Homogeneous, Isotropic Flow in

Grid Generated Turbulence

Detailed grid generated turbulent analysis has been completed using a three-dimensional
hot-wire anemometer and traversing mechanism to identify a homogeneous, isotropic flow
region downstream of a square mesh. The three-dimensional fluctuating velocity measure-
ments were recorded along the centerline of a wind tunnel test section and spatially over
Riccardo Tresso the entire wind tunnel cross section downstream of the square mesh. Turbulent intensities
Ph.D. Candidate for various grid sizes and Reynolds numbers ranged from a minimum of 0.2 percent to a
maximum of 2.2 percent in each of the three principal velocity directions. Spatial homo-
geneity and isotropy were determined for several turbulent flow conditions and down-
David R. Munoz stream positions using the method of covariances. Covariances, in theory, should ap-
Associate Professor
proach zero asymptotically; however, in practice, this was not achievable. A subjective
judgment is required to determine downstream location where the variance of the three
Department of Engineering,
covariances reaches a value close to zero. The average standard deviation provides an
Colorado School of Mines,
estimate for defining the limit or subjective threshold needed to determine the onset of
Golden, CO 80401
homogeneous, isotropic flow. Implementing this threshold, a quantitative method was
developed for predicting the streamwise location for the onset of the homogeneous, iso-
tropic flow region downstream of a 25.4 mm square grid as a function of Reynolds
number. A comparison of skewness, determined from one-dimensional hot wire anemom-
eter measurements, and covariances, determined from three dimensional hot wire an-
emometer measurements, indicates a need for caution when relying solely on one-
dimensional measurements for determination of turbulence isotropy. The comprehensive
three-dimensional characterization also provides an improved understanding of spatial
distribution of fundamental turbulence quantities generated by the grid within a low-
speed wind tunnel. 关S0098-2202共00兲02501-3兴

1 Introduction
Although part of a larger effort to discern the effects of a tur-
bulent flow on small fibers, this study focuses on providing an
improved understanding of fundamental air turbulence character-
istics through carefully designed wind tunnel experiments. Spe-
cifically, the goal of this research is to develop a well-defined
study, comprised of a set of experiments, conducted in a well-
characterized turbulent airflow to achieve a better understanding
of the homogeneous, isotropic turbulent phenomenon downstream
of a square grid.
The laboratory wind tunnel provides an environment in which
critical flow factors can be controlled and monitored. Systematic
variations in air velocity 共Reynolds number兲, turbulence length
scales, and time scales were controlled through regulation of fan
speed and grid dimensions. A three-dimensional hot-wire an-
emometer and associated data acquisition hardware were used to
ascertain the fluctuating velocity data over a wide range of turbu-
lent flow conditions.
2 Background
The main objective of the research is to identify portions of the
flow downstream of a square grid that closely approximate homo-
u ⬘ v ⬘ ⫽ v ⬘ w ⬘ ⫽u ⬘ w ⬘ ⫽0 (1)
Homogeneous turbulence is also invariant due to an arbitrary ro-
tation of the defining axis, such that variances of the fluctuating
velocity components are identical 关1兴 as shown below.
u ⬘ 2 ⫽ v ⬘ 2 ⫽w ⬘ 2 (2)
In reality, a flow which is isotropic is also homogeneous, and in
practice these flows are almost never encountered. However, these
flows are useful to limit the flow complexity for numerical and
analytical verification or in this case, simplify the forcing function
to determine the drag force on microfibers in a turbulent flow. In
the area of grid generated turbulence 共GGT兲, Mohammed and
LaRue 关2兴 examined low Reynolds number 共ReMu , based on mesh
length兲 flows on the order of 6000 to 14,000, however previous
GGT studies at higher Reynolds number (ReMu⬎14,000) has
been sparse. In the work completed by Mohammed and LaRue,
the primary indicator of homogeneous, isotropic flow was the use
of a one-dimensional anemometer to examine the statistical mea-
sure of skewness. Skewness is defined as 关1兴
n
1
n
兺 u⬘
i⫽1
i
3

geneous, isotropic flow conditions. The initial indication of homo-
geneous, isotropic flow was accomplished by examining the three-
dimensional fluctuating velocity data along the centerline of the
test section downstream of a square grid. In addition, spatial ho-
mogeneity and isotropy was examined at specific downstream and
cross-sectional locations to ensure cross-flow uniformity.
Isotropic flow occurs when each of the three fluctuating veloc-
ity components are invariant due to an arbitrary rotation of the
defining principal axis 关1兴 given by
Contributed by the Fluids Engineering Division for publication in the JOURNAL
OF FLUIDS ENGINEERING. Manuscript received by the Fluids Engineering Division
March 12, 1999; revised manuscript received November 30, 1999. Associate Tech-
nical Editor: M. R. Hajj.
skewness⫽ (3)
共 u i⬘ 2 兲 3
Skewness is a statistical indication of asymmetry or tendency for
a particular fluctuating value to be greater or less than the mean.
In theory, the skewness should approach zero in homogeneous,
isotropic flow.
3 Experimental Approach
The wind tunnel consists of numerous 0.61 m square steel duct
sections with a single nozzle and diffuser which direct the airflow
in and out of an 200 mm square 3.6 m long steel section that is
followed by a 200 mm square 1.2 m long transparent test section,

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 Table 1 Grid generated turbulence intensity summary

Mean velocity 共m/s兲 Turbulence intensity 共%兲

Grid size Reynolds Downstream
共mm兲 number distance (x/Mu) U V W (u ⬘ )/U ( v ⬘ )/U (w ⬘ )/U
12.7 4700 160 5.6 0.14 0.14 0.2 0.2 0.2
25.4 9700 80 5.71 0.18 0.23 0.8 0.7 1.4
50.8 19,600 40 5.8 0.19 0.21 1.7 1.4 2.2

Note: (x/Mu) represents the dimensionless downstream distance from the grid 共i.e., x⫽downstream distance in millimeters兲.

Table 3 Data acquisition test results

Sample #1 Sample #2 Sample #3

16,384 pts 131,072 pts 1,048,576 pts
Statistical measure 0.164 seconds 1.31 seconds 10.5 seconds
U mean 5.606 5.614 5.612
Fig. 1 Illustration of regions previously identified in grid gen- Std. Dev.(u ⬘ ) 0.011 0.011 0.013
erated turbulence V mean 0.137 0.129 0.131
Std. Dev.( v ⬘ ) 0.010 0.012 0.012
W mean 0.155 0.147 0.15
Std. Dev.(w ⬘ ) 0.010 0.012 0.014
Table 2 Grid solidity summary

Grid size 共mm兲 Rod diameter 共mm兲 Solidity ratio

12.7 3.175
25.4 3.175
50.8 6.34
which provides optical access to the flow field. Within the trans-
parent test section turbulent flows approaching Reynolds numbers
(ReMu) of nearly 52,000 are attainable. A summary of grid gen-
erated turbulent intensities along with the associated Reynolds
numbers (ReMu) and grid sizes acquired as part of this study are
shown in Table 1.
It is well founded that downstream of a grid there appears three
distinct flow regions as shown in Fig. 1. The first region is that
nearest the grid and can be characterized as developing flow with
inhomogeneous and anisotropic turbulence due to wake effects
caused by the grid. The second region is identified as the decay
power law region, where the flow tends to approach homogeneity
and local isotropy. Within the third region viscous effects pre-
dominate and the flow departs from isotropy and homogeneity.
The second region has been previously located by examining the
skewness of the one-dimensional fluctuating velocity data 关2兴.
By placing appropriate grid sizes upstream of the test section
and adjusting the fan speed, various mixing conditions were cre-
ated. The length and time scales of turbulent eddies were also
controlled by the mesh length of a square grid and turbulent ki-
netic energy is varied by changing the fan speed. Table 2 shows
the specific grid sizes, associated rod diameters, and solidity ratios
used during this study.
The solidity ratio is a measure of the cross-sectional area of the
grid divided by the total cross-sectional area of test section. The
solidity ratios presented in Table 2 are similar to the solidity ratio
of 0.34, which among other sizes has been implemented in past
grid generated turbulence research 关2兴.
3.1 Data Acquisition System. A Dantec Measurement
Technology, Streamline three-dimensional, constant temperature,
hot-wire anemometer and data acquisition system were imple-
mented to measure the fluctuating velocity components in the x, y,
and z directions. The Dantec three-dimensional hot-wire probe,
type 55P91, was mounted within the test section parallel to the
mean flow direction. The tungsten-platinum triple probe consists
of three distinct 5 ␮m diameter hot-wires. The sensor has an ac-
tive sensing length of 3 mm and is capable of withstanding tem-
peratures up to 150°C. The three-dimensional probe possesses a
0.56 frequency response in excess of 4 kHz. The anemometer was
0.28
0.38 calibrated by Dantec Measurement Technology Inc. for the spe-
cific air velocity range of 0.5 to 50 meters per second with a
calibration accuracy of approximately 2 percent for each probe
axis 关3兴. Each of the associated velocity signals was conditioned
using the Dantec Streamline main frame serial controller, type 90
P10, and Streamline constant temperature anemometer module
with signal conditioner, type 90 C10. The data acquisition inter-
face used with the Dantec Measurement Technology equipment
consisted of a National Instruments, type PCI/AT-MIO-16E-1
data acquisition card, SCXI-1000 chassis, 1320 extender card, and
1120 module, which enabled the Dantec Streamline hardware to
sample at a maximum rate of 100 kHz per channel.
For the data discussed herein the sampling rate was set at 8 kHz
per channel. A model 89410A, Hewlett Packard Vector Signal
Analyzer, was implemented to identify the complete time aver-
aged turbulent spectra for three different grid sizes and velocities
within the wind tunnel test section. The vector signal analyzer
ensured proper selection of the data acquisition sampling rate,
thereby avoiding the affects of aliasing. To be certain that a sta-
tistically representative sample size was obtained, several tests,
corresponding to an increasing number of data points, were ac-
quired. As shown in Table 3, the standard deviation remained
unchanged regardless of orders of magnitude increases in sample
size, thereby verifying the appropriate quantity of data had been
taken and the existence of steady-state turbulence.
4 Experimental Results
First, a comparison of the skewness versus the covariance dis-
tribution in the stream-wise direction is examined in detail. Sec-
ond, the identification and characterization of homogeneous, iso-
tropic flow regions was performed for three flow conditions by
examining the three-dimensional covariance recorded at the test
section centerline, at numerous locations downstream of a square
grid. Following the identification of a homogeneous, isotropic re-
gion, a detailed spatial analysis was conducted at specific down-
stream positions within this region.
4.1 Covariance Versus Skewness. Fluctuating velocity
data and associated statistical quantities, such as skewness, may
serve to identify homogeneous, isotropic flow regions that form
downstream of a square grid. The downstream location where
skewness approaches zero signifies the onset of homogeneous,
isotropic flow. The grid effectively breaks up any boundary layer

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 Fig. 2 Turbulent kinetic energy dissipation rate for a 25.4 mm
grid
that has been formed in the upstream flow and from this point the
tunnel wall boundary layers redevelop at the expense of a turbu-
lent wake-mixing region 1. Wakes created by the grid begin to
merge as downstream distance increases and fully developed tur-
bulent flow is achieved. Results show that near the grid, the dis-
sipation rate of turbulent kinetic energy increases as Reynolds
number increases, which is consistent with the results of Moham-
med and LaRue 关2兴. As downstream distance from the grid in-
creases, the dissipation rate of kinetic energy decreases and levels
off, as shown in Fig. 2.
Varying the Reynolds number by changing the bulk flow veloc-
ity or grid size directly affects the dissipation of turbulent kinetic
energy and ultimately the location where the flow approaches ho-
mogeneity and isotropy. For a fixed grid size, higher Reynolds
numbers produce eddy sizes with larger characteristic time scales
that decay over a greater period of time. In contrast, decreasing
the Reynolds number produces smaller characteristic time scales,
which requires less time to decay. Based on this argument, it may
be implied that the onset of homogeneous, isotropic flow is related
to the dissipation rate of turbulent kinetic energy. The dissipation
of turbulent kinetic energy 共TKE兲 is given as
30␯ 共 u ⬘ 兲
␧⫽ 关 1⫺R u 共 ␶ 兲兴
U 2 共 ⌬t 兲 2
where ␯ is the kinematic viscosity, (u ⬘ ) is the standard deviation,
U is the mean velocity, and R u ( ␶ ) is the autocorrelation coeffi-
cient in the streamwise direction.
The dissipation of kinetic energy is greater for larger Reynolds
numbers and the downstream position where the dissipation be-
comes constant approximately coincides with the position where
the covariances equal zero. Specifically, greater initial kinetic en-
ergy results in regions of homogeneous, isotropic flow that form
further downstream. In contrast, a smaller dissipation rate of tur-
bulent kinetic energy results in a region of homogeneous, isotro-
pic flow forming nearer the grid. Qualitatively, the above analysis
may improve our fundamental understanding of GGT, although it
does not directly identify the streamwise location where the flow
approaches homogeneity and isotropy. For a Reynolds number of
10,700, the dissipation of turbulent kinetic energy levels off at
approximately 20 meshlengths downstream of the grid, which cor-
responds to results of Mohammed and LaRue 关2兴. Given a Rey-
nolds number of 22,900, the dissipation rate begins to approach
zero approximately 40 meshlengths downstream, which also co-
incides with previous GGT results 关2兴. For a Reynolds number of
34,400, the dissipation of turbulent kinetic energy is greatest near
the grid and subsequently begins to level off approximately 50
meshlengths downstream. This experimental result also coincides
with results of Mohammed and LaRue 关2兴 and Kistler and Vre-
balovich 关4兴.
Studies by Mohammed and LaRue have shown that for a range
of Reynolds numbers between 6000 to 14,000, and for a mesh size
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Fig. 3 Comparison of fluctuating velocity covariance and
skewness of the streamwise component
of 25.4 mm, the region of homogeneity and isotropy begins ap-
proximately 30 meshlengths downstream of the square grid. They
further indicate that this region remains homogeneous and isotro-
pic over 80 meshlengths downstream. A simplified replication of
the work performed by Mohammed and LaRue was completed in
this study. One-dimensional axial velocity data was recorded
along the centerline downstream of a 25.4 mm grid over approxi-
mately 140 meshlengths for a range of Reynolds numbers. Results
show the variability of the one-dimensional velocity skewness to
be extremely large as the probe was traversed downstream.
A more effective indicator for predicting the onset of homoge-
neous, isotropic flow is to investigate each of the three fluctuating
cross velocity components 共or covariance, see Eq. 共1兲兲. The cova-
riances for the three-dimensional fluctuating velocity data were
calculated and compared to the mean stream skewness as a func-
tion of downstream distance form the grid. Figure 3 shows both
the covariances and the one-dimensional axial velocity skewness
for the 25.4 mm grid size for a Reynolds number of 22,900. Al-
though all three covariances were measured, only the u ⬘ v ⬘ is
plotted to avoid cluttering the figure. The other covariance values
( v ⬘ w ⬘ ,u ⬘ w ⬘ ) behave similarly. Figure 3 clearly portrays the ex-
tremely large variation in one-dimensional axial velocity skew-
ness while variation in the three-dimensional velocity covariance
(4)
remains relatively small, with no noticeable change between the
u ⬘ v ⬘ , v ⬘ w ⬘ and u ⬘ w ⬘ components.
A possible explanation of variance in the one-dimensional ve-
locity skewness may be attributed to the formation of wakes that
form as the flow passes through the 25.4 mm square grid. The
wakes are a boundary layer that merges downstream of the square
grid. The correlation between boundary layer growth and down-
stream distance where skewness begins to scatter was examined
using the following equation for the development of a turbulent
wake downstream of a cylinder in cross flow 关5兴
1
b 1/2⫽ 共 xC d d 兲 1/2 (5)
4
The turbulent wakes that form downstream of the 25.4 mm grid
can be determined for a range of Reynolds numbers since C d
depends on the Reynolds number based on the cylinder diameter,
Red . The downstream distance where the wakes merge can be
calculated and compared to the downstream location where the
one-dimensional axial velocity skewness begins to scatter. Figure
4 shows this boundary layer growth from the 25.4 mm mesh grid
at a Reynolds number, ReMu of 22,900.
Figure 4 can be compared to Fig. 3 depicting the one-
dimensional skewness scatter. The boundary layers converge ap-
proximately 32 mesh lengths downstream of the 25.4 mm square
grid, respectively. Referring back to Fig. 3, the one-dimensional
velocity skewness begins to scatter at approximately twice the
downstream location. Therefore, merging of the boundary layers
downstream of the grid does not appear to have a strong effect on
MARCH 2000, Vol. 122 Õ 53
 Fig. 4 Velocity boundary layer „wake… development down-
stream of a square grid
the skewness of the axial fluctuating velocity component or the
covariance data. However, the merging of the wakes downstream
from the grid roughly corresponds to the position indicated by
Mohammed and LaRue 关2兴 where the isotropic, homogeneous
flow region begins. If the Reynolds numbers, based on the mesh
length, are converted to Reynolds numbers based on the mesh rod
diameter, the range of the Reynolds number based on mesh rod
diameter, covered in this study is 1300⬍Red⬍4300. After consult-
ing the famous plot of the drag coefficient for flow over a circular
cylinder 关5兴, it is seen that, over this range of the Reynolds num-
ber, the drag coefficient is invariant with a value of one. There-
fore, the boundary layer behavior is invariant over this range and
Eq. 共5兲 could not be used to indicate the position of the isotropic
and homogeneous turbulence region of interest.
Some other unknown factor must be perturbing the skewness.
One potential explanation for the sensitivity to scatter may be
attributed to the definition of skewness 共see Eq. 3兲, which directly
depends on the lack of symmetry about the mean. Skewness is a
third order moment and as a result it has a correspondingly high
sensitivity to small flow perturbations or noise. The merging
wakes downstream of the grid ultimately result in the develop-
ment of homogeneous, isotropic regions; however, further down-
stream, the merging boundary layers result is a hydrodynamic
fully developed turbulent flow. Near the grid, the covariance and
skewness scatter is large as expected for inhomogeneous and an-
isotropic flow. As the downstream distance increases the covari-
ance scatter diminishes and homogeneity and isotropy are at-
tained. At least it can be said that if only skewness is considered
from these results one would assume a departure from homoge-
neous, isotropic flow conditions.
The method of covariances has been employed to determine the
onset of homogeneous, isotropic flow in this study. This method
directly utilizes the definition of isotropy 关1兴, unlike the one-
dimensional skewness calculation.
4.2 Identification of Homogeneous and Isotropic Flow Re-
gions. A 25.4 mm steel grid was placed upstream of the test
section at various locations and a three-dimensional hot-wire an-
emometer was traversed, beginning at the grid and progressing
downstream over 160 mesh lengths along the centerline of the test
section. The three principal fluctuating velocity components were
recorded at 25.4 mm increments for various Reynolds numbers.
For each data point the three fluctuating velocity covariances were
determined and plotted versus downstream distance. For clarity,
Fig. 5 identifies only the u ⬘ v ⬘ covariance corresponding to a 25.4
mm grid at a Reynolds number (ReMu) of approximately 10,700.
There remains no appreciable difference between the u ⬘ v ⬘ and
u ⬘ w ⬘ covariances. However, the v ⬘ w ⬘ covariance is smaller in
magnitude than those including the axial flow component u ⬘ .
Since the standard deviation is much smaller for the v ⬘ w ⬘ , it is
plotted in Fig. 5.
The variance in the covariances is the largest nearest the grid
where the flow is likely inhomogeneous and anisotropic. As the
downstream distance from the grid increases, the variance of the
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Fig. 5 v ⬘ w ⬘ covariance for ReÄ10,700
covariances approaches zero, as expected in homogeneous isotro-
pic flow. The covariances, in theory, should approach zero asymp-
totically; however in practice this was not achievable. A subjec-
tive judgment is required to determine downstream location where
the variance of the three covariances reaches a value close to zero.
For Reynolds numbers of 10,700, 22,900, and 34,400, the stan-
dard deviation of the three covariances was calculated from ap-
proximately 160 covariance data points for each principal velocity
direction 共result shown in Table 4兲. Subsequently, the three cova-
riance standard deviations for each Reynolds number were aver-
aged. The average standard deviation provides an estimate for
defining the limit or subjective threshold needed to determine the
onset of homogeneous, isotropic flow.
Recalling the covariance data presented in Fig. 5 and the
threshold estimated in Table 4 for a Reynolds number of 10,700,
the flow approaches homogeneity and isotropy as covariance fluc-
tuations fall below 0.0108. This occurs approximately 18
meshlengths downstream of the 25.4 mm grid. These predictions
coincide with earlier GGT studies completed by Mohammed and
LaRue 关2兴. Applying the thresholds of Table 4 to the experimental
data for a range of Reynolds numbers, the onset of homogeneous,
isotropic flow was predicted and summarized in Table 5. Data was
taken for a Reynolds number of 52,000, however, the data scatter
was extremely large and the results were inconsistent.
Numerous studies of grid generated turbulence have been com-
pleted 共e.g., Taylor 关6兴, Mohammed and LaRue 关2兴兲, although
none have identified the onset of this region by implementing
three-dimensional covariances or predicting its onset as a function
of Reynolds number. Using the criteria established in Table 5,
Fig. 6 illustrates the results obtained in this study and a curve fit
for predicting the onset of homogeneity and isotropy downstream
of a 25.4 mm grid for various Reynolds numbers.
However, there appears to be a limit on the maximum Reynolds
number for achieving homogeneous, isotropic flow. Experimental
results show increased scatter in the three-dimensional covariance
for Reynolds numbers above 35,000, which is consistent with pre-
vious studies 共Mohammed and LaRue 关2兴兲.
Identification of a homogeneous, isotropic flow region was
completed by examining three-dimensional fluctuating velocity
Table 4 Determination of covariance thresholds
Reynolds number
10,700 22,900 34,200
Covariance Standard Deviation
u ⬘v ⬘ 0.0145 0.1104 0.2107
v ⬘w ⬘ 0.0068 0.0379 0.0603
u ⬘w ⬘ 0.0110 0.0805 0.1994
Average Standard Deviation
Average 0.0108 0.0763 0.1568
Transactions of the ASME
 Table 5 Predicting the onset of isotropic, homogeneous flow Table 6 Covariance measurement uncertainties, 25.4 mm grid,
regions x ÕMuÄ80, ReÄ10,700

Grid size 共Mu兲 Reynolds number Covariance

25.4 mm 10,700 22,900 34,400 Run u ⬘v ⬘ v ⬘w ⬘ u ⬘w ⬘
Beginning of isotropic region (x/Mu) 18 28 57 1 ⫺0.002 0.003 0.002
End of isotropic region (x/Mu) ⬎120 ⬎120 ⬎120 2 ⫺0.013 0.01 ⫺0.006
3 ⫺0.003 0.003 ⫺0.001
4 ⫺0.009 0.008 ⫺0.002
5 ⫺0.004 0.002 0
6 ⫺0.003 0.003 ⫺0.001
7 ⫺0.003 0.003 0.002
8 ⫺0.006 0.002 0.002
9 ⫺0.009 0.007 ⫺0.003
10 ⫺0.004 0.002 0.002
Std. Dev. 0.0036 0.0029 0.0027

does not significantly affect measurements of the turbulence in the

Fig. 6 Predicting the onset of isotropic homogeneous flow re-
gion as a function of Reynolds number
data recorded at the test section centerline. To ensure spatial ho-
mogeneity and isotropy over the entire cross section, velocity pro-
files within the homogeneous, isotropic flow region were recorded
at specific downstream distances from the grid. All velocity pro-
file data discussed herein was obtained for identical bulk flow
velocities upstream of the grid.
Applying the previously defined threshold limits shown in
Table 5, the covariance profiles were examined for spatial homo-
geneity and isotropy. The covariance cross-sectional deviation for
all Reynolds numbers and downstream locations was much less
than the threshold limits defined in Table 5. The flow region ini-
tially identified as homogeneous and isotropic at the centerline is
also homogeneous and isotropic over the entire cross section. In
each of the covariance profiles homogeneity and isotropy exist
spatially over the entire cross section.
5 Experimental Error
Given the 15.5 million data points recorded over the course of
the research, several inherent uncertainties may have been intro-
duced into the velocity data and corresponding results. The pos-
sible sources of experimental error may be attributed to data ac-
quisition system error, signal processing error, numerical round-
off error, hot-wire anemometer induced flow disturbances,
calibration errors and autocorrelation coefficient variances.
The data acquisition system produced an accurate ensemble av-
erage of the three-dimensional velocity data, as shown by the data
acquisition test results in Table 3. The data acquisition error is
believed small when compared with the calibration error 共approxi-
mately 2 percent for each probe axis兲 of the hot wire anemometer
共Dantec Measurement Technology 关3兴兲.
The Nyquist criteria suggests a sampling rate of at least twice
that of the measured phenomenon to avoid aliasing. The data ac-
quisition system and triaxial probe possessed a maximum fre-
quency response of 4000 Hz, which was approximately equal to
the integral or large scale velocity fluctuations corresponding to a
Reynolds number of 34,400. However, at elevated Reynolds num-
bers the inner scales may be in error due to the response limitation
of the triaxial probe.
Frota and Moffat 关7兴 addressed the effects of combined roll and
pitch angles on triple hot-wire anemometer measurements of
mean and turbulent structures. The result of their study demon-
strated that the rotation of the probe about its axis or roll angle
corresponding flow field. The error introduced from the cosine
effect, anticipated to be less than 1 percent, is extremely small and
may be neglected.
The flow disturbances introduced by the measurement device
have been the subject of detailed research performed by many
scientists. The Dantec Measurement Technology triple hot-wire
probe, type 55P91, has been investigated as a potential flow dis-
turbance 共Frota et al. 关8兴兲. Velocity data comparison along with
smoke and water flow visualization tests, conducted in the fully
developed two-dimensional channel flow and in a free jet facility,
have shown negligible disturbances.
Additional research on the interaction between grid-generated
turbulence and a two-dimensional bluff body have been discussed
in detail by Sakai et al. 关9兴. The velocity fluctuations induced by a
cylinder wake on the upstream turbulent field has been quantita-
tively investigated. The results show that the effect of the wake
vortices on the upstream velocity fluctuations extends spatially
over a distance of more than five times the diameter of the bluff
body. However, the distance between the vertical probe support
and the triple probe hot-wire anemometer was much greater than
five times the diameter of the probe support. As a result, it is
believed that any probe disturbances that may propagate upstream
and adversely affect the three-dimensional velocity measurements
may be ignored.
The three-dimensional velocity data was statistically analyzed
to approximate the uncertainty of the covariance data. Table 6
shows covariance data and estimated standard deviations for each
of the three covariances.
The development of homogeneous, isotropic flow is a function
of Reynolds number 共i.e., grid size and bulk flow velocity兲 and the
dissipation rate of turbulent kinetic energy. Based on dissipation
of kinetic energy for low to moderate Reynolds numbers, predic-
tions of homogeneous, isotropic flow regions coincide with previ-
ous GGT results. As Reynolds number increases (ReMu
⬎35,000), the skewness and covariance data begins to scatter as
turbulent fluctuations and intensities increase. The uncertainty evi-
dent for larger Reynolds numbers may be attributed to insufficient
hot-wire probe response. The combination of variable errors and
overall uncertainty was approximated by applying the partial de-
rivative method of Kline and McClintock 共Doebelin, 关10兴兲 to the
Table 7 Turbulent kinetic energy „TKE… dissipation uncer-
tainty estimates 25.4 mm grid, x ÕMuÄ30
TKE dissipation
Reynolds uncertainty limits
number (m2/s3)
10,700 ⫾7
22,900 ⫾4
34,400 ⫾6

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 Table 8 Uncertainty analysis parameters
Parameter Error 共⌬兲 Units
R u( ␶ ) 0.001 dimensionless
U 0.001 m/s
(u ⬘ ) 0.001 m/s
dissipation of kinetic energy calculations, as shown in Table 7.
The kinetic energy uncertainty estimates were determined 30
meshlengths downstream of the 25.4 mm grid for each flow con-
dition. Table 8 illustrates the variables included in the uncertainty
analysis.
6 Concluding Remarks
The following conclusions can be drawn from the GGT analy-
sis techniques used within this study to identify the streamwise
location of a homogeneous and isotropic flow region downstream
of a square mesh for a variety of flow conditions.
• The dissipation of turbulent kinetic energy 共TKE兲 was calcu-
lated along the centerline of the test section. The results were
analyzed from the grid to downstream locations where the dissi-
pation of TKE becomes constant. This point corresponds roughly
to the axial position of the onset of homogeneous, isotropic flow.
One-dimensional skewness and three-dimensional covariance
methods were also implemented for identifying homogeneous,
isotropic flow regions.
• The three-dimensional covariance method was found to be far
better at providing a measure of the location for the onset of the
isotropic homogeneous flow region. The one-dimensional skew-
ness proved sensitive to presumably unobserved small perturba-
tions that resulted in remarkable instability, thereby making it
difficult to use as an effective detection tool.
• Subjective thresholds were developed using the covariance
standard deviation. The thresholds provide an easy to use, repro-
ducible estimate for defining the onset of homogeneous, isotropic
flow.
• A spatial covariance analysis was completed, which verified
uniform homogeneous, isotropic flow over the wind tunnel cross
section.
• A qualitative relationship was developed for predicting the
onset of homogeneous, isotropic flow downstream of a 25.4 mm
grid as a function of Reynolds number.
共 x/Mu兲 critical⫽10.2 exp共 5⫻10⫺5 ReMu兲
The results of this study show that the preferred method for
identifying homogeneous, isotropic flow regions within a low
speed wind tunnel is the method of measuring the component
fluctuations and calculating the corresponding covariance, leading
directly to the definition of homogeneous, isotropic flow 共see Eq.
共1兲兲. The covariance, unlike skewness, is less sensitive to small
flow perturbations and are unaffected by wake mixing that occurs
from the merger of wall boundary layers near the centerline of the
wind tunnel. Skewness is a third-order moment, therefore small
perturbations in the velocity data may significantly impact the
result.
56 Õ Vol. 122, MARCH 2000
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Acknowledgments
The authors would like to thank the following organizations
and individuals for their contributions: The National Science
Foundation under Contract No. DMI-9634828 for supporting this
work, Kim Daugberg, President, Dantec Measurement Technol-
ogy, for useful suggestions regarding the operation of the Dantec
Streamware and hardware, and Duane Haugen, Ph.D., for invalu-
able comments and suggestions.
Nomenclature
b 1/2 ⫽ one half of the velocity boundary layer
thickness 共wake兲 downstream of a cylinder
in cross flow 共m兲
C d ⫽ drag coefficient 共dimensionless兲
d ⫽ rod diameter 共m兲
n ⫽ number of acquired data points
ReMu ⫽ Reynolds number based on meshlength 共di-
mensionless兲 共all Reynolds numbers based
on meshlength unless otherwise specified兲
Red ⫽ Reynolds number based on the diameter of
a circular cylinder
R u ( ␶ ) ⫽ streamwise autocorrelation coefficient 共di-
mensionless兲
t ⫽ time共seconds兲
x/Mu ⫽ x coordinate 共dimensionless兲
(x/Mu) critical ⫽ position where the region of homogeneous,
isotropic flow begins downstream of the
grid 共dimensionless兲
U,V,W ⫽ mean velocities 共m/s兲
u ⬘ 2 , v ⬘ 2 ,w ⬘ 2 ⫽ velocity variance 共m2/s2兲
(u ⬘ ),( v ⬘ ),(w ⬘ ) ⫽ velocity standard deviation 共m/s兲
u ⬘ v ⬘ , v ⬘ w ⬘ ,u ⬘ w ⬘ ⫽ velocity covariance 共m2/s2兲
u ⬘ , v ⬘ ,w ⬘ ⫽ fluctuating velocities 共m/s兲
x,y,z ⫽ coordinates
␦ ⫽ velocity boundary layer thickness 共m兲
␯ ⫽ kinematic viscosity 共m2/s兲
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