, the cold air mass overtaking the warm front is colder than the cool air ahead of the warm
front, and plows under both air masses.
In a warm occlusion, the cold air mass overtaking the warm front is warmer than the cool air ahead of the
warm front, and rides over the colder air mass while lifting the warm air.
6. Describe the weather experienced during the passage of warm and cold occlusions with the aid of
diagrams

After Passing While Passing Before Passing

Temperature
Cold Type Colder (-2 C) Dropping (0 C) Cold-cool (+ 2 C)
Warm Type Cool-Milder (+2 C) Rising (0 C) Cold (-2C)
Winds West to northwest Variable Southeast-south
Pressure Usually rising Low point Usually falling
Clouds Ns, As or scattered Cu Ns, sometimes Cu and Cb In order : Ci, Cs, As, Ns

Precipitation Light-to-moderate Light, moderate or heavy Light, moderate or heavy

precipitation followed continuous precipitation or precipitation
by general clearing showers

7. Draw a diagram with a cross section view of a warm and cold occlusions showing temperature
distribution, cloud and precipitation areas.
J. Non Frontal Weather Systems

1. Explain what is a “trough of low pressure” and describe the weather associated with it.
A “trough of low pressure” is an extension of a depression into a high pressure area. Sometimes it is called a
V-shaped depression and it nearly always points towards the equator. The trough may be frontal, in which
case there is a marked change in the direction of the isobars on the trough line, or non-frontal where the
isobars are well rounded.

Before the Passage

• Pressure falls and weather deteriorate
• Squalls may be experienced with lightning and heavy precipitation
• Sudden change in temperature
After the Passage
• Pressure rises and weather improves

2. Explain what is a “frontal trough” and a “non-frontal trough”.

Frontal
Frontal trough exists at the boundary between two different air masses. V formed by isobars always towards
the equator. On crossing a frontal trough, the isobars change direction suddenly by 90°-veers in the northern
hemisphere and backs in Southern Hemisphere.
Non Frontal
Isobars curved gently (change direction gradually). When non frontal trough passes over an observer, the
wind veers gradually in NH and back gradually in southern hemisphere. The U of the non-frontal trough
always points towards the equator.

3. Draw a synoptic pattern of frontal and non-frontal troughs for both northern and southern
hemispheres showing isobars, wind circulation and, if applicable, front.

4. Describe the weather associated with the passage of a trough of low pressure.
Before the Passage
• Pressure falls and weather deteriorate
• Squalls may be experienced with lightning and heavy precipitation
• Sudden change in temperature
After the Passage
• Pressure rises and weather improves
5. Explain what is an “anticyclone” and draw a synoptic pattern of an “anticyclone” in the Northern
Hemisphere showing isobars and wind circulation.
An anticyclone is an area of high atmospheric pressure relative to the surrounding air, generally thousands of
kilometres in diameter and also known as a high or high-pressure system. Anticyclones appear on weather
charts as a series of concentric, widely spaced isobars of 1000 mbs and above. The roughly circular closed
isobar at its central region indicates the area of highest pressure. In the Northern Hemisphere, winds blow in
a clockwise direction around an anticyclone. As isobars are normally widely spaced around an anticyclone,
winds are often quite light. The anticyclone area is dominated by stable conditions thus cloud formation is
inhibited giving fine to fair weather conditions.

6. Explain the weather associated with a winter anticyclone and a summer anticyclone.
WINTER ANTICYCLONES
In winter the clear, settled conditions and light winds associated with anticyclones can lead to
frost and fog. The clear skies allow heat to be lost from the surface of the earth by radiation,
allowing temperatures to fall steadily overnight, leading to air or ground frosts. Light winds
along with falling temperatures can encourage fog to form; this can linger well into the
following morning and be slow to clear.
SUMMER ANTICYCLONES
In summer the clear settled conditions associated with anticyclones can bring long sunny days
and warm temperatures. The weather is normally dry and hot with little or no cloud and good
visibility.

7. Define a “ridge of high pressure” and draw a synoptic pattern of a ridge showing isobars
and wind circulation.
A “ridge of high pressure” is an area of high pressure jutting into areas of low pressure or is
sandwiched between a couple of lows. Isobars are curved, with the high pressure inside
generally far apart and do not necessary form closed shapes. May form by itself or it may be
the outer fringes of an anticyclone far away. In winter it can bring frost and fog. In the summer
it can cause problems with smog, as the pollution gets 'caught' in the sinking air. An anti-
cyclone ridge is a neck or ridge of high pressure with lower pressure lying on either side. The
weather in a ridge is generally fine to fair.
8. Explain the weather associated with a ridge of high pressure
The weather is similar to an anticyclone with no precipitation, light winds and no clouds. Fast moving ridges
occur between a primary low and secondary low moving along the polar front. They bring intervals of fair
weather between the periods of rain and showers associated with each passing depressions and its fronts.

9. Define a “col” and draw a synoptic pattern of a ridge showing isobars and wind circulation.
• When two “anti-cyclonic” & two “cyclonic” systems are diametrically opposite each other, there will be area
in the center of the four systems which cannot be considered as a high pressure area or a low pressure area.
This area is known as a “COL”.The pressure in this area is higher than that of the low pressure & lower than
that of the high pressure area.

10. Explain the weather associated with a “col”.

In a COL the pressure gradients are small giving light variable winds. In general the relative humidity is high
& there may be fog or there may be thunderstorms.

11. Explain what is a Non-frontal depression.

A low-pressure system that does not develop from a frontal wave (as do typical mid-latitude frontal cyclones
or depressions). Most tropical cyclones are non-frontal. Various conditions can lead to the formation of
depressions without frontal characteristics.

K. TRS

1. Draw a plan of a TRS showing isobars, wind circulation, path, track, vortex or eye trough line,
dangerous semicircle, dangerous quadrant and navigable semicircle (for Northern Hemisphere)

2. Explain the reasons for the naming of the dangerous semicircle

In the Northern Hemisphere, that part to the right of the storm track (facing in the direction toward which the
storm is moving) is called the dangerous semicircle. It is called dangerous because
• If a ship is lying towards that side and forward of the trough line (dangerous quadrant), the storm will
close in very rapidly with the normal movement of the storm.
• Wind will tend to blow the ship towards the path and closer to the centre of the storm.
• Re-curvature will decrease the distance of the ship from the centre.
3. Draws a vertical cross section through a TRS showing areas of cloud and precipitation.

4. Describe the characteristics of a TRS ie size, wind, pressure, eye, cloud and precipitation sequence.
Characteristics Eye / Vortex Eye Wall Outer Storm Area
Size / Diameter Average 10 miles Average 10 – 30 miles Average 500 miles
Wind direction / Wind dies down into - Force 12 or over Force 6 to 7
force light airs with - Winds blow in perfectly circular
mountainous and path.
confused swell. - Strongest wind lies in the rear
quadrant on the polar side of
storm.
Atmospheric Lowest pressure -Sharp fall of pressure ahead of - A fall of pressure ahead of
pressure the trough and sharp rise of the trough and a rise of
pressure behind the trough. pressure behind the trough
- Highest pressure gradient. - Pressure gradient is much
less than in the eyewall.
Clouds -Small circular patch Thick nimbostratus and small - Cirrus in the form of
of blue sky patches of cumulus may be seen strands or filaments
-absence of cloud generally so aligned,
pointing towards the storm
centre.
- Cirrostratus followed by
altostratus
Precipitation No rain Continuous torrential rain Intermittent showers
5. Describes the warning signs of an approaching TRS.
• A definite, unusually steep fall in the barometric pressure. If the corrected pressure is more than 3 mb
below normal, beware! If it is more than 5 mb below normal, there is probably a storm within 200 miles.
When checking the barometer to see if it is below normal, it is essential to take into account the diurnal
variation.
• The absence of diurnal variation
• Long heavy swell from the direction of the storm. It is a good long range indicator (hundreds of miles)
and may not be in keeping with the weather at the time, e.g. a heavy NE swell while the wind is SE at 10-
15 kn.
• An odd coloured sky (lurid) caused by ice crystals in the upper atmosphere radiating out from the centre
of the storm giving the effect of a high level horizontal rainbow
• A heavy, humid oppressive atmosphere.
• Unusual behaviour by sea birds. They will either stay ashore and roost all day or disappear all together.
• An appreciable change in the direction and strength of the wind

6. Describe the method of determining the approximate bearing of an approaching TRS

To determine the approximate bearing of an approaching TRS, face the wind and according to Buy’s Ballot’s
law, the storm centre will lie 8 to 12 points on your right in the northern hemisphere. Allow 12 points if the
pressure has fallen 5mb below normal and 8 points if 20mb or more below normal as it means that the vessel
is near a well-developed TRS.

7. Describe the method of determining in which sector of a TRS the ship is situated.
To determine in which sector of a TRS the ship is situated in the northern hemisphere if the wind veers the
vessel is in the dangerous semicircle and if the wind backs then the vessel is in the navigable semicircle. If the
wind is steady in direction then she is in the direct path of the storm

8. Describes with the aid of a diagram, the correct avoidance procedure when the vessel is in the vicinity
of a TRS in the northern hemisphere.
If the vessel is in the dangerous quadrant or semicircle:
Proceed with all available speed keeping the wind 1 point (for slow vessels < 12 knots) to 4 points (for fast
vessels > 12 knots) on the starboard bow. Subsequently, make alteration of course to starboard as the wind
veers. This action should be kept up until the pressure rises to normal ie vessel is outside the storm area. If
there is insufficient sea room to make headway, the vessel should heave to with the wind on her starboard
bow until the storm passes over.
If the vessel is in the direct path of the storm or in the navigable semicircle :
Run with the wind about 4 points on the starboard quarter and altering course to port as the wind backs. This
action should be kept up until the pressure rises to normal ie vessel is outside the storm area. If sea-room is
insufficient then heave to on whichever tack is considered to be the safest.
9. The Master of every ship which meets with a tropical storm or winds of force 10 or above on the
Beaufort scale for which no storm warning has been received, is required to send out a danger message
in compliance with SOLAS Chapter V Regulation 31 & 32.
i. To whom must this danger message be send?
ii. What information is required in this danger message?
iii. Give an example of such a danger message.

i) The danger message must be send to all ships in the vicinity, and also to the competent authorities.

ii) The following information is required in the danger message:

• A statement that a tropical cyclone has been encountered. This obligation should be interpreted in a
broad spirit, and information transmitted whenever the master has good reason to believe that a
tropical cyclone is developing or exists in the neighbourhood.
• Time, date (Universal Co-ordinated Time) and position of ship when the observation was taken.
• As much of the following information as is practicable should be included in the message:
 barometric pressure, preferably corrected (stating millibars, millimetres, or inches, and whether
corrected or uncorrected);
 barometric tendency (the change in barometric pressure during the past three hours);
 true wind direction;
 wind force (Beaufort scale);
 state of the sea (smooth, moderate, rough, high);
 swell (slight, moderate, heavy) and the true direction from which it comes. Period or length of
swell (short, average, long) would also be of value;
 true course and
 speed of ship.

iii) Example of danger message:

TTT STORM. 0030 UTC. AUGUST 18. 2004 N, 11354 E. BAROMETER CORRECTED 994 MILLIBARS,
TENDENCY DOWN 6 MILLIBARS. WIND NW, FORCE 9, HEAVY SQUALLS. HEAVY EASTERLY
SWELL. COURSE 067, 5 KNOTS.

L. Open Water Circulation

1. Explain the generation of drift currents by prevailing winds.

Drift currents are generated by the prevailing wind blowing over large stretch of ocean for long periods. The
wind blowing over a water surface tends to drag the uppermost layer of water in the direction towards which
the wind is blowing, due to the frictional effect of the wind. However, Coriolis Force, caused by the rotation
of the earth, deflects the Drift current to the right in Northern Hemisphere and to the Left in the Southern
Hemisphere by about 30º to 45º. This produces a surface flow of water in a direction which is inclined at
about 30º to 45º to the right of the wind direction in NH and to the left in SH.
2. Explain the generation of gradient currents from differences in water temperature and salinity
Difference in the density of sea water caused by the differences of temperature or salinity will produce
gradient currents. The greater the salinity, the greater will be the density of water and lower the salinity, less
will be the density of water. Similarly lower the temperature, greater is the density of water and higher the
temperature, less is the density. When these different masses of water lie adjacent to each other, gradient
currents will be set up between them because of their differences in temperature and salinity.

3. Draw and label all the principal surface currents in the North and South Pacific Ocean on the world
map provided as Attachment 1

North Pacific Gyre

• Kuroshio Current
• North Pacific Current
• California Current
• North Equatorial Current

South Pacific Gyre

• Peru Current
• South Equatorial Current
• East Australia Current
• Antartic Circumpolar Current

Equatorial Counter Current

Oyashio Current
Alaskan Current
Kamchatka Current
4. Explain the classification of individual currents as warm or cold where appropriate
Surface water temperature varies considerably between the Equator and the poles. As the ocean water is
distributed across the Earth’s surface by drifts and currents, warm water from the lower latitudes is moved
into the higher latitudes as warm currents and cold water is moved Equator-ward as cold currents.

Warm Currents
Warm ocean currents flow away from the equatorial region on the western side of ocean basins. The Gulf
Stream in the North Atlantic and the Kuroshio Current in the North Pacific are examples of warm currents. Of
all the warm currents, the Gulf Stream has been studied most extensively. A narrow, intense flow of warm
water, the Gulf Stream begins in the Caribbean Sea and follows the east coast of the United States northward
around Cape Hatteras, North Carolina. There the current veers northeastward across the Atlantic Ocean,
where it is called the North Atlantic Drift. The current carries warm water to Iceland and the British Isles. As
a result, these places have warmer climates than they would otherwise. (Hence there are palm trees along the
coast of Ireland.) The Gulf Stream forms the western and northern boundary of the Sargasso Sea, which is
located in the middle of the North Atlantic Ocean. An area of warm water and light winds, the Sargasso Sea
has relatively calm seas. Great amounts of floating brown seaweed called sargassum are typically found on
the surface water there. Similar conditions exist in other oceans, but nowhere are they as well developed as in
the North Atlantic.

Cold Currents
Cold currents flow toward the equator on the eastern side of ocean basins. Examples of cold ocean currents
include the Canary Current in the North Atlantic, the California Current in the North Pacific, and the
Benguela Current in the South Atlantic. Cold currents can also flow out of far northern regions. The Labrador
Current flows out of Baffin Bay and past Labrador, the coastal part of the Canadian province of
Newfoundland. The current carries icebergs from Baffin Bay, creating a hazard for ships in the North
Atlantic. The Labrador Current meets the Gulf Stream off the coast of Newfoundland. When warm, moist air
from the Gulf Stream blows over the cold Labrador Current, water vapour condenses. This results in some of
the thickest fogs in the world. Two other important cold currents originate in northern regions. The
East Greenland Current flows into the North Atlantic through the Strait of Denmark. The Oyashio Current
flows through the Bering Strait between Siberia and Alaska and into the North Pacific.

5. Explain what is upwelling in relation to the effect of wind moving along the coast lines with the aid of a
diagram.

Wind-driven currents are diverted to the right of the winds in the Northern Hemisphere and to the left in the
Southern Hemisphere due to the Coriolis Effect. The result is a net movement of surface water at right angles
to the direction of the wind, known as the Ekman transport. When Ekman transport is occurring away from
the coast, surface waters moving away are replaced by deeper, colder, and denser water. Normally, this
upwelling process occurs at a rate of about 5–10 meters per day, but the rate and proximity of upwelling to the
coast can be changed due to the strength and distance of the wind.
 6. Explain what is down-welling in relation to the effect of wind moving along the coast lines with the aid
of a diagram.

A coastal down welling is the opposite of a coastal upwelling. Warm surface water can be blown towards the
shore by Ekman transport. This warm water mass pushes cold water down and away from the shore. Another
kind of down welling occurs when there is a build-up of the water in the centre of a hurricane or in other low-
pressure centers.

E. Floating Ice
1. Explain the formation of icebergs from floating glacier tongues in the northern hemisphere and
describe the characteristics of these icebergs.
Icebergs are blocks of fresh-water ice that break off from glaciers and float out to sea. Glaciers are formed in
polar regions where snowfall lasts for centuries, or even millennia, without entirely melting, and is eventually
compressed into ice.

In the North Atlantic, most icebergs originate from the tidewater glaciers of Western Greenland. Compressed
snow becomes firm, a granular snow, transformed eventually by pressure into a dense ice. The weight of the
icecap builds, causing the ice to flow as much as 60 feet a day through openings in the coastal mountains
Icebergs are huge masses of floating ice, broken off from:

Glaciers in the northern hemisphere

• When persistent snow falls on a mountainside and freezes into ice, the weight of ice makes the entire
mass of ice to slide down
• The sliding ice is called glacier
• Rising and falling tides cause slabs of ice to break off and form moving "rivers of ice."
• Usually, about 7/8 of an iceberg is hidden below the waterline, hence the expression "tip of the
iceberg." Most arctic icebergs melt before they ever reach the Atlantic Ocean.

2. Explain the formation of icebergs from ice shelves in the southern hemisphere and describe the
characteristics of these icebergs.
Icebergs are huge masses of floating ice, broken off from:
Ice-shelves in the southern hemisphere
• Common in high latitudes of the southern hemisphere.
• They are huge chunks broken off from large ice-shelves
• They are also called Tabular Bergs
• Icebergs are calved from ice foots.
• Tends to be flat topped or tabular up to 60m high.
• Their lengths are considerably greater than northern hemisphere bergs.
• Bergs up to 70 miles long 10 miles wide have been reported.
• The bergs are rarely encountered to the northwards of 40 s.
• There isn’t much traffic in the higher southern latitudes, therefore less importance is attached
 3. Define ice tongue, ice shelf, pack ice and fast ice
• An ice tongue is a long and narrow sheet of ice projecting out from the coastline. An ice tongue forms
when a valley glacier moves very rapidly out into the ocean or a lake.
• An ice shelf is a thick floating platform of ice that forms where a glacier or ice sheet flows down to a
coastline and onto the ocean surface. Ice shelves are only found in Antarctica, Greenland, Canada, and
the Russian Arctic.
• Pack Ice-any area of sea ice (ice formed by freezing of seawater) that is not landfast; it is mobile by
virtue of not being attached to the shoreline or something else. Pack ice expands in the winter and
retreats in the summer in both hemispheres to cover about 5 percent of the northern oceans and 8
percent of the southern oceans.
• Fast ice is sea ice that is "fastened" to the coastline, to the sea floor along shoals or to grounded
icebergs. Fast ice may either grow in place from the sea water or by freezing pieces of drifting ice to
the shore or other anchor sites.

4. What are the reasons for the decay of icebergs?

Icebergs becomes smaller in size due to following reasons:
• Calving(breaking off)into smaller pieces
• Melting caused by warm ocean currents, warm air and sunlight
• Erosive action of wind and waves

F. Navigation in Ice

1. Describe the signs which may indicate the proximity of ice on clear days and nights
Despite their size, icebergs can be very difficult to see under certain circumstances, and the Mariner should
invariably navigate with caution in waters in which they may be expected.
• In fog with sun shining an iceberg appears as a luminous white mass, but with no sun it appears close
aboard as a dark mass, and the first signs may well be the wash of the sea breaking on its base
• On a clear night with no moon icebergs may be sighted at a distance of 1 or 2 miles, appearing as
black or white objects, but the ship may then be among the bergy bits and growlers often found in the
vicinity of an iceberg.
• On a clear night, therefore, lookouts and radar operators should be particularly alert, and there should
be no hesitation in reducing speed if an iceberg is sighted without warning.
• On moonlit nights icebergs are more easily seen provided the moon is behind the observer, particularly
if it is high and full.
• At night with a cloudy sky and intermittent moonlight, icebergs are more difficult to see and to keep in
sight. Cumulus or cumulonimbus clouds at night can produce a false impression of icebergs.

2. Explain the ranges at which observers may expect to detect ice visually in varying conditions of
visibility,
During day - time
• Clear skies about 18 M off from masthead and 12 to 15 M from bridge.
• Cloudy days with good visibility about 2 M less than on clear days.
• Light fog/haze/drizzle/rain about 2 to 3 M
• Dense fog - less than 100 metres
During night - time
• Clear skies and good visibility about ¼ M to the naked eye and if bearing is known about 1 M using
night glasses.
• Difficult to detect in moderate or rough sea.
• Moonlight has strong but variable effect on visual detection range.
 3. Discuss the limitations of radar as a means of detecting ice.
Radar can be a great asset in ice navigation during periods of limited visibility, but only if the display is
properly interpreted. i. Ice makes a poor radar target beyond 3 to 4 nautical miles and the best working scale
is in the 2 to 3 nautical mile range. ii. Radar signal returns from all forms of ice (even icebergs) are much
lower than from ship targets, because of the lower reflectivity of radar energy from ice, and especially snow,
than from steel. iii. Detection of ice targets with low or smooth profiles is even more difficult on the radar
screen, although the radar information may be the deciding factor when attempting to identify the location of
these targets under poor conditions, such as in high seas, fog, or in heavy snow return. For example, in close
ice conditions the poor reflectivity and smooth surface of a floe may appear on the radar as a patch of open
water, or signal returns from sea birds in a calm sea can give the appearance of ice floes. iv. In an ice field,
the edge of a smooth floe is prominent, whereas the edge of an area of open water is not. The navigator must
be careful not to become over-confident in such conditions.

In strong winds the wave clutter in an area of open water will be distributed uniformly across the surface of
the water, except for the calm area at the leeward edge. vi. Ice within one mile of, and attached to, the shore
may appear on the radar display as part of the land itself. The operator should be able to differentiate between
the two if the receiver gain is reduced.

Mariners are advised not to rely solely on radar for the detection of icebergs because they may not appear as
clearly defined targets. In particular, mariners should exercise prudence when navigating in the vicinity of ice
or icebergs. The absence of sea clutter also may indicate that ice is present. Although ridges may show up
well on the radar display, it is difficult to differentiate between ridges, closed tracks of ships and rafted ice, as
all have a similar appearance on radar.

The effectiveness of marine radar systems will vary with power and wavelength. The optimum settings for the
radar will be different for navigating in ice than for open water. As the radar reflectivity of ice is much lower
than for ships or land, the gain will have to be adjusted to detect ice properly. Generally, high-power radars
are preferred and it has been found that radars with 50 kW output provide much better ice detection capability
than 25 kW radars. Similarly, 3-centimetre radars (x-band) provide better ice detail while 10-centimetre radars
(s-band) show the presence of ice and ridging at a greater distance It is therefore recommended that both
wavelengths be used.

G. Ice Accretion

1. Describes the conditions & factors which may give rise to ice accretion
• When the air temperature is below the freezing point of sea water and the ship is in heavy seas,
considerable amounts of water will freeze on to the superstructure. This can reduce the ship’s “GM”.
• On those parts of the hull which are sufficiently above the waterline (which escape being frequently
washed by the sea waves) - the amounts of ice so frozen to these surfaces exposed to the air will
rapidly increase with falling air and sea temperatures, and have in extreme cases lead to the capsizing
of vessels.
• Dangerous conditions can also exist in which strong winds are experienced in combination with air
temperatures of about -2°C or below – where freezing rain and accumulation of snowfall on decks and
fixtures can increase the hazard of structural damage.
• The rapidity with which ice can accumulate on the ship will increase progressively as the wind
increases to above force 6 and as the air temperature falls further to below -2°C, this can have an
adverse effect on the ship’s stability.
• Ice accretion also increases with decreasing sea temperatures. The rate of freezing and ice
accumulation also depends on other factors, such as the ship's speed and course relative to the wind
and waves and the particular design of the vessel, where it can lead to machinery and equipment
failure when hydraulic and electrical systems fail.
 2. Describe the methods of avoiding or reducing ice accretion
• It will be appreciated that it is very difficult to forecast accurately the variables involved.
• In addition, region of icing often moves at such a rate that vessels cannot take evasive action unless
warning of impending icing conditions is received.
• The Mariner is therefore advised to exercise all possible caution whenever gales are expected in
combination with air temperatures of -2°C or below.
• These conditions are most likely to occur with winds from polar regions, but the direction may be any
that will transport sufficient cold air.
• If these conditions are expected, the prudent course is to steer towards warmer conditions, or to seek
shelter, as soon as possible.
• If unable to reach shelter or warmer conditions, it has been found best to reduce spray to a minimum
by heading into the wind and sea at the slowest speed possible, or if weather conditions do not permit
that, to run before the wind at the least speed that will maintain steerage way.

3. Explain the reports to be made under SOLAS 74 when ice is encountered and lists of the information
to be given in radio messages reporting for i) dangerous ice and ii) conditions leading to severe ice
accretion on ship’s superstructure. Give an example for each of these messages.
The International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea (SOLAS), 1974, requires the Master of every
ship, when ice is reported on or near his track, to proceed at a moderate speed at night or to alter course to
pass well clear of the danger zone.

i) Dangerous ice
• Reports:- He is also required to make the following reports:
• On meeting dangerous ice:
• Type of ice;
• Position of the ice;
• UTC (GMT) and date of observation.

ii) Conditions leading to severe ice accretion on ship's superstructures

• On encountering air temperatures below freezing and associated with gale force winds causing severe ice
accumulation on ships:
• Air and sea temperatures;
• Force and direction of the wind;
• Position of the ship;
• UTC (GMT) and date of observations.

SAMPLE DANGER MESSAGES:

TTT ICE. LARGE BERG SIGHTED IN 4506 N, 4410W, AT 0800 UTC. MAY 15.
TTT EXPERIENCING SEVERE ICING. 1400 UTC. MARCH 2. 69 N, 10 W. AIR TEMPERATURE 18°F
(-7.8°C). SEA TEMPERATURE 29°F (-1.7°C). WIND NE, FORCE 8.

M. Sea & Swell

1. Use of Dorrenstein's nomogram for forecasting significant wave heights

The Dorrenstein’s nomogram shows the relation in forecasting the significant wave height in metres with the
wind speed in m/s, wind duration in hours, fetch in km and wave period in seconds.

2. Explain the relationship between sea waves and swell.

Sea waves are caused by wind and the area where waves are formed by wind is known as the generating area.
The Sea is the name given to the waves formed in it. The height of the sea waves depends on how long the
wind has been blowing, the fetch, the currents and the wind strength.

Swell is the wave motion caused by a meteorological disturbance, which persists after the disturbance has
died down or moved away. Swell often travels for considerable distances out of its generating area,
maintaining a constant direction as long as it keeps in deep water. As the swell travels away from its
generating area, its height decreases though its length and speed remain constant, giving rise to the long low
regular undulations so characteristic of swell.
 3. Explain the importance of fetch in the growth of waves
Fetch, along with wind speed (wind strength), determines the size (sea state) of waves produced. The longer
the fetch and the faster the wind speed, the more wind energy is imparted to the water surface and the larger
the resulting sea state will be.

C & D. Weather Charts & Weather Information

1. What is the World Meteorological Organization (WMO)

• Set up on 23 March 1950
• Successor to International Meteorological Organization (IMO, created in 1873)
• Specialized agency of the United Nations for meteorology (weather and climate), operational hydrology
and related geophysical sciences.
• UN system’s authoritative voice on the state and behaviour of the Earth’s atmosphere, its interaction with
the oceans, the climate it produces and the resulting distribution of water resources.

2. Describe briefly the functions and role of the WMO

• To provide world leadership in expertise and international cooperation in weather, climate, hydrology and
water resources, and related environmental issues, and thereby to contribute to the safety and well being
of people throughout the world and to the economic benefit of all nations
• Promote and foster meteorology and hydrology and related geophysical sciences and to facilitate world-
wide co-operation for the benefit of humankind :
• Networks for meteorological / hydrological and other geophysical observations
• Standardization of observations and publications
• Development of operational hydrology
• Systems for processing and rapid exchange of data
• Applications for socio-economic development (transportation, water issues, agriculture, oceans, pollution
control, etc), environment protection and policy formulation
• Disaster prevention and mitigation
• Research and training
3. What are the 3 types of vessels under the WMO “Voluntary Observing Ships” (VOS) scheme and
briefly describe their features and characteristics.
There are three types of ships in the VOS:
• Selected ships;
• Equipped with sufficient certified meteorological instruments for making observations.
• Transmits regular weather reports.
• Enters the observations in meteorological logbooks.
• It should have at least a barometer, a thermometer for sea-surface temperature, a psychrometer
and a barograph. Most of the VOS are selected ships.

• Supplementary ships;
• Equipped with a limited number of certified meteorological instruments.
• Transmits regular weather reports and enters the observations in meteorological logbooks.

• Auxiliary ships
• Is without certified meteorological instruments and transmits reports in a reduced code or in plain
language, either as a routine or on request, in certain areas or under certain conditions. Auxiliary
ships usually report from data-sparse areas outside the regular shipping lanes.
N. Voyage Planning

1. Explains the construction and use of a Baillie wind rose

A wind rose is a graphic tool used by meteorologists to give a succinct view of how wind speed and direction
are typically distributed at a particular location. A wind rose was also, before the use of magnetic compasses, a
guide on mariners’ charts to show the directions of the eight principal winds. The modern wind rose used by
meteorologists gives the percentage of the time the wind blows from each direction during the observation
period; it sometimes shows the strengths of these winds and the percentage of the time calm air or light winds
are observed.

• The use of Bailie Wind Rose: From the circle to the inner end of the wind arrow represents a scale of 5%.
• A thin line represents wind force 1 - 3, a double line represents forces 4 - 7, and a broad line forces 8
upwards.
• The figures in the centre show the number of observations, the percentage frequency of variables and the
percentage frequency of calms in that order.
• The total number of observations is 376,
• The frequency of variables is 1%
• There is a 2% frequency of calms.

2. Defines significant wave height

• Commonly referred to as Seas in the Marine Forecast
• Is the average of the highest one-third (33%) of waves (measured from trough to crest) that occur in a
given period.
• Is measured because the larger waves are usually more significant than the smaller waves. •For instance,
the larger waves in a storm can cause navigation problems for mariners.
• The Significant Wave Height (Seas) is an average of the largest waves but be aware that many individual
waves will probably be higher.
• As a general rule, the largest individual wave one may encounter is approximately twice as high as the
Significant Wave Height (or Seas).

3. Explain what is a monthly Routeing Charts and the information available in these charts.
Routeing charts are used in passage planning for ocean voyages for each month of the year. The data available
on a Monthly Routeing Chart are as follows:
• Recommended routes and distances between major ports
• Ocean Currents – predominant direction & speed in knots
• Ice limits (Iceberg limit and pack ice limit)
• Bailie wind rose.
• Meteorological and oceanographic conditions (areas of low visibility predominant, mean air temperature,
dew point and mean sea temperatures, BF wind force of 7 and higher predominant,
• Loadline demarkation limits.
• Position of ocean weather ships