8 Nav Ii

NAV-2
Terrestrial and Coastal

Navigation
STCW Code Table A- II/ 1
Specification of minimum standard of competence for officers

in charge of a navigational watch on ships of 500 gross
tonnage or more
Function:
Navigation at the Operational Level

Competence:
Plan and conduct a passage and determine position

Learning Outcome:
1. The cadets must be able to determine the ship’s position by use of:
1.1 landmarks
1.2 aids to navigation, including lighthouses, beacons and buoys
1.3 dead reckoning, taking into account winds, tides, currents and estimated
speed
2. The cadets must have a thorough knowledge of and be able to use nautical charts,
and publications, such as sailing directions, tide tables, notices to mariners, radio
navigational warnings and ships’ routeing information
NAVIGATION II - TOPICS
SAILINGS CHARTWORK IALA TIDES

EXERCISES
SAILINGS
INTRODUCTION
• Dead Reckoning involves the determination of one’s present or future position
by projecting the ship’s course and distance run from a known position.
• A closely related problem is that of finding the course and distance from one
known point to another known point.
BACK
SAILINGS
INTRODUCTION
• For short distances, these problems are easily solved directly on

charts, but for long distances, a purely mathematical solution is often
a better method.
• Collectively, these methods are called THE SAILINGS

KINDS OF SAILINGS
1. PLANE SAILING 5. MERCATOR SAILING

2. TRAVERSE SAILING 6. GREAT CIRCLE SAILING
3. PARALLEL SAILING
7. COMPOSITE SAILING
4. MID-LATITUDE SAILING
DEFINE THE FOLLOWING
1. MERIDIAN 7. DISTANCE
2. RHUMB LINES 8. DEPARTURE
3. GREAT CIRCLE 9. GREAT CIRCLE TRACK
4. LATITUDE 10. VERTEX
5. LONGITUDE 11. MERCATOR CHART
6. TRUE COURSE 12. GNOMONIC CHART
SAILINGS
1. MERIDIAN – Imaginary semi-
circle joining the earth's poles,
and crossing the equator and
all latitudes (baselines) at right
angles.
SAILINGS
2. RHUMB LINES – or loxodrome
is an arc crossing all meridians
of longitude at the same
angle, i.e. a path with constant
bearing as measured relative
to true or magnetic north.
A rhumb line spiraling towards the North Pole

SAILINGS
3. GREAT CIRCLE – also known as
an orthodrome . A circle on
the surface of a sphere that
lies in a plane passing through
the sphere's center.
SAILINGS
4. LATITUDE – is an angle which
ranges from 0° at the Equator
to 90° (North or South) at the
poles. Lines of constant
latitude, or parallels, run east
to west as circles parallel to
the equator.
SAILINGS
5. LONGITUDE – Angular distance
East or West on the earth's
surface, measured by the angle
contained between the meridian
of a particular place and some
prime meridian, as that of
Greenwich, England, and
expressed either in degrees or by
some corresponding difference in
time.
SAILINGS
6. TRUE COURSE – the course of
a ship measured with respect
to True North.
SAILINGS
7. DISTANCE – The length
in nautical miles of the rhumb
line joining any two places on
the earth's surface.
In the figure, distance is

measured in the chart using
compass dividers and the
Latitude scale.
SAILINGS
8. DEPARTURE – The distance
between two meridians.
DEP vs. DLO

DLO – Difference between
Longitudes is the angle
between two meridians.
SAILINGS
9. GREAT CIRCLE TRACK –
Because the earth is not flat,
but a sphere (roughly), the
shortest distance between two
points is not a straight line, but
a curved one.
The image above shows the difference of distance
It is the arc of the great circle between GC and RL (Mercator Track)
between two points.
SAILINGS
10. VERTEX – The point on the
Great Circle Track where
greatest value of Latitude is
located.
SAILINGS
11. MERCATOR CHART – A 12. GNOMONIC CHART – A chart
cylindrical map projection in on the gnomonic projection
which the meridians and parallels where great circles project as
appear as lines crossing at right straight lines. Also known as
angles and in which areas appear great-circle chart.
greater farther from the equator.
Straight line segments represent
true bearings, thus making this
projection useful for navigation.
SAILINGS
MERCATOR VS. GNOMONIC

TERMS/SYMBOLS TO REMEMBER
1. LATITUDE (L) – The latitude of the point of departure is designated L1;
that of the destination is L2; latitude of the vertex of a great circle is Lv;
and latitude of any point on a great circle is Lx
2. MEAN LATITUDE (Lm) – Half the arithmetical sum of the latitudes of two
places on the same side of the equator
3. MID LATITUDE (Lm) – The latitude at which the arc length of the parallel
separating the meridians passing through two specific points is exactly
equal to the departure in proceeding from one point to the other
TERMS TO REMEMBER
4. DIFFERENCE OF LATITUDE (l or Dlat.)
5. MERIDIONAL PARTS (M) – The meridional parts of the point of
departure are designed M1, and the point of arrival or the destination,
M2
6. MERIDIONAL DIFFERENCE (m)
7. LONGITUDE (λ) – The longitude of the point of departure is
designated λ1; hat of the point of arrival, λ2; of the vertex of a great
circle, lv; and of any point on a great circle, λx
TERMS TO REMEMBER
8. DIFFERENCE OF LONGITUDE (Dlo)
9. DEPARTURE (p or Dep.)
10. COURSE or COURSE ANGLE (Cn or C)
11. DISTANCE (D or Dist.)
PLANE SAILING
• Solves problems involving a single
course and distance, difference of
latitude, and departure, in which the
earth is regarded as a plane surface.
• This method provides solution for
latitude of the point of arrival but not
for longitude.
• Only used with short distances.
PLANE SAILING
EQUATIONS YOU NEED:
Sin C = p / D
Cos C = l / D
Tan C = p / l
How were these formulas derived?

PLANE SAILING
To convert from C (course angle) to
Cn (true course):
1. Determine the direction of travel (North
Easterly)
onti
irec
2. In this case C and C = Cn
d
3. If you have direction of travel NW then you
NE
subtract C from 360°
4. If you have SE, subtract C from 180°
5. If you have SW, add C to 180°
PLANE SAILING
To solve for Course and Distance:
1. If given Lat and Long for P1 and P2, solve or convert for l and
final latitude in degrees and tenths, and solve for DLo
in minutes
L1 = 34°06’ N l1: 146°32’ E
L2 = 30°16’N l2: 140°16‘ E
30.2667°N
l = 3°50’ (S) DLO = 6°16‘ (W)
3.8333° (S) 376‘ (W)
PLANE SAILING
2. Then enter into the equation p=DLo cos L2 to solve for p.
p = DLo cos L2
p = 376 cos 30.2667
p = 324.75nm
PLANE SAILING
3. Then solve for C using the equation tan C = p/l .
tan C = p/l
l = 3°50’ = 230nm
tan C = 324.75 / 230
C = S 54.69° W
Cn = 234.69° T
PLANE SAILING
To Solve for Final Position:
1. If given P1 and a course and distance, work backward
through the equations to find what you need.
L1: 34°06’N λ1: 146°32‘ E Cn = 234.69° T D = 398nm

C = S 54.69° W
PLANE SAILING
2. Use sin C = p/D to solve for the Departure (p)
sin C = p/D
sin 54.69 = p/398
p = 324.75nm
PLANE SAILING
To Solve for Final Position: Tan C = p / l
3. Then solve for l using tan C = p/l Tan 234.69 = 324.75 / l
l = 3°50’S
L1: 34°06’N
4. Get L2 using l l = 3°50’S

L2 = 30°16’N
PLANE SAILING
p = DLo cos L2
5. p can then be converted into DLo 324.75 = DLo cos 30.2667
using p = DLo cos L2 DLo = 376' (W) = 6°16‘ (W)
λ1: 146°32‘ E
6. To get λ2 use DLo DLo: 6°16‘ (W)
λ2: 140°16‘ E
PARALLEL SAILING
• Is the interconversion of departure
and difference of longitude when a
vessel is proceeding due east or due
west
• Very basic as there is no change in
latitude, only in longitude.
• However, as such, they can only be
used when sailing either due East or
West, which greatly restricts their use.
PARALLEL SAILING
FORMULA TO USE:
Dep / DLo = Cos of Lat
How was the formula derived?

SAILINGS
PARALLEL SAILING
TWO SITUATIONS:
1. If Given Both Positions
Find the course and distance between them
2. If Given The Initial Position, Course, and Distance

Find the final position
PARALLEL SAILING
If Given Both Positions:
1. Start by finding the course
(East or West, easy!)
2. Next solve for Dlo. Simply

subtract or add the two
longitude values
PARALLEL SAILING
If Given Both Positions:
GIV EN:
3. Next, use the value of DLo, and L1 = 23°06’N Λ1 = 130°45'E
L (in degrees and tenths), and L2 = 23°06'N Λ2 = 145°45'W
the equation p = DLo cos L to
solve for the departure (p), FIND:
ANSWER
along the trackline. In this case, 1. Course
2. Distance
this is also the total distance
traveled.
PARALLEL SAILING IDL
Answer: DLo
Course = EAST or 090°
choose the closest distance
λ1: 130°45'E
λ2: 145°45'W
DLo = 360-λ1+λ2 P1 p P2
p = DLo cos L EASTERN WEST
p = 5010 cos 23.1 HEMISPHERE HEMISPHERE
p (distance) = 4608.3nm
PARALLEL SAILING
If Given The Initial Position, Course, and Distance
1. Begin by finding the DLo by using the equation p = DLo cos L
2. The answer you get will be in minutes, which can easily be
converted into degrees.
3. Once you know DLo, you can add or subtract appropriately to
find λ2.
L1: 23°06'N λ1: 130°45'E Cn = 270°T Dist: 600nm
GIV EN:
FIND: The Final Position ANSWER
PARALLEL SAILING
Answer: DLo
p = DLo cos L
600 = DLo cos 23.1
DLo = 652.3'(W)= 10°52.3'(W)
λ1: 130°45'E P2 P1
p
DLo = 10°52.3'(W)
λ2: 119°52.7'E
MERCATOR SAILING
• Provides a mathematical solution of
the plot as made on a Mercator chart.
• It is similar to plane sailing, but uses
meridional differences and difference
of longitude in place of difference of
latitude and departure
• Can be used when travelling in any
direction for any distance.
MERCATOR SAILING
WAYS TO SOLVE:
1. COMPUTATION
2. TRAVERSE TABLE
FORMULA TO USE:
tan C = DLo/m
cos C = l/D
MERCATOR SAILING
Example Problem No.1
Find:
L1: 34°06'N L2: 44°06'N
λ1: 130°45'E λ2: 135°15'E
1. Course and
2. Distance
MERCATOR SAILING
COMPUTATION STEPS:
1. Begin by finding the meridional parts (M) for each of the positions
using the equation below:
MP = (Lat÷2) + 45 = Tan Log Ans x 7915.7 – Sin Latitude x 23.2
Or refer to Norie’s Nautical Tables and also from Bowditch Table 6
2. Solve for the difference of Meridional Parts or m

M1 = 2165.8’
SAMPLE OF BOWDITCH TABLE 6
M2 = 2938.2’
m = 772.4’
MERCATOR SAILING
MERCATOR SAILING
COMPUTATION STEPS:
3. Then find the Dlat (l) and Dlo in degrees and tenths.
The letters in the parenthesis after l and Dlo indicate the direction of travel. If
moving in a northerly direction, (N) follows l. If moving in westerly direction
(W) follows Dlo.
L2: 44°06'N λ2: 135°15'E

L1: 34°06'N λ1: 130°45'E
l: 10°(N) DLo: 4°30'(W)
MERCATOR SAILING
COMPUTATION STEPS:
4. Next, enter the known m value and the known DLo value into the equations to
find your course and distance.
tan C = DLo/m cos C = l/D

tan C = 270 / 772.4 Cos 19.3 = 600/D
(10° of lat=600nm)
C = N 19.3° E
Cn = 019.3° T D = 635.72nm
MERCATOR SAILING
Example Problem No.2 Find:
L1: 32°14.7'N L2: 36°58.7'N
1. Course and
λ1: 66°28.9‘W λ2: 75°42.2‘W 2. Distance
By TRAVERSE TABLE
(Can only be used for distances up to 600nm
and for courses for every degree of the
compass)
MERCATOR SAILING
SOLUTION BY TRAVERSE TABLE:
1. Solve for m and Dlo
2. Substitute m as the heading of Dlat column and Dlo as the heading of
the Dep. column
M1 = 2032.9 λ2: 075°42.2‘W
M2 = 2377.5 λ1: 066°28.9‘W
m = 344.6 DLo: 9°13.3'(W) or 553.3’
MERCATOR SAILING
3. Because a number as high as 344.6 is not tabulated in the m column,
it is necessary to divide m and Dlo by 10 thus
m = 344.6’ / 10
= 34.4 (subbed as DLat)
SAMPLE OF TRAVESE TABLE
DLo = DLo: 9°13.3'(W)
= 553.3’ / 10
= 55.3 (subbed as Dep)
MERCATOR SAILING
MERCATOR SAILING
4. This occurs most nearly on the page for course angle 58° or course 302°
5. Re-enter the table with course 302° to find Dist. For DLat 284.0’
6. Distance is 536nm SAMPLE OF TRAVESE TABLE
ANSWER:
C = 302°
D = 536 nm
GREAT CIRCLE SAILING
• The earth is considered a perfect spherical shape for the purpose of
Navigation. Therefore, the shortest distance between two points on
its surface is the arc of the great circle containing two points.
• Is the closest approximation we have to steering along the exact
curve of the earth.
• Is used for long ocean passages normally passages East to West or
vice versa.
WAYS TO SOLVE GREAT CIRLE OTHER TYPES OF GREAT CIRCLE
SAILING: SAILING:
1. By Chart 1. Composite Great Circle Sailing
2. By Computation 2. Limited Latitude Great Circle Sailing
3. By Sight Reduction Tables
4. By Pub. No. 229
SOLVING GREAT CIRCLE USING
GNOMONIC CHART:
• Navigators can most easily solve
great-circle sailing problems
graphically.
• Chart makers publishes several
gnomonic projections covering the
principal navigable waters of the
world
GNOMONIC CHART:
• On these great circle charts, any
straight line is a great circle.
• Chart is not conformal therefore the
navigator cannot directly measure
directions and distances as on a
Mercator chart
GNOMONIC CHART:
1. Plot the route and pick points P1 P2
along the track every 5° of
longitude using the latitude and
longitude scales in the immediate
vicinity of each point.
2. These points are then transferred
to a Mercator chart and connected
as rhumb lines.
GNOMONIC CHART:
3. The course and distance for each P1 P2
leg is measured on the Mercator
chart.
4. Course can be measured using
Compass Rose and Distance using
the Latitude Scale of the Mercator
chart
SOLVING GREAT CIRCLE USING • If after solving an equation, C is
EQUATION found to be negative, add 180 to
Few things to consider: find true value
• All variables are described in • C is based off the elevated pole,
degrees, and from there are not the direction of travel as
converted with the other sailings
• When entering into the equations, • Formulas are based on Celestial
L1 and L2 are contrary name, L2 is Nav calculations
entered as a negative number
GREAT CIRCLE SAILING Dvx – Distance in degrees (°) from V
to X along GC track
Terms to remember: Dv – Distance in degrees (°) from P1
D – GC distance in degrees (°) of arc to V
Cn – Initial true course from P1 along V – Vertex of GC Track
GC
Lv – Latitude of vertex
C – Initial course angle from P1 along
Λv – Longitude of vertex
GC, measured from elevated pole
Lx – Latitude of point along GC Track
DLov – Distance between λ1 and λv
X – any point on GC track between P1 DLovx – Longitudinal distance in
and P2 degrees from V to X
GC EQUATIONS:
cos D = sinL1sinL2 + cosL1cosL2cosDLo
tan C = (sin DLo) / ((cosL1tanL2) - (sinL1cosDLo))
cos Lv = cosL1sinC
sin DLov = (cos C) / (sin Lv)
sin Dv = cos L1sinDLov
tan Lx = (cosDLovx)(tanLv)
sin Lx = (sinLv)(cosDvx)
sin DLovx = (sin Dvx) / (cos Lx)
GC Example No.1
You intend to leave 25°00'N, 145°00'E L1: 25°00' N L2: 36°00'N
for 36°00'N, 175°00'W the day after λ1: 145°00'E λ2: 175°00' W
tomorrow. What is your initial course
and the Great Circle distance of the
voyage?
How to Solve: Which Equations To Use:
1. Establish what you need to cos D = sinL1sinL2 + cosL1cosL2cosDLo
know and what you do already tan C = (sin DLo) / ((cosL1tanL2) - (sinL1cosDLo))
know from the information
provided. What you need: What you know:
L1 25°00' N
L2 36°00'N
DLo ???
How to Solve:
2. Solve for what you don't know. λ1 145°00'E
In this case, we do not yet know λ2 175°00' W
DLo, so we will solve by adding DLo 360-(λ1+λ2) = 40°(E)
λ1 to λ2 and subtracting the
sum from 360.
GREAT CIRCLE SAILING cos D = sinL1sinL2 + cosL1cosL2cosDLo
cos D = (sin 25.0°)(sin 36.0°) + (cos 25.0°)(cos 36.0°)(cos
40.0°)
How to Solve:
cos D = 0.810087
3. Lastly, now that you only have D = 35.895° = 2153.7 nm
one unsolved variable, solve for
your initial course and distance tan C = (sin DLo) / ((cosL1tanL2) - (sinL1cosDLo))
using the appropriate tan C = (sin 40.0°) / (((cos 25.0°)(tan 36.0°)) - ((sin 25.0°)(cos
equations. 40.0°)))
tan C = 1.92033
C = 62.5°
Cn = 062.5°
GC Example No.2
You are on a great circle track L1: 25°30.0'N Lv: 37°20.0'N
departing from 25°30.0'N, λ1: 077°00.0'W λv: 025°45.0'W
077°00.0'W and your initial course is
061.7°T. The position of the vertex
is 37°20.0'N, 025°45.0'W. If you leave
at 0800, April 3 and travel at 20 knots,
when will you arrive at the vertex?
How to Solve:
Which Equations To Use:
1. Establish what you need to sin Dv = (cos L1)(sin DLov)
know and what you do already
know from the information
provided. What you need: What you know:
L1 25°00' N
DLo ???
How to Solve:
2. Solve for what you don't know. λ1 077°00.0'W
In this case, we do not yet know λv 025°45.0'W
DLo, so we will solve DLo λ1-λv = 51°15.0' (E)
by subtracting λv from λ1.
GREAT CIRCLE SAILING sin Dv = (cos L1)(sin DLov)
sin Dv = (cos 25.5)(sin 51.25)
How to Solve: sin Dv = 0.70391
3. Now that you only have one Dv = 44.7° = 2684.5 nm
unsolved variable, solve for
your Dv. Time = Distance / Speed
Time = 2684.5nm / 20kts
Time = 134.225 hrs = 5 days 14 hours 14 minutes
Time = Distance / Speed
How to Solve: Departure 0800, 3 Apr
4. Lastly, solve ETA using the Time in Transit 5d 14h 14m
appropriate equations Arrival 2214, 8 Apr
INTRODUCTION
What is Chart Work?
• A practice done by Navigators that involve plotting courses and other navigational
processes on a chart.
• Chart work is crucial to passage planning and safe coastal cruising.
• Accurate chart work is the basis for good navigation.
• Before going to sea, a course is plotted on a chart noting bearings, distances and
expected times for each leg of the trip.
• While at sea, position is fixed at regular intervals and the course adjusted when
necessary.
BACK
INTRODUCTION
Materials needed:
• Navigational Chart
• Compass dividers
• Pencil and Eraser
• Parallel Ruler
• Protractor Triangle
• Chart Plotter
• Etc…
INTRODUCTION
Terms to remember:
• Speed – the rate of movement of a vessel measured in knots (kts)
• Distance – the space between two points measured in nautical miles (nm)
• Course – the route or direction followed by a ship measured in degrees (°)
• Speed and Course Made Good – the actual Speed and Course maintained
in proceeding on the desired route
• Speed to use and Course to steer – the needed Speed and Course to
apply in order to maintain on the intended track
INTRODUCTION
Terms to remember:
• Line of Position (LOP) - a line connecting all the possible positions of a ship, as
determined by a single observation
• Fix – a position determined without reference to any former position, intersected by two
or more lines of positions
• Running Fix – a position determined by crossing lines of position obtained at different
time and advanced or retired to a common time.
• Dead Reckoning (DR) – determines position by advancing a known position for courses
and distances
• Estimated Position (EP) – corrected DR position for leeway, current effect and steering
error
Exercise No. 1
Calculates the speed between two positions
1. Get the Distance

between 2
positions
Exercise No. 1
2. Calculate the P1 = 0800H P1 = 1330H

time between
P2 = 1230H P2 = 2130H
the 2 points
ST = 4.5H ST = 8H
Exercise No. 1
3. Use the DST

formula
D=SxT
S=D/T
T= D / S
Exercise No. 2
Define 'set', 'rate', 'drift' and 'leeway' due to wind
• Set refers to the current’s direction, and drift refers to the

current’s distance covered in a given time due to the movement
of a current and/or tidal stream.
• Rate is the speed of the current and/or tidal stream.

Exercise No. 2
Define 'set', 'rate', 'drift' and 'leeway' due to wind
• Leeway is the leeward motion of a vessel due to that component

of the wind vector perpendicular to the vessel’s track.
• Leeway and current combine to produce the most pronounced

natural dynamic effects on a transiting vessel.
Exercise No. 3
Illustrate and solve a problem of 'set‘ and 'drift’
Example No. 1 : A ship on course 080°, speed 10 knots, is steaming

through a current having an estimated set of 140° and drift of 2 knots.
Required : Estimated track and Speed Made Good

Exercise No. 3
Solution :
1. From A, any convenient point,
draw AB, the course and speed of
the ship, in direction 080°, for a
distance of 10 nm
2. From B draw BC, the set and drift
of the current, in direction 140°,
for a distance of 2 miles
3. The direction and length of AC are
the estimated track and speed
made good
Exercise No. 3
Answer for Example No 1:

Estimated track made good
089°, estimated speed
made good 11.2 knots
Exercise No. 3
Illustrate and solve a problem of 'set' and 'drift'
Example No. 2 : The captain desires to make good a course of 095° through a
current having a set of 170° and a drift of 2.5 knots, using a speed of 12 knots
Required : The course to steer and the speed made good

Exercise No. 3
Illustrate and solve a problem of 'set', and 'drift’
Solution :
1. From A, any convenient point, draw line AB
extending in the direction of the course to
be made good 095°
2. From A draw AC, the set and drift of the
current.
3. Using C as a center, swing an arc of radius
CD, the speed thought the water (12
knots), intersecting line AB at D
4. Measure the direction of line CG, 083.5°.
This is the course to steer
5. Measure the length AD, 12.4 knots. This is
the speed made good
Exercise No. 3
Illustrate and solve a problem of 'set’ and 'drift’
Answer for Example No 2:

Course to steer 083.5°,
speed made good 12.4
knots
Exercise No. 4
Illustrate and solve a problem of 'leeway’
Example No. 1 : You wish to make good a course of 046° but a

Northerly wind is producing a 5° Leeway. What is the course to steer
to make good the desired course?
Exercise No. 4
Solution :
• You desire to steer a NE’ly course but the wind will
push you from the North to the South approximately 5°
• You need to steer a bit more toward the North in order
to obtain the desired results
• To make good 046° you must steer 5° more toward the
North 046° - 5° = 041°
Exercise No. 4
Example No. 2 : You are steering 125° PGC. The wind is southwest
by south causing a 3° leeway. The variation is 6°E, the deviation is
2°W, and the gyro error is 1°W. What is the true course made
good?
A. 121°T B. 122°T C. 127°T D. 129°T
Exercise No. 4
Answer of Example No. 2 :
A. 121°T Le
ew
ay True
3° Co
urs
eM
GE ade
1° Go
od
He W Tru 1 2 1°
ad eC T
in ou
g1 rse
2 5° 12
SW x S’ly wind PG 4°
C T
Exercise No. 5
Plotting the Dead Reckoning (DR) Position
Things to consider:
1. At least every hour on the hour
2. After every change of course or speed
3. After every fix or running fix
4. After plotting a single line of position 0900H
5. DR symbol when plotting is half a circle

Exercise No. 5
Plotting the Dead Reckoning (DR) Position
Example:
• The navigator lays out 090° course line with
speed of 10 knots from departure
• At 1000H, the navigator plots a DR position
• At 1030H, the conning officer orders a course
change to 060°T.
• The navigator plots the 1030H DR Position
• At 1100H, the conning officer changes back to
090°T and plots 1100H DR.
Exercise No. 6
Plotting the Estimated Position (EP)
• To calculate EP, draw a vector from the DR position in the direction of
the set, with the length equal to the product of the drift and the
number of hours since the last reset.
• Note that the EP is enclosed in a square and labeled horizontally with
the time.
• Plot and evaluate an EP with every DR position
Exercise No. 6
Plotting the Estimate Position (EP)
Example: 0800H
• From 0900H DR position the Cou

rse
0900 H
navigator draw a set and drift vector. and

S pee
d
Dri
Set
• The end of that vector marks the
ft
0900 EP. 0900 H
Exercise No. 7
Find positions by running fix in a tidal stream or current
• Under some circumstances, such as low visibility, only one line of position
can be obtained at a time. In this event, a line of position obtained at an
earlier time may be advanced to the time of the later LOP.
• These two LOPs should not be parallel to each other; remember that the
optimal angular spread is 90°.
• The position obtained is termed a running fix because the ship has “run” a
certain distance during the time interval between the two LOPs.
Exercise No. 7
EXAMPLE No. 1 - SIMPLE RUNNING FIX
1. Plot LOP from a NAVAID (LOP1)
LOP
2. Plot a second bearing to the same NAVAID at 2
a later time (LOP2)
3. Advance LOP 1 to the time when LOP 2 was 0930H
LOP1
taken
4. Dist of Advance = Speed of Vessel x Steaming
Time
5. The intersection of LOP 2 and the advanced
0900H
LOP1 constitute a running fix.
Exercise No. 7
EXAMPLE No. 2 R.Fix
LOP1 run 1000H
0900H : Obtain a single LOP from a light
house and plot a DR position. The EP is Distance of Advance =
constructed by drawing the shortest line Speed of vessel x Steaming time
LOP
between the DR and LOP LOP1
2
1000H : We obtain an LOP from an islet. To EP 0900H
use the first LOP we advance it over a
DR 0900H
construction line or course between the
two corresponding DR positions. We use
both its direction and distance.
Fix 0800H
Exercise No. 8
Calculate the actual set and rate of tidal stream or current from DR and fixed
positions
• If reliable fix places a vessel in a position which is different from the D.R.
position, that difference will be the result of current and/or tide (and
possibly wind).
Exercise No. 8
Calculate the actual set and rate of tidal stream or current from DR and fixed
positions
• In the illustration, a vessel obtained a
good fix at 0600 (position “A”) and set
Set and Drift
course 285°(T) at a speed of 10 knots.
• At 0630 the D.R. was at position “B”, but a
reliable fix showed the true position to be
at “C”.
• In this case the set is 050°(T) and the drift
is 1.0 mile.
• Since the time period was thirty minutes
the rate of the current was 2 knots.
The scale of reliability, from best to worst:
Fix
Running fix
Estimated position
DR position
INTRODUCTION
About IALA or
International Association of Lighthouse Authorities
• Established in 1957, it enables marine aids to navigation authorities, manufacturers, consultants, and,
scientific and training institutes from all parts of the world to exchange and compare their experiences,
achievements, and technical and operational policies via participation in IALA Technical Committees.
• The Committees work to create IALA Recommendations and Guidelines which are recognized worldwide
as the international standards for the implementation and operation of aids to navigation.
• These standards help to ensure that the movements of vessels are safe, expeditious, cost effective and
harmless to the environment.
• IALA’s scope and expertise extends to e-Navigation and Vessel Traffic Services.
BACK
INTRODUCTION
What is IALA Maritime Buoyage System?
• A uniform system of maritime buoyage which is now implemented by
most maritime nations.
• Within the single system there are two buoyage regions, designated
as Region A and Region B, where lateral marks differ only in the colors
of port and starboard hand marks.
INTRODUCTION
What is IALA Maritime Buoyage System?
• In Region A, red is to port on entering; in Region B, red is to
starboard on entering.
• The system is a combined cardinal and lateral system, and applies
to all fixed and floating marks, other than lighthouses, sector lights,
leading lights and marks, lightships and large navigational buoys.
What is a Buoy?
Buoys are floating aids to

navigation. They mark
channels, indicate shoals and
obstructions, and warn the
mariner of dangers.
IALA MARITIME BUOYAGE SYSTEM
Buoyage System
1. Lateral system
2. Cardinal system
IALA REGIONS
A B
• Europe, • North America,
• Australia, • Central America and
• New Zealand, • South America,
• parts of Africa and • Philippines,
• most of Asia other than the • Japan and
Philippines, Japan and Korea
• Korea
IALA MARITIME BUOYAGE
SYSTEM
IALA REGIONS
Types of Marks Characteristics
1. Lateral marks 1. By day – color, shape and
2. Cardinal marks topmark
3. Isolated Danger marks 2. By night – light color and
4. Safe water marks phase
5. Special marks
6. Emergency wreck marks
Shapes of Marks Top marks

1. Can 1. Can
2. Cone 2. Conical
3. Sphere 3. Spherical
4. Pillar 4. X - shaped
5. Spar
LATERAL MARKS
Conventional direction of buoyage: General characteristics:
• The general direction taken by the 1. Color
mariner when approaching harbour,
river, estuary or other waterway from 2. Shapes
seaward. 3. Numbering or Lettering
• The direction determined by the proper
authority. In principle, its should follow a 4. Synchronization
clockwise direction around land masses.
LATERAL MARKS – REGION A
LATERAL MARKS – REGION A
SYSTEM LATERAL MARKS – REGION
B
LATERAL MARKS – REGION B
CARDINAL MARKS
Uses:
Definitions:
1. To indicate that the deepest
• The 4 quadrants (N,S,E,W) are water are is on the named
bounded by the true bearings NW- side of the mark
NE, NE-SE, SE-SW and SW-NW, taken
from the point of interest 2. To indicate the safe side on
which to pass a danger
• A Cardinal mark is named after the
3. To draw attention to a feature
quadrant in which it is placed
in a channel such as a bend,
• The Cardinal marks in Region A and junction, bifurcation or the
Region B are the same end of a shoal
CARDINAL MARKS
CARDINAL MARKS
ISOLATED DANGER MARKS
Definitions:
• An isolated Danger mark is a
mark erected on, or moored
on or above, an isolated
danger which has navigable
water all around it.
SAFE WATER MARKS

Definitions:
• Safe Water marks serve to indicate
that there is navigable water all
round the mark.
• These include centre line marks
and mid-channel marks.
• Such a mark may also be used to
indicate channel entrance, port or
estuary approach, or landfall.
• The light rhythm may also be used
to indicate best point of passage
under bridges.
SPECIAL MARKS
Definitions:
• Marks used to indicate a
special area or feature whose
nature may be apparent from
reference to a chart or other
nautical publication.
• They are not generally
intended to mark channels or
obstructions where other
marks are more suitable.
SYSTEM
EMERGENCY WRECK MARKS
Definitions:
Also known as NEW DANGER
mark
• The term “New Danger” is used to
describe newly discovered hazards
not yet shown in nautical
documents.
• ‘New Dangers’ include naturally
occurring obstructions such as
sandbanks or rocks or man-made
dangers such as wrecks.
TIDES
• Tides are the periodic motion of the waters of the sea due to changes
in the attractive forces of the Moon and Sun upon the rotating Earth.
BACK
TIDES
• Tides can either help or hinder a mariner.
• A high tide may provide enough depth to clear a bar, while a low tide may prevent
entering or leaving a harbor.
• Tidal current may help progress or hinder, may set the ship toward dangers or away
from them.
• By understanding tides and making intelligent use of predictions, the navigator can
plan expeditious and safe passage through tidal water.
TIDES
BAY OF FUNDY is a bay on

the Atlantic coast of North
America
TIDES
• Tides are caused by the gravitational
interaction between the Earth and the
Moon.
• The gravitational attraction of the moon

causes the oceans to bulge out in the
direction of the moon.
TIDES
BASIC THEORY
• Another bulge occurs on the opposite side,
since the Earth is also being pulled toward the
moon (and away from the water on the far
side).
• Since the earth is rotating while this is
happening, two tides occur each day.
• Isaac Newton was the first person to explain
tides scientifically.
The Sun's Interaction with the Tides
• Spring tides are especially strong tides (they do not have anything to do with the
season Spring).
• They occur when the Earth, the Sun, and the Moon are in a line.
• The gravitational forces of the Moon and the Sun both contribute to the tides.
• Spring tides occur during the full moon and the new moon
The Sun's Interaction with the Tides
• Neap tides are especially weak tides.
• They occur when the gravitational forces of the Moon and the Sun are perpendicular to
one another (with respect to the Earth).
• Neap tides occur during quarter moons.
Define the following of Terms:
• spring tides • mean high water springs • chart datum

• neap tides • mean high water neaps • Highest or Lowest
• height of tide • mean low water springs astronomical tide
• high water • mean low water neaps
• low water • Range
TIDES
TIDES
Chart Datum
“This may be defined as being a level below which the tide will seldom fall”.
• Lowest Astronomical tide (LAT) - being the lowest tidal level that can be
predicted under average meteorological conditions.
• Soundings on charts are given below Chart Datum

TIDES
Tide Duration and Range
1. Range of Tide is the difference in height between Low Water and High Water.
2. The Duration of Tide is the time interval between successive High Waters.
3. The Duration of Rise is the time interval from Low Water to High Water.
4. The Duration of Fall is the time interval from High Water to Low Water.
Tide Tables
Tidal Data for various parts of the world is published by NOS

in 4 volumes
• Central and Western Pacific Ocean and Indian
Ocean
• East Coast of North and South America
• Europe and West Coast of Africa
• West Coast of North and South America
TIDES
Standard Ports
• Standard ports are usually larger commercial harbors that have their
own comprehensive tide tables.
• By referencing these to their equally unique tidal curves and graphs,

specific height and time data can be quickly and easily extracted
without having to grapple with any interpolation.
TIDES
Standard Ports
Standard Ports
TIDES
Secondary Ports
• Secondary ports or Subordinate stations are based as near as practicable on

Standard port tidal characteristics in the area.
• The predictions for tidal times and heights for secondary ports are made by
the application of time and height differences to the standard port.
How to Interpolate
The practical application of the tide tables.
Example:
• Let us look at the extraction
of times and heights of high
and low water for
a Standard Port
• To find the time and height
of high and low water
at Hobart on 16th June
2015.
The practical application of the tide tables.
Example:
Extract from Tide Table
Hobart, Australia 16th of June 2015
TIME OF HW HEIGHT OF HW
0950 1.4m
1947 1.8
TIME OF LW HEIGHT OF LW
0308 0.8m
1209 1.4
The classic rule of twelfths
• The Rule of Twelfths can be used to calculate
intermediate times and heights between High
and Low Water without having to refer to tidal
curves or graphs.
• While the ‘rule’ can produce acceptable results
if the area to which it applies has a reasonably
symmetrical six-hour rise and fall of tide, it can
be complicated to use in practice.
The classic rule of twelfths
• Taking the height of LW from HW (to get the
range), then dividing the result by 12 before
adding up the required number of twelfths
and applying them to either LW or HW
heights can call for quite a bit of mental
arithmetic.
Chartplotters and websites
• Electronic chart predictions
These days, most electronic chartplotters use software
that can instantly display the predicted height of tide
above Chart Datum.
• Websites and apps

For those with access to the Internet, either at home or
afloat, there are a variety of tidal height apps and
programs for PCs available.
THE END

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NAV-2

Terrestrial and Coastal

Specification of minimum standard of competence for officers

Navigation at the Operational Level

Plan and conduct a passage and determine position

SAILINGS CHARTWORK IALA TIDES

• For short distances, these problems are easily solved directly on

• Collectively, these methods are called THE SAILINGS

1. PLANE SAILING 5. MERCATOR SAILING

A rhumb line spiraling towards the North Pole

In the figure, distance is

DEP vs. DLO

MERCATOR VS. GNOMONIC

How were these formulas derived?

p = 376 cos 30.2667

tan C = 324.75 / 230

L1: 34°06’N λ1: 146°32‘ E Cn = 234.69° T D = 398nm

4. Get L2 using l l = 3°50’S

Dep / DLo = Cos of Lat

How was the formula derived?

2. If Given The Initial Position, Course, and Distance

2. Next solve for Dlo. Simply

2. Solve for the difference of Meridional Parts or m

L2: 44°06'N λ2: 135°15'E

tan C = DLo/m cos C = l/D

1. Get the Distance

2. Calculate the P1 = 0800H P1 = 1330H

3. Use the DST

• Set refers to the current’s direction, and drift refers to the

• Rate is the speed of the current and/or tidal stream.

• Leeway is the leeward motion of a vessel due to that component

• Leeway and current combine to produce the most pronounced

Example No. 1 : A ship on course 080°, speed 10 knots, is steaming

Required : Estimated track and Speed Made Good

Answer for Example No 1:

Required : The course to steer and the speed made good

Answer for Example No 2:

Example No. 1 : You wish to make good a course of 046° but a

1. At least every hour on the hour

2. After every change of course or speed

3. After every fix or running fix

4. After plotting a single line of position 0900H

5. DR symbol when plotting is half a circle

• From 0900H DR position the Cou

navigator draw a set and drift vector. and

Buoys are floating aids to

IALA MARITIME BUOYAGE SYSTEM

Shapes of Marks Top marks

IALA MARITIME BUOYAGE SYSTEM

SAFE WATER MARKS

BAY OF FUNDY is a bay on

• The gravitational attraction of the moon

• spring tides • mean high water springs • chart datum

• Soundings on charts are given below Chart Datum

Tidal Data for various parts of the world is published by NOS

• By referencing these to their equally unique tidal curves and graphs,

• Secondary ports or Subordinate stations are based as near as practicable on

• Websites and apps

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