Journal of

Materials
Processing
Technology
ELSEVIER Journal of Materials Processing Technology 46 (1994) 19-40

The state of the art in cold forging lubrication

N. Bay
Institute t~f Manufacturing Engineering, Bldg. 425, Technical University of Denmark.
DK-2800 Lyngby, Denmark

Industrial Summary

The manufature of components in steel, aluminium and copper alloys by cold forging
production has increased ever since the 1950's. Typical processes are forward rod extrusion and
backward can extrusion, upsetting, ironing, tube extrusion and radial extrusion. The tribologi-
cal conditions in cold forging are extremely severe due to large surface expansion and normal
pressure in the tool/workpiece interface combined with elevated tool temperatures. Except for
the more simple cold forging operations successful production therefore requires advanced
lubrication systems. The present paper gives a detailed description of the state of art for
lubricant systems for cold forging of C-steels and low alloy steels as well as aluminium alloys
including all the basic operations such as cleaning of the slugs, application of eventual
conversion coating and lubrication.
As regards cold forging of steel the conversion coatings are based on zinc phosphates
but different requirements to the coating properties have to be met in different cold
forging operations. This is obtained by adopting different oxidants leading to different
composition, layer thickness and morphology of the conversion coatings. Concerning
aluminium unalloyed and softer alloys like the AA 1000, 3000 and 6000 series can be
cold forged with either grease, oil or zinc stearate whereas the harder alloys from series
AA 2000, 5000 and 7000 require a conversion coating to carry the lubricant. Three different
types of conversion coating are described, i.e. phosphate coating, calcium aluminate coating
and aluminium fluoride coating. Alternative lubricants and their application are also
described.

Keywords." Lubricants; Cold forging; Steel; Aluminium

1. Introduction

Development in cold forging production has during the years after the 1950's
progressed to more complex geometries and nett or near nett shape production
implying increasing d e m a n d s on the lubricant film which during forging has to
withstand high mechanical and thermal stressing.

0924-0136/94/$07.00 © 1994 Elsevier Science S.A. All rights reserved

SSDI 0 9 2 4 - 0 1 3 6 ( 9 4 ) 0 1 3 5 8 - 8
20 N. Bay / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 46 (1994) 19--40

In cold forging of steel the surface expansion may reach values upto 3000%, the
normal pressure at the tool workpiece interface may reach 2500 MPa and the average
tool temperature may reach 200°C whereas local interfacial spike temperatures up to
600°C may occur. Under such extreme tribological conditions the basic requirements
to the lubricant are to lower friction and prevent pick-up, which will occur if direct
metal-metal contact between tool and workpiece surface appears. Conventional
lubricants are insufficient under these conditions. The application of a conversion
coating acting as lubricant carrier is necessary, [1 5].
The International Cold Forging Group's subgroup on Cold Forging Tribology is
collecting and organizing material concerning lubrication aspects in cold forging. This
has resulted in the publication [6] which is a comprehensive description of the state of
art on lubrication of C-steel and low alloy steel. Another publication [7] on alumi-
nium is expected to be finished in 1995.
The present paper summarizes these descriptions of lubrication aspects for cold
forging of steel and aluminium alloys.

2. Lubrication of C-steel and low alloy steel

The great variety in cold forging processes demands for different types of lubricant
systems. Simple forging operations like light upsetting may be carried out unlub-
ricated or with oil or grease lubrication, whereas the lubrication system for cold
extrusion of steel demands for lubricant systems based on a lubricant carrier and
a lubricant. In case of cold forging of C-steel and low alloy steel the lubricant carrier is
normally a phosphate coating.
The following description outlines the lubrication systems based on phosphate
coating and how to apply them.

2.1. Operational sequence for surface treatment of slugs

The treatment sequence of slugs in general consists of the operations shown in

Table 1.

2.2. Cleaning

Chemical processes are widely used for cleaning components subject to cold
forging. The result of a common chemical treatment in a coating line is affected by the
condition of the surface of the slugs prior to the chemical treatment in the bath
sequence. Since modern coating lines are mechanized and computerized, it is of vital
importance to start with a uniform and homogeneous surface structure. However, the
components sometimes are heavily scaled or greased. In such cases mechanical
cleaning processes are used prior to chemical treatments. The most important pro-
cesses are blasting, peeling and scale breaking.
 N. Bay / Journal of Materials Processing Technolo~ 46 (1994) 19-40 21

Table 1
Operational sequence for surface treatment of steel slugs.

Type of main Operation Remarks

operation

Cleaning Mechanical cleaning (if necessary)

Degreasing
Rinsing with cold water
Pickling In some cases replaced by
shot blasting
Rinsing with cold water
Rinsing with warm water added (if necessary)
activators
Phosphating Phosphating
Rinsing with cold water
Neutralizing
Lubrication Lubricating with soap, MoS2 etc.
Drying

2.2.1. Mechanical cleaning processes

Blasting is a pre-treatment of metal surfaces using shots or wire off-cuts. The
cleaning effect of such a treatment is increased by using smaller shot particles. But the
risk of single shot particles remaining embedded in the surface increases too. The
normal particles size is around 1 mm.
The treatment by shot blasting in cold forging practice is used on bars and slugs as
well as on preforms. The special effect of shot blasting is to obtain better adhesion of
a more uniformly structured phosphate coating and soap layer. The treatment is
especially advantageous if heavily scaled and greased surfaces are to be prepared for
cold forging.
Peeling of bars is often used for preparation of raw material for slugs in cold forging
practice. Using peeled bars, descaling of slugs is unnecessary.
Scale breaking is commonly used in wire descaling. The scaled wire is led through
a roll bending line. The repeated bending of the wire removes most of the scale. This
treatment is sometimes also applied to bars. A disadvantage of scale breaking is the
considerable work-hardening of the surface.

2.2.2. Chemical cleaning processes

For degreasing of slugs it is common to use water soluble salts (alkalines like
caustic soda, soda, silicates, phosphates, borates) with a concentration of 5-10%,
supported by complex forming additives, deoxidizing reagents and tensides. These
solutions, working at temperatures of more than 50°C, create hydrophilic surfaces.
Moving the parts in the bath and/or circulating the bath gives a better cleaning effect.
The surface of the bath should be kept clean, to avoid recontamination of the parts
when lifting them out of the bath. A continuous cleaning of the bath multiplies its life
time.
22 N. Bay /Journal of Materials Processing Technology 46 (1994) 19--40

Pickling is most often carried out with sulphuric acid, since its handling is uncom-
plicated. The temperature of the pickling bath is in the range of 40-60°C. The risk of
overpickling is large compared to pickling with hydrochloric acid if high carbon steel
is to be treated. This risk can, however, be reduced by adding pickling inhibitors,
which almost entirely prevent attack of the metal; only rust and scale are removed
from the surface. Since a surface pickled with sulphuric acid turns dark grey it will be
dark grey after phosphating as well.
In some cases hydrochloric acid is used instead of sulphuric acid. It offers the
advantage of being applicable at lower temperatures, i.e. between room temperature
and 40°C. The risk of overpickling is low. If the pickling solution is applied at
temperatures of distinctly more than 40°C, the addition of pickling inhibitors is
advisable. The surfaces pickled with hydrochloric acid are cleaner and usually
brighter than those pickled with sulphuric acid due to better water solubility of the
chloric salts.
After pickling the slugs have to be rinsed in cold water and in special cases activated
prior to phosphating by subsequent rinsing in warm water (about 5°C less than the
temperature of the phosphating bath). An even more efficient activation with titanium
orthophosphate is sometimes applied.

2.3. Phosphating

In cold forging of steel preference is given to lubricant carriers based on phosphat-

ing processes that form zinc phosphate/zinc iron phosphate coatings on the metal
surface. The main components of a phosphating solution are ions of zinc, phosphate
and nitrate. The phosphating solutions have a pH-value of about 2.0 and react as acid.
Bringing a steel surface into contact with the solution first causes a pickling attack.
By this initial reaction, Fe is oxidized, and the H +-ions are reduced into hydrogen gas
H2. Among the pickling reactions, the main and simplified one can be written as:
Fe + 2H3PO4 ~ Fe 2÷ + 2H2PO~, + H2T
(initial pickling reaction)

Iron will dissolve from the surface of the slug and the deposition of zinc phosphate
on the metal surface will start. Since H+-ions are used for the initial process, the
balance of the solution near the slug surface is altered in such a way that the primary
zinc phosphate available in the solution is transformed into insoluble tertiary zinc
phosphate and free phosphoric acid. The tertiary zinc phosphate precipitates as
hopeit from the solution and appears as a crystalline deposit on the metallic slug
surface:
3Zn 2 + + 2H2PO£ ~ Zn3(PO4)2 J, + 4H ÷
(coat forming reaction) Hopeit
Since the phase boundary contains Fe 2+-ions, zinc iron phosphate crystals are
deposited as well.
All phosphating baths contain additives called oxidants which serve as accelerators.
These agents transform the dissolved Fe 2 +-ions which are formed during the initial
 N. Bay / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 46 (1994) 19--40 23

Fig. 1. Drum with slugs after dipping in phosphate bath.

Fig. 2. Coil of wire after dipping in phosphate bath.

reaction more or less completely to Fe 3+. Since Fe3÷-phosphate is insoluble, it is

precipitated in the form of sludge. Nitrate is a weak oxidant. If nitrate is used
exclusively as an oxidant, Fe 2÷ is oxidized very slowly. In such baths the Fe 2÷
concentration rises with increasing throughput of material and the sludge formation is
correspondingly low. The sludge is very compact and the volume small. The oxidizing
effect can be increased by adding sodium nitrite or sodium chlorate as accelerators.
Therefore the sludge volume of nitrite- or chlorate-accelerated phosphating processes
is generally higher.
The oxidants also influence the coat formation, i.e. coatings of different weight and
morphology are produced depending on the oxidant selected. Table 2 shows the
characteristics of different oxidants. Further description on the application of these
alternative accelerators is given in Section 2.7.
24 N. Bay / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 46 (1994) 19-40

Table 2
Characteristics of different types of accelerators for phosphating

Nitrite/Chlorate
Nitrate Nitrite/Chlorate continuous
batch operation batch operation operation

Coating mass (weight) 15-30 g/m 2 6-20 g/m 2 5 10 g/m 2

Coating thickness 7-20 jam 3-12 jam 2 5 jam
Treatment time 1(~15 min 5-15 min 15 45 sec
Treatment temperature 45 95°C 40 80°C 70-85 C

A pure nitrate accelerated process results in a high content of Fe 2 +-ions in the

phosphating bath. This process containing iron gives thick phosphate layers. The high
pressure and surface enlargement in can extrusion is a typical example where heavy
coatings on the metal surface are important. Therefore nitrate accelerated processes
are often used in can extrusion.
Iron-free baths operate with strong accelerators based on nitrite or chlorate, in
which Fe 2 +-ions liberated during the etching attack react to form Fe 3 +-phosphate,
which precipitates as sludge, but does not sediment as strongly as the sludge in
processes containing iron.
In the case of light reductions of wire the phosphate coating could be applied by
continuous processing. In this case fast operating nitrite/chlorate baths are used (see
Table 2).
A characteristic of the phosphate layers formed in iron-free baths is the small
thickness of the coating, up to maximum 12 ~tm for nitrite accelerated and 10 ~tm for
chlorate accelerated processes. On the other hand, these coatings provides better
adhesion to the metal surface due to the lower iron content in the phosphate layer.
Iron-free coatings are usually more finely crystalline.
By selecting the type of process, the attainable phosphate thickness may be decided
to a great extent. But bath control is important too. Higher concentrations in the
phosphating bath also results in thicker phosphate coatings; on the other hand,
variation of the coating thickness by varying the dipping time is not feasible. Various
crystal structures of the phosphate layer are observed (needles, blocks, lamellas, see
Figs. 3 and 4). In practice it is found, that the crystallinity can be important with
respect to the cold forging process.
The different phosphating processes also require different working conditions. The
nitrate-accelerated processes are normally applied at temperatures of 70 to 95°C. The
result is a grainy, well sedimenting sludge; the heating elements scale up strongly.
Since scaling severely affects the heat required, the heating elements have to be
cleaned continuously. The sludge is not easy to pump away and therefore usually has
to be removed manually but waste treatment problems are small.
The endeavours towards energy saving have led to the development of nitrate-
accelerated processes applicable at lower temperatures, 45 to 65°C. Special additives
allow a reduction of the working temperature of these processes.
 N. Bay / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 46 (1994) 19-40 25

Fig. 3. Phosphate coating with needle crystal structure.

Fig. 4. Phosphate coating with block crystal structure.

Iron-free processes usually operate at 40 to 80°C. Generally, considerable sludge is

formed. But this does not sediment, and does not lead to formation of scale on the
heating elements. Slugde removal from the bath can therefore be carried out continu-
ously using suitable filtering devices.
After phosphating cold water rinsing with additives in order to neutralize the
residual phosphoric acid is common.
26 N. Bay / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 46 (1994) 19-40

2.4. Lubrication

Phosphate coatings have to be used together with lubricants in cold forging. Due to
physical or chemical reactions with the lubricants the coatings offer a better adhesion
of the lubricant to the slug surface. This improved adhesion is vital for the excellent
resistance of the lubrication film against high pressure sliding conditions and con-
siderable surface enlargement during forging. Normally reactive soap lubricants are
chemically bonded while oils and solid lubricants such as molybdenum disulphide or
graphite adhere physically.

2.4.1. Soap lubricants

Slugs for cold extrusion are very often treated by dipping in alkaline soap solutions
after phosphating. The main component of these soaps is sodium stearate. When
treating the zinc phosphate coating with sodium soap a chemical reaction takes place,
Part of the zinc phosphate layer reacts with sodium stearate and transforms to
a water-insoluble zinc soap, which is firmly, chemically bonded to the phosphate
coating.

Zn3(PO4)2 + 6CHa(CH2)~COONa ~ 3[CHa(CHz)xCO]2Zn + 2Na3PO4

tert. zinc phosphate sodium soap zinc soap tert. sodium phosphate

In addition, this zinc soap is covered with unconverted sodium soap. The result is
a compound lubricant consisting of zinc phosphate, zinc soap and uncoverted sodium
soap, which has a very low shear resistance. As a result low friction is obtained. Fig. 5
shows a schematic outline of the lubricating film on the slug surface.
Soap lubricants can be used for cold forging up to mean interracial temperatures of
only about 250°C because of physical and chemical changes.
It is decisive that the soap layer has thoroughly dried before cold forging. If not,
problems like tearing offthe lubricants may arise during forging. The concentration of
phosphates and sparingly soluble soaps like zinc, iron, calcium and magnesium
stearate in the soap solution increases with prolonged use. Due to these contaminants
the soap solution becomes exhausted and must be replaced. In some cases the service
life can be extended by stirring the bath and/or by separating the insoluble soap
components by means of a centrifuge.

Alkaline soap

Zinc soap

- - Conversion layer
(phosphate crystals)

/
Basic workpiece
ii material

Fig. 5. Section through lubricated slug surface.

 N. Bay l Journal of Materials Processing Technology 46 (1994) 19--40 27

Contamination of the soap bath with acid for example in the form of remnants from
the phosphating bath due to insufficient rinsing is very detrimental. The soap will split
up into fatty acids thereby prohibiting reactions with the zinc phosphate coating. The
pH-value of soap solutions is about 9-9.5; for the above mentioned reasons it should
not decline below that value, if possible. The pH-value of the bath can be adjusted by
adding either caustic soda or sodium carbonate.
The temperature of the soap solution also influences the efficiency. Normally, the
bath temperatures should be 70-80°C, the concentration 3-10%. Higher concentra-
tions result in thicker soap layers. Too thick soap layers in cold extrusion may,
however, cause contamination of the tools leading to poor dimensional accuracy of
the forged components.

2.4.2. Solid lubricants

For very heavy forging conditions phosphated steel slugs are often coated with
molybdenum disulphide or graphite. MoS2 is used in case of extreme deformation,
pressure and surface enlargement, graphite mainly at higher temperatures, such as for
instance in warm forging of high alloy steels.
Compared with soap lubrications MoS2 causes higher friction losses, thus higher
forging pressures and ejection loads should be taken into consideration. On the other
hand, MoS2-1ubricants give less problems regarding piling up of excessive lubricant in
the tool. Mixtures of sodium soap and molybdenum disulphide are also used in cold
forging of steels.
Normally slugs are treated with solid lubricants by dipping in an aqueous lubricant
dispersion but sometimes spraying or tumbling are used. In certain applications,
a phosphate layer may be simultaneously applied with the MoS2-1ubricants film by
using a reactive MoS2-1ubricant. But such lubricants are not suitable for heavy
deformations.

2.4.3. Oil lubricants

Mineral oil hydrocarbons are the most important in this group. Their range of
usefulness is, in the cold forging of steels, restricted essentially to multi-stage extrusion
processes starting with phosphated wire coils. In fact, by far the greatest majority of all
cold forgings are made in this manner. Since the sheared surfaces of the slugs are not
phosphated, a high quality oil is absolutely essential in order to get satisfactory tool
runs. Therefore special alloying additives (EP-additives etc.) are used. In some cases,
additional oil lubrication is applied to multistage forging of completely phosphated
and lubricated slugs.
The oil lubricants are mainly applied to the slugs and tools on multi-stage presses
by means of floading and spraying.

2.5. Quality control

2.5.1. Control o f cleaning operations

Since the cleaning operations are of vital importance to each of the following
steps (phosphating, rust protection etc.) regular control and replenishment of the
28 N. Bay / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 46 (1994) 19-40

degreasing, oxidizing and pickling baths is necessary. For detailed descriptions

of control methods like titration, separation and wettability tests the reader is referred
to [6].

2.5.2. Control of phosphating bath

All phosphating baths must be replenished after a certain throughput of material.
This is generally done with a special concentrate in order to maintain the level and the
concentration of the bath components. As a rule, the pointage serves as a measure of
the concentration. The maintenance of the specified pointage is important for a good
functioning of the bath. An insufficient pointage may result in too thin or non-
continuous coatings; an excessive pointage causes an unnecessary high consumption
of chemicals. For further description of the bath control the reader is referred to [6].

2.5.3. Control of lubricant

Control of soap lubricants may be done by titration of the bath content and by
checking the soap layer visually as regards homogenity and colour. The slugs should
furthermore have a uniform soapy feeling. Concerning solid lubricants like graphite or
MoS2 the bath concentration may be estimated by separation of a test sample in
a centrifuge. Visual control and control by touching is also important. For further
description of control methods the reader is referred to [6].
An overall control of the lubricant film may furhtermore be carried out by a cold
forging test, for example in form of a backward can extrusion representing one of the
most severe operations.

2.6. Cleaning after.forging

After forging residues of phosphate coatings and lubricant films are present on the
components. Before further processing, the parts must therefore be cleaned. This is
done by means of special alkaline cleaners which are applied at temperatures of 80°C
and above.
If further processing starts with annealing, cleaning of the parts is recommended to
avoid contamination of the annealing furnace but it involves extra costs and is
therefore sometimes omitted. In case of subsequent cold forging a possible new surface
treatment must start with a cleaning operation.
If the parts are to be phosphated, e.g. in combination with a corrosion protection
oil, the corresponding installations are usually equipped with a cleaning stage. After
alkaline cleaning, the components are pickled before phosphating if necessary. In this
case it is important that any residues of soap have been eliminated from the surface,
since they would split up into fatty acids in the pickling bath and float on the bath
surface. As a result, the metal surface would be recontaminated and the phosphate
coatings would be adversely affected.
The good adherence of MoS2 can be a disadvantage when it comes to removal.
Sometimes, there is even a reluctance to use its fine properties in metal forming
because of the fear of problems when removing it before further processing. The
 N. Bay / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 46 (1994) 19--40 29

Table 3
Recommended lubricants in cold forging of steel and approximate values of the friction coefficient

Friction
Process Deformation Lubrication coefficient ,u*

Upsetting light none 0.2

Mi + EP + FA 0.1
severe Ph + SP 0.1
Ironing and light Ph + Mi + EP + FA 0.!
open-die extrusion severe Ph + SP 0.05
Extrusion light Ph + Mi + EP + FA 0.1
severe Ph + SP 0.05
Ph + MoS2 0.1
Ph + MoS2 + SP 0.05

Mi- mineral oil; EP- extreme pressure additive; FA- fatty additives; SP- soap; Ph - phosphate coating
*Note: The values for the coefficient of friction are directional values, which are suited only for comparison
between different lubricants and processes

following methods are applied for removal: Emulsion cleaning, alkaline cleaning, acid
cleaning, salt bath cleaning and shot blasting. For further description see [6].

2.7. Applications

As earlier mentioned a single lubricant system for the great variety of cold forging
operations in steel is not sufficient. In order to achieve optimum quality of
forgings and longer tool runs the structure and thickness of the phosphate coatings as
well as the choice of lubricant have to match the conditions of the cold forging, see
Table 3.
With the exception of simple forging operations, which may be carried out unlub-
ricated or with oil or grease lubrication, the lubrication system for cold forging of steel
consists fundamentally of a phosphate coating and a lubricant.
For the manufacture of cold forgings such as screws on multistage presses, starting
from phosphated wire coils, fine crystalline phosphate layers of about 5-7 ~tm thick-
ness and mineral oil lubricants are used. If a higher degree of deformation is required
phosphated and MoS2-coated wire can be used. Normally tool contamination is
insignificant.
Phosphate coating of continuous lengths of wire is used only for simple operations
like the forging of fasteners such as bolts and nuts. It is also used for wire drawing.
If wire or rod cut-offs are used as slugs for cold forging, the slugs may be
phosphated and lubricated on the entire surface before forging. Supplementary
lubrication during the pressing operation is then usually not necessary.
For forming operations with considerable surface enlargement and low or medium
pressure such as in ironing or open-die extrusion fine crystalline thin phosphate layers
with soap lubrication are suitable. If greater demands are required concerning surface
roughness of the forged products, for instance on the internal surface of a hydraulic
30 N. Bay / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 46 (1994) 19--40

cylinder made by ironing, the crystalline structure and grain size of the phosphate
layer have to be taken into consideration.
Rod extrusion processes are characterized by high extrusion pressures but rather
low surface enlargement. In such cases, zinc phosphate coatings of 10 15 jam and soap
lubrication are frequently used. Special problems arise if multi-stage rod extrusion is
to be carried out. In this case an already deformed surface may have to be further
deformed which requires very good adhesion of the phosphate coating.
The most serious stressing as regards normal pressures and surface enlargement
occurs in can extrusion. If soap lubricants are used in this case heavy phosphate
coating up to 25 jam is preferred. Molybdenum disulphide lubricants should be
applied if critical forging conditions or tool contamination problems occur. However,
this leads to higher friction and forming loads than soap lubrication. General use of
molybdenum disulphide lubricants is also limited due to higher costs.
In special cases molybdenum disulphide as an additive to diluted soap solution can
be used effectively for instance for final coining or sizing operations.
The thickness of the phosphate coating has to match the thickness of the MoS2-
film. If the MoSz-lubricant is applied as a suspension, phosphate coatings of
10-15 jam are recommended. By using MoS2-powder lubricant, a thinner phosphate
layer is advisable.

3. Lubrication of aluminium and aluminium alloys

The application of cold forged parts in aluminium and aluminium alloys is signifi-
cantly increasing due to good formability of the material and yet considerable
strength of the cold forged products. Examples are tubes, cans for electronic housings
and electro motors, oilfilters, pump housings, hydraulic cylinders, shock absorbers,
power steering components and reflectors for halogene lights.
Besides unalloyed aluminium a large variety of aluminium alloys are possible to
cold forge. They are grouped in the following series: AA 1000, 2000, 3000, 5000, 6000
and 7000 (series AA 4000 being a typical casting alloy with Si as main alloying
element). In Table 4 is given the composition of the cold forging aluminium alloys.
Until the beginning of the 1980's the major cold forging production consisted of tubes,
cans and housings carried out in the non-precipitation-hardening aluminium qualities
from series AA 1000, 3000 and 5000. Only special components for aircraft and defence
purposes were forged in the precipitation hardening alloys from series AA 2000, 6000
and 7000. The possibility of forging these alloys in annealed condition and then
precipitation harden them to large strength has, however, caused an increasing use in
civil production like the automobile industry, where the requirements for large
strength/weight ratio imply great potentials for these materials as substitutes to steel
even in high strength components.
Proper lubrication of the tool/workpiece interface is vital in case of aluminium cold
forging due to a marked tendency of pick-up of workpiece material on the tool surface
in case of insufficient lubrication. Whereas cold forging at low reductions of softer
unalloyed or low alloyed aluminium may be carried out with lubricants like oil, grease
Table 4
Al-alloys for cold forging. Type and composition. After Ref. [8]

Alloy Main Composition %

group, alloy AA-
AA elem. no. DIN-no. AI Si Fe Cu Mn Mg Cr Ni Zn Ti Others

1000 None 1050 AI 99.50 99.50

1070 AI 99.70 99.70
1098 AI 99.98 99.98
2000 Cu 2007 AICuMgPb rem. 0.8 0.8 3.3-4.6 0.50-1.0 0.40 1.8 0.10 0.20 0.8 0.20 Bi 0.20,
Pb 0.8-1.5,
Sn 0.20
2011 AICu6BiPb rem. 0.4 0.7 5.0 6.0 0.30 Bi 0.20 0.6
Pb 0.20-0.6
2014 AICuSiMn rem. 0,50 1,2 0,7 3.9-5.0 0.40 1.0 0.20 0.8 0.10 0.25 0.15 Zr + Ti 0.20
3000 Mn 3103 AIMnl rem. 0,50 0~7 0.10 0.9-1.5 0.30 0.10 0.20 Zr + Ti 0.10
5000 Mg 5005 AIMgl rein. 0.30 0.7 0.20 0.20 0.50- I, 1 0.10 0.25
5056 A1Mg5 rem. 0.30 0.40 0.10 0.05 0.20 4.5-5.6 0.05-0,20 0.10
6000 Mg + Si 6012 A1MgSiPb rem. 0.6 1.4 0.5 0.10 0.40 1.0 0.6 1.2 0.30 0.30 0.20 Bi 0.7,
Pb 0.40-2.0
6060 AIMgSi0.5 rem. 0.30-0,6 0.10-0.30 0.10 0.10 0.35-0.6 0.05 0.15 0.10
6061 AIMgSilCu rem. 0.40 0.8 0.7 0.15 0.40 0.15 0.8 1.2 0.04-0.35 0.25 0.15
6082 AIMgSil rem. 0.7 1.3 0.50 0.10 0.40 1.0 0.6 1.2 0.25 0.20 0.10 Pb max 0.003
7000 Zn 7021 rem. 0.25 0.40 0.25 0.10 1.2-1.8 0.05 5.0-6.0 0.10 Zr 0.08-0.18
7050 rem. 0.12 0.15 2.0-2.6 0.10 1.9-2.6 0.04 5.7 6.7 0.06 Zr 0,08-0.15
7072 AIZn 1 rem. Si + Fe 0.7 0.10 0.10 0.10 0.8 1.3
7075 AIZnMgCul.5 rem. 0.40 0.50 1.2 2.0 0.30 2.1 2.9 0.18-0.28 5.1 6.1 0.20 Zr + Ti 0.25
7278 rem. 0.15 0.20 1.6 2.2 0.02 2.5 3.2 0.17-0.25 6.6-7.4 0.03 Ga 0.03, V 0.05 r,
32 N. Bay / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 46 (1994) 19-40

or zinc stearate, heavier reductions and/or medium to high hardness alloys require
better lubrication systems, where a conversion coating acts as a lubricant carrier.
In the following is described the different alternatives dividing the lubrication
systems into the two main categories: 1) production without conversion coatings, 2)
production with conversion coatings.

3.1. Production without conversion coatings

3.1.1. Pre-processing
Slugs of the more formable aluminium alloys, such as those of the AA 1000 and
3000 series, are often given no surface preparation before a lubricant is applied prior
to cold forging. For slugs of the less formable aluminium alloys or for maximum
severity of deformation or both, surface preparation may be necessary for retention of
lubricant, [9]. The following alternatives may be applied: 1) pickling, tumbling, shot
blasting.
Pickling is performed by dipping the slugs in a heated caustic solution, followed by
water rinsing, nitric acid desmutting, and a final rinse in water. This procedure
provides the slugs with a clean and rough surface. Tumbling is done in vibrating
barrels where the numerous mutual collisions between the slugs produce a rough
workpiece surface which ensures good retention of the lubricant. The same effect is
obtained by shot blasting which may be carried out with aluminium oxide granulate.
Of these methods pickling results in the most uniform layer of lubricant film. If the
roughness is too large it may cause entrapment of lubricant in pockets in the surface
during cold forging and poor surface quality of the forged product.

3.1.2. Lubrication
A large variety of lubricants may be applied for cold forging of unalloyed alumi-
nium and the easy formable alloys. Below are listed some of them: 1) zinc stearate 2)
mineral oil + graphite 3) mineral oil + EP-additives 4) grease 5) lanoline.
Zinc stearate is most commonly used. It is normally applied in powder form by
tumbling. Typical amounts of lubricant film are in the range 5-20 g/m 2. In order to
obtain a more uniform layer it is possible to add a solvent like petrol to the zinc
stearate (20 ml petrol for 30-60 g zinc stearate). Alternatively the zinc stearate film
may also be provided by dipping the slugs in an aqueous suspension in which case the
film thickness is smaller.
Lubricants based on mineral oil are produced by adding either graphite or EP-
additives, typically phosphates or chlorides. They may be provided to the slug surface
by dipping or stipling.
Grease may also be applied by stipling or by heating it till melting in a bath and
dipping the slugs in the hot bath. The content of greases may be:
Mineral oil + metallic alkali (LiOH, Ca(OH)z, AI(OH)3)
or

Fatty acid + metallic alkali

 N. Bay / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 46 (1994) 19--40 33

Lanoline is an animal fat developed from sheepswool. It consists of cholesterol and

smaller amounts of fatty acids and alcohols.

3.2. Production with conversion coatings

3.2.1. Pre-processing
Watersoluble alkaline cleaners are commonly used for the degreasing and cleaning
of aluminium parts. Mildly alkaline cleaners are used for the cleaning of slightly
contaminated surfaces, whereas strongly alkaline cleaners are needed for heavy soiled
surfaces. The effect of cleaning increases with the pH-value.
An alkaline cleaner for aluminium consists of an inorganic basis and tensides.
According to the type of cleaner the inorganic bases are made of phosphates, borates,
alkali hydroxides and silicates. The silicate acts an inhibitor against progressive
pickling and enhances the cleaning effect. Alkaline cleaners are used at temperatures
of 70-95°C. The concentration should be in the range 2-10%. Treatment time
depends on type of installation and is commonly 5-15 mins. The slugs should be
carefully water rinsed after cleaning.
Aluminium can be pickled in alkaline or acid pickling solutions. Alkaline pickling
products are based on sodium hydroxide diluted in water, conc. 2-20%. The treat-
ment time is relatively short, 1-5 mins. and the temperature in the range 40-70°C.
Alternatively pickling can be done by an acid solution based on phosphoric and
hydrofluoric acids. The bath concentration would be in the range of 20-30 acid points
and the temperature 20-30°C. Treatment time is usually 4-6 mins. The slugs should
be carefully water rinsed after pickling.

3.2.2. Conversion coating

Three different conversion coatings are applied for aluminium slugs: 1) zinc phosphate
coating 2) calcium aluminate coating 3) aluminium fluoride coating.
The zinc phosphate coating was earlier applied but today the two other coatings are
most commonly used, the calcium aluminate coating in Europe and the aluminium
fluoride coating in Japan.
Zinc phosphate coating: the zinc phosphate coating is formed in a bath of an
aqueous, acid reacting solution of primary zinc phosphate, phosphoric acid, oxidants
and special additives. The phosphating process is a two step operation. First appears
a pickling attack whereby the aluminium is dissolved from the surface and oxidized to
A13 + and H +-ions are reduced to hydrogen gas:
2A! + 6H + ~ 2A13+ + 3HzT
(initial pickling reaction)
A small amount of the A13 + precipitates as A1PO4 whereas the main part precipi-
tates as NaA1F6 according to the following formular:
AI3+3Na + + 6 F - ~ Na3AIF6
Due to the consumption of H +-ions the balance of the solution near the surface of
the parts is altered in such a way that the primary zinc phosphate available in the
34 N. Bay / Journal o f Materials Processing Technology 46 (1994) 19-40

solution is transformed into tertiary zinc phosphate and phosphoric acid. The tertiary
zinc phosphate precipitates as a crystalline layer on the metallic slug surface.
3Zn 2 + + 2H2PO~, ~ Zn3(PO4) 2 ,~ + 4H +
(coat forming reaction)

An excessive amount of A13+ (max. 3 mg/1 Al 3+) is harmful to the bath and is
avoided by applying special additives containing sodium and fluoride.
The phosphating process is normally applied at temperatures in the range 55-65°C.
Treatment time is 5-10 mins. and the resulting coating weight is 5-10 g/m 2.
Calcium aluminate coating: An aluminate bath contains calcium hydroxide and
different activating compounds. The bath reacts alkaline and has a pH-value of
12-13. In this strong alkaline bath aluminium will dissolve from the surface and
aluminium hydroxide is formed which reacts with calcium hydroxide from the bath
solution and forms calcium aluminate in form of a deposit covering the slugs in a thin
layer. G o o d circulation of the bath is essential for effective operation since some of the
ingredients are insoluble and only dispersed in the bath. Without circulation of the
bath they will precipitate to the bottom. Circulation can be carried out by stirring or
pumping.
The applied bath concentration is normally 16-20 calcium points and min. 2.5
alkali points. The temperature range is 60-80°C and the treatment time 5-15 mins.
Before dipping the slugs in the aluminate bath they must be degreased, pickled and
activated by dipping in hot water.
Aluminium fluoride coating: an aluminium fluoride bath contains the following:
Major reagents: NazSiF6, NaHF2, KHF2 Additives: Zn3(POg)z'4H~O,
Fe3(POg)e'8H20, etc. Oxidants: NaNO3, NaClO3, etc. In this bath the sodium
siliconfluoride is hydrolized at high temperatures:

NazSiF6 + 3 H 2 0 ~ H2SiO3 + 4HF + 2NaF

OF

Na2SiF 6 + 4 H 2 0 ~ H4SiO4 + 4HF + 2NaF

When the aluminium slugs are dipped into the bath the aluminium surface reacts
with the hydrofluoric acid forming fluorides:

2A! + 6HF ---, 2A1F3 + 3HzT

A1F 3 reacts with Na +- and F--ions and forms insoluble fluoride, Na3AIF6, which is
deposited as a crystalline coating on the slug surfaces:
A1F3 + 3F- + 3Na + ~ NasA1F6
These are the main reaction processes but others will occur forming other com-
pounds such as NaKzA1F6.
The concentration of the bath is 40-50 acid points, the temperature range 85-90°C
and the treatment time 5 10 mins. The resulting film weight of the coating is
5-10 g/m z.
 N. Bay / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 46 (1994) 19--40 35

3.2.3. Lubrication
The conversion coatings have to be used together with a lubricant in order to
reduce friction in cold forging. Due to physical or chemical reaction with the
lubricant the coating offers a better adhesion of the lubricant to the workpiece
surface.
Conversion coated aluminium slugs are normally treated by dipping in alkaline
soap solutions. The main component of these soap lubricants is sodium stearate.
When treating zinc phosphate coatings with sodium stearate a chemical reaction
takes place transforming part of the zinc phosphate coating to water insoluble zinc
stearate which is thus chemically bonded to the slug surface.

Zn3(PO4) 2 + 6CH3(CH2)I6COONa--~ 3(CHs(CH2)16COO)2Zn + 2Na3PO4

In addition the zinc stearate layer is covered with unconverted sodium soap. The
result is a compound lubricant consisting of zinc phosphate, zinc stearate and sodium
soap similar to the conditions for phosphate coating and soap lubrication of steel as
illustrated in Fig. 6.
When dipping calcium aluminate coated specimens in an alkaline soap solution
a layer of alkaline soap is physically bonded to the surface. A chemical reaction of the
soap with the conversion coating may occur.
Dipping aluminium fluoride coated specimens in an alkaline soap solution mainly
consisting of sodium stearate a reaction similar to the one for phosphate coating is
occurring forming a water insoluble aluminium stearate which is chemically bonded
to the surface. On top of this excessive sodium soap will be deposited.

Fig. 6. Drum with phosphate and soap lubricated slugs.

36 N. Bay / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 46 (1994) 19~10

The soap bath is normally held in the temperature range 70-90°C, the concentra-
tion 3-10% and the dipping time may vary from 0.5 to 5 mins. The pH-value of the
bath is about 9-9.5. It should not decrease below this value, in which case the bath can
be adjusted by adding either caustic soda or sodium carbonate. The concentration of
phosphates and sparingly soluble soaps like zinc, calcium and magnesium stearate in
the soap solution increases with prolonged use. Due to these contaminants the soap
solution becomes exhausted and must be replaced. In some cases the service life can be
prolonged by stirring the bath and/or by separating the insoluble soap components by
means of a centrifuge.
It is decisive that the soap layer has thoroughly dried before cold forging. If not,
problems like tearing of the lubricants may arise during forging.
In special cases conversion coated aluminium slugs may be lubricated with MoS2
instead of alkaline soap.

3.3. Quality control

Quality control of the cleaning, conversion coating and lubrication processes is

vital in order to obtain sound production. The methods adopted in quality control are
similar to those mentioned in Section 2.5 for lubrication of steel.

3.4. Applications

Due to the varying requirements of the different alloys and extrusion processes in
cold forging of aluminium several types of lubricants have been developed. Simple
forging operations like upsetting or ironing at low reduction of unalloyed or low
alloyed aluminium requires only lubrication with grease or oil. In case of heavier
reductions of the same materials like in backward can extrusion zinc stearate may be
applied. Cold forging of harder aluminium alloys requires even better lubricant
systems including a conversion coating acting as a carrier of the lubricant.
Factors which should be considered when choosing the lubricant system for cold
forging of aluminium alloys are: 1) type of alloy 2) yield stress before forging 3) strain
hardening exponent 4) degree of surface expansion during forging 5) geometry of slug
and tool 6) tool surface (roughness, hardness and chemical composition).
The type of alloy and the surface expansion (the forming process) are parameters
with major influence on the choice of lubricant system. Fig. 7 shows appropriate
lubricants for varying aluminium alloys and surface expansion. The abcissae indicates
the different series of aluminium alloys arranged with increasing hardness towards the
right, corresponding to increasing difficulties in forging. The ordinate indicating the
degree of surface expansion in the levels: low, medium and high is examplified by the
schematic outlined processes. The lubricant systems presented are divided into
the following three groups ordered with increasing efficiency from 1 to 3: 1. oil or
grease 2. zinc stearate 3. conversion coating + lubricant.
If a lubricant is appropriate for a given combination of aluminium alloy and surface
expansion, lubricants with higher number will be so too, i.e., if for instance oil or
 N. Bay / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 46 (1994) 19--40 37

,++ '\
\
\
\\ \
\\ '~\
\ \

++ i++ i | P, •~ ~
zinc steal'ate \ \

trsrlsltlo~ zorle
\\,

\
=reversion oo~ng
+ lubricant

'\ \
\ \
oil or grease \ \
\ \
\ \
\ ",,
I
low Medium High
Hardness of N-alloy
~1ooo ~3o0o ~u~m~oo Ju~L~x> MT0O0 AAS0O0
Fig. 7. Choice of lubricant system for cold forging different aluminium alloys in different processes.

grease is sufficient to avoiding pick-up, zinc stearate or conversion coating + soap will
be satisfactory as well.
It is noticed that unalloyed and lower alloyed aluminium like series AA 1000
and 3000, having moderate hardness even after forging, may be lubricated with
simple systems like oil or grease at low to medium reductions as in upsetting,
heading or open die extrusion. In case of larger surface expansions as in forward
rod or tube extrusion or backward can extrusion, lubrication with zinc stearate
is needed.
As regards alloys in series AA 6000 and 5000 lubrication with oil, grease or zinc
stearate may only be applied in case of low to medium surface expansion. Large
reductions calls for a conversion coating. In case of series 2000 only light reductions
are possible without conversion coatings, and as regards series 7000 this is needed in
any case.
Besides the lubricant performance a number of other factors have to be considered
when choosing lubricant. If a company for example for simplicity chooses to apply
only one type of lubricant for all of their different kind of cold forging operations, of
course they have to choose the one required for the most critical operation. Other
factors of consideration are complexity of control in the application, environmental
problems, price, availability etc. Table 5 shows some of the advantages and disadvan-
tages of various lubricant systems.
Excessive lubricant may be harmful due to entrapment in corners of the tool and in
the workpiece surface resulting in bad tolerances and high, uneven roughness.
38 N. Bay / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 46 (1994) 19-40

Table 5
Advantages and disadvantages of different lubrication systems for cold forging of aluminium

Lubricant Lubricant
system performance Advantages Disadvantages

oil moderate lubricity easy to handle

grease moderate lubricity easy to handle
zinc stearate good lubricity easy to handle Dust problems
phosphate coating + very good lubricity Low treatment temp. Very difficult bath control
lubricant Applicable to all Difficult disposal
aluminium alloys Limited life time of bath

aluminate coating + excellent lubricity Easy disposal Difficult bath control

lubricant Low treatment temp. Agitation of the bath needed
Applicable to all Limited life time of the bath
aluminium alloys
aluminium fluoride excellent lubricity Short treatment time Bad working environment
coating + lubricant Easy bath control High treatment temp.
Applicable to all Difficult disposal
aluminium alloys Short life time of bath

4. Other aspects in cold forging lubrication

The higher the pressure and surface enlargement in a forging operation the more
attention must be paid to the quality of the whole lubrication system. The entire
process consisting of cleaning the slugs, choosing the lubrication system, managing
the baths, intermediate storing of treated slugs and feeding the slugs into the tool,
must be pursued carefully.
In order to reduce friction, avoid pick-up and minimize tool wear, tribologically
favourable process planning and tool design is never less important than lubrication.
For example, in practice, the leading ends of slugs for forward rod extrusion are often
bevelled or chamfered by preforming to retain an adequately thick lubricant film
between the die shoulder and the slug end surface. In backward can extrusion the
shape of the punch nose is vital, controlling the lubricant transport from the punch
nose to the land, [10]. An entire deformation process is sometimes divided into two or
more subprocesses for relubrication. In some process sequences minimization of the
local surface expansion is required in order to avoid bare metal surfaces. Die throats
and punch noses are usually provided with moderate edge radii in order to avoid
damming of lubricant film.
Using oil lubricants sometimes the provision of a drainage channel or clearance at
filled corners of tool cavities is necessary to avoid trapping of excessive lubricant and
subsequent Diesel effects.
Proper selection of material, heat treatment, surface finish and coating of active
tools also assist lubrication, especially in automatic forging processes on multi-stage
presses, where end surfaces of cropped slugs are not phosphated.
 N. Bay / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 46 (1994) 19--40 39

From a users point of view some comments on checking the efficiency of the
phosphate coating and lubrication have to be made. Three important main levels for
checking are: 1) global checking of the coating efficiency of a line 2) analysis of the
efficiency of every bath 3) chemical and physical analysis of every bath.
For global checking of the results of coating/lubrication lines a few special func-
tional tests have been developed, [11,12]. The principle of such tests is to make
a special cold forging operation with a coated test piece checking the behavior of the
lubrication layer. But these tests are not yet able to quantify a coating efficiency
especially for practical use and they require very expensive equipment.
For checking the efficiency of every bath the following measurements are useful: 1)
reduction of weight of a test sample in the pickling bath 2) weight or thickness of
a conversion coating of a slug or test sample 3) weight or thickness of the lubricant
layer.
These tests are normally done in forging plants from time to time, especially to
check the pickling and the conversion coating bath. But they only assure that the bath
conditions are constant and acceptable. Statistical control of these values is impor-
tant.
The same is valid for the physical and chemical bath control e.g. temperature
control and analyses of chemical contents of the bath. In order to ensure stable bath
conditions automatic analysis and subsequent replenishment of all the baths in a line
is desirable.
Considering the problems of measuring the efficiency of a coating line and the fact
that the optimum result is not the same for every part and forging process, the main
philosophy of a forging plant should be to obtain stable results when running the
coating line. The chosen procedures should be introduced as a factory standard. This
standard is extended by using special lubricants etc. and has a great influence e.g. on
tool design and forging sequence.
It is worth noting that the different companies working in cold forging are often
competitors, and the same parts are produced using different forging equipment,
sequences, tool shapes and different coating and lubrication lines too. The technical
knowledge about a coating line is therefore only a part of the entire knowhow of
a cold forging plant.

Acknowledgements

The present paper is based on a collaborative work in the Int. Cold Forging
Group's subgroup on Cold Forging Tribology of which the author is chairman. This
group has collected and organized material concerning lubrication aspects in cold
forging. The author is indebted to the following members of the subgroup:
A. Azushima, Yokohama Nat. Univ., J; R. Crafoord, Chalmers Techn. Univ., S; T.
Dean, Univ. of Birmingham, UK; R. Geiger, PRESTA, FL; I. Ishibashi, Sumico
Lubricant, J; L. Koekenberg, Amefo, NL; T. Koyama, Nihon Parkerizing, J; H. Kudo,
Tokyo Denki Univ., J; K. Lange, Univ. of Stuttgart, D; H. Leykamm, Niirnberg, D; V.
Maegaard, Danfoss, DK; T. Nakamura, Shizuoka Univ. J; T. Nickelsen, Raufoss, N;
40 N. Bay / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 46 (1994) 19--40

G. P a r s i e g l a , A c h e s o n C o l l o i d e n , N L ; F. R a m a e k e r s , E i n d h o v e n Tech. Univ., N L ;
J.-F. R e n a u d i u , C E T I M , F, R. Vey, C h e m e t a l l , D; R. W i k s t r 6 m , F F V O r d n a n c e , S; P.
Z w e z , Z w e z C h e m i e , D.

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