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Natural Sciences Journal Articles

2021

Hydrocarbon yields and stability from

Euphorbia tirucalli for quality energy use

Nchimbi, Hamisi Yunus

Elsevier

Nchimbi, H. Y. (2021). Hydrocarbon yields and stability from Euphorbia tirucalli for quality
energy use. Energy Conversion and Management, X (12).
http://hdl.handle.net/20.500.12661/3553
Downloaded from UDOM Institutional Repository at The University of Dodoma, an open access institutional repository.
 Energy Conversion and Management: X 12 (2021) 100122

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Energy Conversion and Management: X

journal homepage: www.sciencedirect.com/journal/energy-conversion-and-management-x

Hydrocarbon yields and stability from Euphorbia tirucalli for quality

energy use
Hamisi Yunus Nchimbi
College of Natural and Mathematical Sciences, University of Dodoma, P.O. Box 338, Dodoma Tanzania

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: The present concerns on fossil fuels shortage, high price, and future exhaustion have necessitated the search for
Euphorbia tirucalli alternative energy sources using green plants. The study evaluated the yield and Oxidative Stability [OS] of
Quality liquid hydrocarbons from the E.tirucalli plant as a quality alternative energy source for future use. E.tirucalli stem
Oxidative stability
bark samples were collected from 28 trees with similar stem Diameter at Breast Height (DBH) (60 cm) in the Bahi
Hydrocarbon yield
Stem Diameter at Breast Height
(semi-arid), Goba (coast), and Iyela (tropical) sites. Sample processing and analysis were done at the Department
Stem bark of Chemical and Mining Engineering (CME), University of Dar es Salaam. 20 g of the milled and dried stem bark
sample has been used for extraction of liquid hydrocarbons using a Solid-liquid extraction technique with a
Soxhlet extractor. The percentage yields (%) of the obtained liquid hydrocarbons were determined after rotary
evaporation (60 ◦ C) of the solvent. The hydrocarbon OS Indexes [OSI(s)] were determined by using a Metrohm
873 Biodiesel Rancimat, and the obtained OSI(s) were compared with 6 h EN 14214 standard Induction Time
(IT). Differences in hydrocarbon yields (%) and, the OSI(s) among stem DBH in different study sites were
determined by using One-way ANOVA (Minitab-v19: P ≤ 0.05). Results revealed higher hydrocarbon yields (5%
– 17.5%) than 1% – 14% of the most laticiferous plants, 3% – 9% for most energy application substitutes, and 9%
– 12% for long-term OSI quality products. Hydrocarbon OSI (s) was lower [3.50 h – 5.83 h (Bahi site] than
recommended standards (6 hrs) in all study sites. Both hydrocarbon yields (%) and OSI (s) differed significantly,
higher in the Bahi than Iyela and Goba sites. High hydrocarbon yields (%) and low OSI (s) indicate that E. tirucalli
contained a high amount of low-quality high molecular weight unsaturated hydrocarbons susceptible to undergo
auto-oxidation. They require pre-treatment to reduce their molecular weight to be suitable to replace fossil fuels,
for energy use and conform to certified quality products of long-term oxidative stability.

Introduction crops as sources of energy. E. tirucalli is an example of a non-food plant

The worldwide efforts to evade overdependence on fossil fuel energy
sources through biofuel production have been increasing [47,30].
Despite these efforts, Tanzania remains relying on imported fossil fuels
of which about 75 % of the fuels are used by the transportation sector
[30]. Also, the generation of electricity in Tanzania is hydro-based and
the renewable energy technology transfer and promotion are still
limited to improved charcoal, stoves, solar, biogas, windmills, etc [30].
In an effort towards decreasing global greenhouse gas emissions, many
countries in the world have largely developed bioenergy sectors to
improve energy access and security including some initiatives to in­
crease the utilization of green plants as alternative energy sources
[36,30]. Thus, similar initiatives are highly needed in Tanzania.
Searchinger and Heimlich [50] and Legoupil and Ruf [36] suggested the
use of non-food crops to avoid the hunger that can result from using food
with the potential to be considered as an alternative source of energy
[36,43]. E. tirucalli is a latex-exuding plant species that grows fast even
in marginal areas requiring low water and nutrient contents that many
other crops can not grow [40]. The plant had been promoted as a source
of energy by Calvin in the late 1970s to early 1980s [27,35]. Thus, it is a
current promising source of liquid biofuel production for energy gen­
eration. E. tirucalli is one among the 8000 species of the Euphorbiaceae
family in the genus Euphorbia [40]. It ranges from a shrub to a large tree
of 7 to12 m high [41]. E. tirucalli branches resemble small pencils, hence
given a vernacular name, the pencil tree [41]. It can produce a whitish
latex when its bark is scratched [40]. Just like other latex-exuding plant
species, E. tirucalli can be able to produce low-molecular-weight organic
liquids, several of which have been proposed for use as transportation
fuels for vehicles driven by spark- or compression ignition engines [40].
Thus, it can be an essential hydrocarbon-yielding plant with an ability to

E-mail address: nchimbis9@gmail.com.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecmx.2021.100122
Received 30 August 2021; Received in revised form 17 October 2021; Accepted 18 October 2021
Available online 23 October 2021
2590-1745/© 2021 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
H.Y. Nchimbi Energy Conversion and Management: X 12 (2021) 100122

convert carbohydrates into a mixture of isomeric hydrocarbons of gen­

eral molecular formula (C5H8)n, also called terpenes [40]. Terpene
hydrocarbons are widely distributed in the biomass of many plant spe­
cies and are often found in oils, resins, and balsams [22]. They range
from relatively simple hydrocarbons to large polymeric molecules [22].
Many latex-producing plant species such as Plumeria alba, Euphorbia
nerrifolia, Calotropis procera, Mimusops elengi, Neriu mindicum have been
investigated as sources of energy. They were found with higher hydro­
carbon contents in their stem bark (1.78–3.93%) than their leaves
(0.26–1.82%) [26]. Augustus et al., [4] reported that most latex pro­
ducing plant species contain 1–14% of hydrocarbons. The stem bark of
E. tirucalli yields cycloartenol, 24-methylene cycloartenol, B-sitosterol,
alpha-taraxerol, euphor-bor, euphorbol hexacosonoate, taraxerone, as
well as diterpene esters as hydrocarbons [35,25]. Chauhan and Singh
[12], and [56,55] reported that Euphorbia tirucalli plant cells accumulate
sterols, triterpenoids, and diterpenoids hydrocarbons. Further analysis
of E. tirucalli latex showed that it contained C30 triterpenoids which on
cracking yielded high octane gasoline [2]. Terpenes are hydrocarbons
that can be used as fuels for internal combustion engines. They can be
converted by known chemistry to yield high-octane gasoline compo­
nents [15,60,31,33]. These alternative fuels have high cetane numbers,
low ash, and sulfur contents, and are miscible with gasoline and diesel
Fig. 1. A 20 cm × 20 cm stem bark (B) peeled off from E. tirucalli plant (A) in
fuels, depending on their structures and the refining process [16]. Garg
the Mbeya site.
et al., [18], Kaur et al., [29], and Nagendrappa [42] reported the pres­
ence of C15, C20, and C30 hydrocarbons from plant families such as
Asclepiadaceae, Moraceae, and Euphorbiaceae with the right qualities accelerated test used to establish the relative OS of liquid fuels, as
for energy production. The utilization of any liquid biofuel as an alter­ measured by the IT (called the oxidative stability index, OSI) for liquid
native energy source is gauged on its suitability to meet specific quality fuel to begin oxidizing under controlled temperature and airflow con­
standards [7]. The qualities of liquid fuel are influenced by several ditions [13]. The European Union (EU) established standards for a
factors such as the fatty acid composition, production process, handling, minimum induction period; requires a minimum of six (6) hours (EN
and storage [7]. For example, under certain storage conditions, liquid 14214–03) for biofuel to resist oxidation [33,31]. The EU standards
biofuels can undergo a slow uncontrollable oxidation process (autoxi­ were used to compare with the quality of E. tirucalli hydrocarbons ob­
dation) [14]. This situation may occur in hydrocarbon molecules even tained in the present study. The suitability of rapeseed, soybean, palm
under a stable storage environment[ 14]. Oxidation of liquid biofuels is tree, Jatropha, and Euphorbia as alternative energy sources have been
of major concern because it leads to the deterioration of their quality. tested in other countries such as the USA, South America, and China
According to Durrett et al. [17] quality deterioration occurs through the [16,31,33,42]. E. tirucalli has been used as a highly valued species for
formation of decomposed secondary products which polymerize to form live fences in East African countries including Tanzania [59]. Since it
insoluble sediments that may interfere with the performance of fuel grows well in arid and semi-arid areas, it has the potential to provide
systems. The same authors stated that, during the initial stages of arid zone inhabitants with a prominent source of hydrocarbons and used
oxidation, slow changes associated with the formation of a small number as a viable cash crop for liquid, or solid biofuel production. Nevertheless,
of free radicals occur in the system. After the IT, oxidation becomes there is scant information on its use as an alternative source of hydro­
rapid due to the accumulation of decompositional by-products and the carbon for energy use in Tanzania. Also, the potential to greatly expand
reaction chain branching Durrett et al. [17]. Knothe and Dunn, [32] and its use in the future exists. Therefore, it is crucial to study the hydro­
Bacha et al., [5] indicated that oxidative stability strongly correlated carbon yields and quality (OS) from E. tirucalli for exploitation as
with unsaturated hydrocarbons, the bis-allylic position equivalents alternative energy sources, since the species is widely distributed in
(BAPE), and the allylic position equivalents (APE). The authors stated various parts of Tanzania.
that an allylic site is a methylene group (CH2) adjacent to a single double
bond and a bis-allylic site is a methylene group adjacent to two double Materials and methods
bonds. Both BAPE and APE sites are important locations that are most
susceptible to the attack by oxygen to proceed the OS [32]. The sus­ Description of the study areas
ceptibility of autoxidation to take place in unsaturated hydrocarbon
depends on the availability of allylic hydrogen for reaction with peroxy The study involved three sites as Bahi (Semi-arid), Goba (Coast), and
radicals. The initiation step is the formation of a free radical that can Iyela (Tropical) sites in Dodoma, Dar es Salaam, and the Southern
react directly with oxygen to form a peroxide or hydroperoxide [63,17]. highland of Mbeya in Tanzania respectively. The reason for choosing
The most reactive position for initial radical formation is the bis-allylic these study sites is due to their different climatic conditions [57]
position, and the allylic position is much less reactive, thus autoxidation reflecting their differences in hydrocarbon yields (%) and OSI.
of unsaturated hydrocarbons proceeds at different rates depending on
the number and position of double bonds [10]. Collection of stem bark samples from E. tirucalli
Like many latex-exuding plants species, E. tirucalli possibly contains
unsaturated hydrocarbons with BAPE and APE position equivalents. Using a panga machete and bark sped, a group of 4 fresh stem bark
Thus, it is expected to have a short OSI and reduced quality. Further­ samples (20 cm × 20 cm) (Fig. 1) were systematically collected through
more, high OS assure that the liquid biofuel can be reliably used under physical bark-peeling of 7 quadruplicate 60 cm of E. tirucalli DBH,
normal conditions. Other factors that promote oxidation are the pres­ making a total of 28 sampled trees in each study area. The reason for
ence of air, light, elevated temperatures, the concentration of antioxi­ choosing E. tirucalli stem barks was because the biosynthesis of hydro­
dant and prooxidant compounds (free fatty acids), and some extraneous carbons (including phytosterols and triterpenoid) largely occurs in stem
materials such as metals [10]. The Rancimat method EN14112 is an latex producing cells (laticifers). Thus, E. tirucalli stem barks contain

2
H.Y. Nchimbi
Fig. 2. Schematic representation of the solid–liquid extraction technique for hydrocarbon extraction from the dried powdered residues of E. tirucalli.
Fig. 3. Plastic containers (A) and a round-bottomed flask (B) containing sticky
black liquid hydrocarbons extracted from the stem bark of E. tirucalli.
latex fractions high in hydrocarbons as compared to other parts such as
phylloclades and roots [56,55]. Also, the selection of 60 cm tree diam­
eter was due to its user-friendliness, and to avoid tree measurement bias
during sampling. Tree sampling was done in a 30 m × 30 m wide sys­
tematic distance between trees to ensure effectiveness in tree diameter
measurements. The collected bark samples were kept in labelled plastic
bags and transported to the Chemical and Mining Engineering (CME)
laboratory, at the University of Dar es Salaam. In the laboratory, the
fresh weight of samples was determined, and the samples were oven-
dried at 60 ◦ C to a constant weight. The oven-dried samples were mil­
led into powder with an electric blender and the sample dry weight was
determined. The powdered samples were kept in sealed plastic bags and
stored in a refrigerator (4 ◦ C) ready for extraction of hydrocarbons.
3
Energy Conversion and Management: X 12 (2021) 100122
Extraction technique and separation of hydrocarbon fractions
By using the Soxhlet extractor, a solid–liquid extraction technique
(Fig. 2) was used in the extraction of hydrocarbons from the dried
powdered residues of E. tirucalli sub-samples that remained after the
previous extraction of oil and phenolic fractions used in other experi­
ments. In this technique, four separate 20 g of the dried residue sub-
samples from each group of 4 sampled E. tirucalli stem barks collected
from each study area were extracted with 150 ml of analytical grade
cyclohexane for 8 h in a Soxhlet apparatus [26]. The cyclohexane-
soluble extractives were then freed from the solvent using a rotary
evaporator at a temperature of 80.74 ◦ C to yield the hydrocarbon ex­
tracts (Fig. 3) which were collected in previously weighed clean flasks
and left to cool down until they attain constant weight before being
weighed again. The weight of the hydrocarbon extracts was determined
by subtracting the weight of the empty flask from the weight of the flask
with hydrocarbon. The obtained hydrocarbon extracts were stored in a
refrigerator at 4 ◦ C for further use in subsequent investigations. The
average percentage yields of the obtained hydrocarbon fractions were
determined and recorded. The percentage yields of the hydrocarbons
were calculated using the formula:
Weight of the hydrocarbon extracts (g)
Hydrocarbon yields (%) = × 100%
Dry weight of the extracted sample (20g)
Determination of the hydrocarbon yields was done on a dry weight or
moisture-free basis (MFB) to avoid the dramatic variations of hydro­
carbon contents associated with fresh samples.
Determination of OSI as the quality of E. tirucalli hydrocarbon extracts
Measurements of OSI of hydrocarbons extracted from stem bark
samples of E. tirucalli were determined in 3 replicates by using the
accelerated oxidation test EN 14112 described in the EN 14214 standard
methods of the European Committee for Standardization [44,31,33].
The instrument used was a Metrohm 873 Biodiesel Rancimat [44,10]
with software control, automatically controlled airflow and temperature
H.Y. Nchimbi Energy Conversion and Management: X 12 (2021) 100122

Fig. 4. The interval plot showing higher mean hydrocarbon yields of E. tirucalli in Bahi than Iyela and Goba sites.

taken until a sudden increase in conductivity occurs. After the occur­

Table 1
rence of OSI, there was a rapid increase in the peroxide index, oxygen
E. tirucalli stem bark hydrocarbon yields (%) in different study sites.
absorption, oxidation rate, and the formation of volatile compounds.
Tree (S/N) Goba Bahi Iyela Under the EN 14214 standards, a minimum OSI used for the hydrocar­
g % g % g % bon to resist oxidation was 6 h. Therefore, the OSI of hydrocarbon
1 1.5 7.5 2.5 12.5 1.9 9.5 samples from E. tirucalli stem barks were analyzed, and the mean values
2 3 15 2.6 13 2.1 10.5 were recorded separately.
3 1.5 7.5 2.5 12.5 2.2 11
4 1 5 3 15 2.4 12 Statistical analyses
5 2.5 12.5 1.6 8 1.5 7.5
6 1.6 8 1 5 2 10
7 2.5 12.5 3 15 2.6 13 The data were subjected to statistical analyses whereby One-way
8 2 10 2.2 11 1 5 ANOVA (P < 0.05) of the Minitab software-v19 was applied to test for
9 1.6 8 2.6 13 1.5 7.5 the significance of differences in yields (%) and OSI of hydrocarbons
10 2.5 12.5 2.8 14 2 10
from E. tirucalli stem barks with similar stem DBH in different study
11 2 10 2.2 11 1.5 7.5
12 1.7 8.5 2.3 11.5 3 15
areas at the 95% Confidence Intervals (CIs). Also, the OSI of hydrocar­
13 2 10 2.6 13 2.2 11 bons was compared with the 6 h IT specified by the EN 14214 standards.
14 1.9 9.5 2.2 11 2 10 OSI graphs were produced by the Metrohm 873 Biodiesel Rancimat.
15 2.9 14.5 3 15 2.5 12.5
16 1 5 1.9 9.5 1.5 7.5
Results and discussion
17 3 15 3.5 17.5 1.9 9.5
18 1.5 7.5 3 15 1.7 8.5
19 2.5 12.5 2.7 13.5 2 10 E. tirucalli hydrocarbon yields (%)
20 1.8 9 2.5 12.5 2 10
21 2.4 12 3 15 2.2 11
The obtained E. tirucalli hydrocarbon yields (%) were in the
22 2 10 2.8 14 2.5 12.5
23 1.9 9.5 3 15 2 10
following ranges, Bahi (1.0 g – 3.5 g ~ 5% – 17.5%), Goba (1.0 g – 2.8 g
24 2 10 1.9 9.5 2.5 12.5 ~ 5% – 14%), and Iyela (1.0 g – 3.1 g ~ 5% – 15.5%) sites recorded from
25 2.5 12.5 3.5 17.5 2 10 all stem bark samples (Presented in Fig. 4 as interval plot for mean
26 2.8 14 2.2 11 3.2 16 hydrocarbon yields, and data in Table 1). The highest yields recorded in
27 2.5 12.5 3 15 2.5 12.5
the Bahi site (5% – 17.5%) corresponded to 3.8% – 17.5% obtained from
28 2.8 14 3.2 16 3.1 15.5
an energy crop Asclepias speciosa reported by Kalita [25]. However, they
are higher than 1.7%, 1.93%, 3.10%, 1.18%, 2.18%, 0.004%, and 0.08%
available at the CME Laboratory, University of Dar es salaam. As spec­ obtained from Carissa carandas and Jatropha gossypifolia, Pedilanthus
ified in the method, oxidation was induced in 5mls of each hydrocarbon tithymaloides (L.), Cacalia atriplicifolia (L), purple-flowered Calotropis
sample placed in a Rancimat reaction vial under a continuous heating procera, Nerium indicum, Jatropha multifida L. and Euphorbia neriifolia L.,
block temperature of 110 ◦ C and constant airflow of 10 L/h. These respectively [3], [26] and [27]. Nagendrappa [42] emphasized that
conditions enhanced the formation of oxidized compounds. The result­ nearly 3% up to 9% of the extracted hydrocarbons from plants can be
ing gases were channelled into a measuring cell having deionized water. suitably used as alternative sources of energy. However, plants that
The conductivity of water in the cell was monitored continuously, produce a higher than this hydrocarbon percentage range contain>25
thereby a sudden increase in the conductivity of the solution (water and carbons in their hydrocarbon chains. The larger number of carbon atoms
volatile components) was achieved. This occurred after the absorption increased their molecular weight and reduced their quality for energy
of volatile acidic compounds into the water. The OSI or the IT is the time use [42]. Also, related findings were reported by Photi [27] who found

4
H.Y. Nchimbi Energy Conversion and Management: X 12 (2021) 100122

Table 2 biosynthetic pathways that may cause the production of different

One-way ANOVA for the difference in hydrocarbon yields (%) among the study quantity/quality of secondary products (including hydrocarbons) as
sites. determinants of the chemotypes. The same author declared that some
Source DF Adj SS Adj MS F-Value P-Value endogenous factors (age and part used to include stem bark) are related
Factor 2 102.3 51.155 6.87 0.002
to the yields of secondary products in plants. Hussain et al., [24] stated
Error 81 603.1 7.445 that disparity in study sites offered different plants’ adaption responses
Total 83 705.4 in the formation of different contents of chemical products such as hy­
drocarbons. Milos et al., [38] pointed out that there is a strong rela­
tionship between climatic factors and the availability of plants’ chemical
latex hydrocarbons from Hevea brasiliensis and Euphorbia lactea with
profiles. Also, it was observed that plants’ particular climatic conditions
high molecular weights (about 2,000,000) unsuitable for use as oil
have a greater influence on the production of chemical profiles [6],
substitutes. Thus, they could be converted to obtain lighter molecular
TNAU [53]. This had been observed in Ocimum basilicum L. and Satureja
weights suitable for energy use.
douglasii Benth where the concentration of monoterpene hydrocarbons
In the present study, all the obtained hydrocarbons (%) had higher
increased under the influence of climatic conditions such as light, tem­
(>17%) than the 3% − 9% range, indicated that they had >25 carbon
perature, and precipitation[52]. Kun et al., (1984) observed that Ultra
atoms, and thus unsuitable for energy use and poor in quality. Just like
Violet Ligh (UV-light) activates secondary pathways of many plant en­
most latex-producing plant species, E. tirucalli hydrocarbons can be
zymes. Palá-Paúl et al. [46] stressed that the occurrence of biosynthetic
found as petroleum-like materials ranging from fewer carbon atoms (e.
reactions in water (aqueous medium) can increase secondary metabolic
g., triterpenes (C30H48) to larger polymers with 500,000–2,000,000
reactions and the increase in monoterpene hydrocarbons in plants. All
molecular weights depending on the growing conditions [21,37].
the above literature shows that variation in the site climatic conditions
Nagendrappa [42], Photi [27], and Shuma [51] narrated the possibility
such as precipitation (aqueous condition) and temperature (due to ac­
of using several latex plants including Euphorbia species to produce low
cess of light), possibly influenced higher E. tirucalli growth and hydro­
hydrocarbon chains (viz., C20 - C30) with lower molecular weights (e.g.,
carbon yields in Bahi than Goba and Iyela study sites (Fig. 4). These
20,000) as substitutes for petroleum. Photi [27] stated that the hydro­
results are in line with those reported by Barra [8] who studied the
carbon fractions in E. tirucalli latex (viz., resins, balsams, and camphor)
Random Amplified Polymorphic DNA (RAPD) technique to obtain ge­
contain major petroleum components that can be upgraded to form
netic answers to the chemical differences provided by the same plant
clean energy liquid fuels. Furthermore, Mali and Panchal [37] declared
species grown in different conditions. The author stated that plants with
that the stem bark of E. tirucalli yields cycloartenol, 24-methylene
similar genetic makeup grown in different geographic locations can
cycloartenol, B-sitosterol, alpha-taraxerol, euphor-bor, euphorbol hex­
acquire and utilize different resources, resulting in a wide difference in
acosonoate, taraxerone, as well as diterpene esters as additional hy­
the synthesis of secondary metabolites. Viljoen et al., [62] reported
drocarbons. As earlier reported [42], the C30 hydrocarbons exceed C25
variations in the yield and chemical profile of essential oils (complex
carbon chains, thus must be catalytically cracked to reduce their mo­
mixtures of terpenes, phenyl propane, and some hydrocarbons) from
lecular size to suit applications as energy sources. According to Gil­
Mentha longifolia (L.) populations collected from different geographical
denhuys [20,19] and Uchida et al., [56], the hydrocarbon molecules in
locations. Sources of these variations were linked to different soil tex­
the E. tirucalli have a molecular size distribution very much like that in
tures, climate, responses of different populations, and accumulation of
petroleum, so they can be refined into gasoline through cracking or
different chemical products including hydrocarbons. Celiktas et al., [11]
fermentation. This shows that despite the higher molecular weight,
and Van Vuuren et al., [61] stated that variability in yields would be
E. tirucalli hydrocarbons can produce quality liquid biofuels through the
significant on the locations and climatic factors in which the plants
reduction of their large molecular weights. Thus, it is an essential
grew. Santos-Gomes and Fernandes-Ferreira [49] reported significant
hydrocarbon-yielding plant suitable for use as an energy source in
variation in oils from stems, leaves, and flowers of Salvia officinalis L.
Tanzania.
plants harvested in Northern Portugal at two different study sites.
One-way ANOVA results, F (2, 81) = 6.87, p = 0.002 (<0.05)
Therefore, the sites’ climatic conditions (mainly temperature and pre­
generally showed that the difference in hydrocarbon yields (%) among
cipitation) significantly increased hydrocarbon yields for E. tirucalli
Bahi, Goba, and Iyela sites was significant at the 95% Confidence In­
plants grown in Bahi than Goba and Iyela study sites. Nevertheless,
terval (CI) (Table 2).
Mwine and van Damme, [40] reported that different habitat conditions
Higher hydrocarbon yields in the Bahi site than Goba and Iyela sites
such as soil, temperature, and moisture tend to influence plant physio­
(Fig. 4) is because the Bahi site features semi-arid climatic characteris­
logical processes, hence can manufacture and accumulate different
tics with the average annual minimum and maximum temperatures and
chemical substances. This shows that plant’s productivity can be
rainfalls of 17 ◦ C − 29 ◦ C, and 500–800 mm suitable for E. tirucalli
enhanced when soil nutrients and water are also provided. However,
growth [58,59,28]. Studies suggest that E. tirucalli is highly drought-
E. tirucalli seems to grow in any soil type which is not much prone to
resistant and grows fast in semi-arid areas under 21 ◦ C – 28 ◦ C mean
waterlogging and can not show any visible signs of soil nutrient de­
annual maximum and minimum temperatures and 250–500 mm rain­
ficiencies, although there will be limited biomass production [35]. The
falls respectively [35]. As a succulent and drought-resistant plant, it
plant can grow well on light-textured, neutral to acidic soils with good
utilizes the C3 and CAM photosynthetic pathways and accumulates
drainage [35]. In the present study, the site’s climatic conditions (tem­
additional water in its vacuoles and parenchyma cells as dilutes salts
perature and precipitation) other than soil factors were related to the
useful for its survival in dry conditions [59]. All the reported data
hydrocarbon yields because many works of literature support that
correspond to the precise conditions of the Bahi site, thus influenced
E. tirucalli productivity is not much linked to the soil condition in which
high hydrocarbon content. However, the Iyela and Goba sites have
it is growing. Therefore, the favourable climatic condition of the Bahi
tropical and coastal climates with 28 ◦ C and 26 ◦ C, and 2600 mm and
site greatly influences higher hydrocarbon yields than other study sites.
1000 mm mean annual maximum temperatures and rainfalls respec­
tively [48,54]. These conditions supported E. tirucalli growth albeit with
OSI (h) as a quality determinant for E. tirucalli hydrocarbon extracts
their high rainfall distributions since the plant can tolerate various
habitats of different moisture and temperature. Barra [8] hypothesized
For energy use, measurements of OSI were important for deter­
that when a plant is exposed to various exogenous factors (such as light,
mining the quality of liquid hydrocarbons. This is because OS is an
altitude, temperature, and precipitation) over an extended period, it can
important characteristic of liquid biofuel for practical energy use. The
undergo genetic modification leading to the formation of different
European biodiesel standard EN 14214 recommends that all fuels must

5
H.Y. Nchimbi Energy Conversion and Management: X 12 (2021) 100122

Table 3 The results also showed that all the OSI of hydrocarbon extracts from
OSI of hydrocarbon extracts from the stem bark of E. tirucalli in different study stem barks of E.trucalli were below the IT (6 h) specified under the EN
sites. 14,214 (6 h) standards. This means that they had low OSI and quality,
Stem diameter 60 cm and can undergo rapid oxidative degradation to form harmful unstable
Dodoma oxidation products. The Benchmarking of Biodiesel Fuel Standardization
OSI of Hydrocarbon (h) 4.17 3.50 5.83 5.71 5.57 5.61 5.79 in East Asia Working Group and Goto and Oguma [9] stated that low OS
Dar es Salaam speeds up fuel oxidation leading to the production of harmful oxidation
OSI of Hydrocarbon (h) 2.82 4.47 5.51 4.23 5.01 5.06 5.1 products and acid compounds which may compromise the fuel quality,
Mbeya
and hamper the performance of motor equipment and engines during
OSI of Hydrocarbon (h) 3.08 3.46 4.52 5.53 5.45 5.10 5.6
usage.
One-way ANOVA results, F(2, 18) = 0.73, p = 0.496 (<0.05)
meet the OSI with a minimum IT of 6 h [31,33]. Results of the present generally showed that the difference in OSI (h) among Bahi, Goba, and
study showed that the OSI of hydrocarbon extracts from E. tirucalli Iyela sites was significant at the 95% confidence limits (Table 4).
(Table 3) ranged from 3.50 h to 5.83 h in the Bahi site, 2.82 h – 5.51 h in The low-quality characteristics of E. tirucalli hydrocarbons are of
the Goba site, and 3.08 h – 5.6 h in the Iyela site (Fig. 5). These results serious concern to companies’ vehicle and equipment operators
showed that the OSI(s) in the Bahi site was slightly higher than Iyela and involved in the transportation and storage of liquid fuels. These com­
Goba sites respectively. The sample Figs. 6–8 display hydrocarbon OSI panies need assurance that liquid fuels are free from sediments and
charts while Table 3 presents hydrocarbon OSI(s) data, for Bahi, Goba, insoluble gums during storage and usage due to rapid oxidation. And­
and Iyela sites respectively. ziulis [1] emphasized that any fuel cannot be certified as the product of

Fig. 5. The difference in OSI (h) of hydrocarbon extracts among the three study sites.

Fig. 6. OSI of hydrocarbon extracts (3.50 h) in Bahi site.

6
H.Y. Nchimbi Energy Conversion and Management: X 12 (2021) 100122

Fig. 7. OSI of hydrocarbon extracts (2.82) in Goba site.

Fig. 8. OSI of hydrocarbon extracts (3.46) in Iyela site.

of metal ions which catalyze oxidation processes) or storage conditions

Table 4
(viz., temperature, access of light, possibility to absorb oxygen) of liquid
One-way ANOVA results for the difference in OSI (h) among Bahi, Goba, and
fuels. Under these conditions, liquid fuels undergo slow autoxidation
Iyela sites at the 95% confidence limits.
(uncontrolled oxidation) and lose stability, which affects their quality.
Source DF Adj SS Adj MS F-Value P-Value Therefore, the results of the present study are well compared to those of
Factor 2 1.332 0.6658 0.73 0.496 Goto and Oguma [9] who asserted that molecules of Fatty Acid Methyl
Error 18 16.446 0.9137 Esters (FAME) contain numerous double bonds, and can easily oxidize to
Total 20 17.778
form products having negative effects on vehicle fuel systems. They
further specified that peroxides (hydrogen peroxide) formed during the
long-term stability when unsaturated hydrocarbons are above the 9% – initial oxidation process, generate acids that accelerate oxidation and
12% range. The percentage range of hydrocarbons obtained in the finally reacts with deposits, sludge, and undissolved compounds accu­
current study (i.e., 5% − 17.5%) exceeded the range stated by Andziulis mulated as deposits.
[1] for suitable energy application and use as a certified product of long- Andziulis [1] in the study of the long-term OSI of gasoline on account
term stability [42]. Since OSI depends on the chain branching or degree of the method of middle-range IR spectroscopy (MIR) monitoring,
of unsaturation[34], thus the low OSI of E. tirucalli hydrocarbons ob­ specified that fuel oxidation instability and quality problems result when
tained in the present study possibly indicate that they contain a high unsaturated hydrocarbon molecules react with oxygen and begin the
degree of unsaturation which increase their impossibility to resist chain oxidation reaction. According to Odziemkowska et al., [45],
further oxidation. This agrees with Photi [27] who found contents of autoxidation occurs in hydrocarbon molecules even under stable storing
unsaturated acids and compounds containing heteroatom oxygen, ni­ conditions. They further pointed out that, during autoxidation, hydro­
trogen, and sulfur in hydrocarbon extracts of the latex plants. Thus, as a carbon molecules react with oxygen gases from the atmosphere and
latex plant species, E. tirucalli possibly contains similar unsaturated and cause the formation of unstable oxidation products such as non-volatile
heteroatom oxygen compounds which are linked with autoxidation, substances like insoluble gums, particulate matter, and sediments that
instability, and low quality. According to Czarnocka et al., [14], OSI of lower their quality. Monyem and Van Gerpen [39] stated that when low-
any liquid fuel begins with changes in the chemical composition (viz., quality liquid hydrocarbons are applied in fuel systems, the unstable
compounds containing oxygen heteroatoms, sulfur, nitrogen, and traces oxygen products can impair the performance of motor engines’ fuel

7
H.Y. Nchimbi
pumps and injectors through clogging of fuel filters or formation of
deposits Thus, the higher yields (%) and low OSI of the obtained E.tur­
ucalli hydrocarbons in this study indicates that they are not suitable for
energy application and use as a certified product of long-term stability.
Therefore, they require pre-treatment to reduce their larger molecular
weight (possibly to < 25 carbon chain) to suit long-term stability and
energy usage.
Conclusion
The study concluded that E. tirucalli stem bark had higher hydro­
carbon yields (>17%) than most laticiferous plant species, thus pre­
senting its suitable use as an alternative source of energy. The difference
in hydrocarbon yields was significant among all the study sites. How­
ever, the Bahi site (Semi-arid climate) had significantly higher yields
than Goba (Coastal climate) and Iyela (Tropical climate) sites respec­
tively. Also, the study found lower OSI(s) (h) of hydrocarbons than 6 hrs
as recommended by the EN 14214 standards in all study sites. Their
differences were statistically significant among the study sites. However,
the Bahi site had significantly higher OSI(h) than Goba and Iyela sites
respectively. High hydrocarbon yields and low OSI indicated that
E. tirucalli hydrocarbons contained several double bonds which can
easily undergo auto-oxidation, thus presenting their low-quality char­
acteristics. In addition, the higher E. tirucalli hydrocarbon yields (%) and
OSI in Bahi than Iyela and Goba sites indicated that the study plant can
have high success in terms of growth and high economic feasibility as an
important hydrocarbon-producing plant in a semi-arid than other cli­
matic conditions. Thus, E. tirucalli hydrocarbons must be processed to
reduce their higher molecular weight to increase their quality as fossil
fuels’ substitutes, and conform to liquid biofuel standards for long-term
oxidative stability and energy use. Therefore, E. tirucalli is the right plant
species for hydrocarbon production as a means of obtaining alternative
energy, particularly in less developed countries like Tanzania.
CRediT authorship contribution statement
Hamisi Yunus Nchimbi: Conceptualization, Methodology, Soft­
ware, Data curation, Writing – original draft, Visualization, Investiga­
tion, Writing – review & editing.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgements
I would like to acknowledge the support from the University of
Dodoma and the University of Dar es Salaam for providing me with
office and laboratory spaces to accomplish this research. I also appre­
ciate the support from the Head, Department of Biology, who provided
all necessary supports when needed.
Funding
This research did not receive any specific grant from any funding
agency in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.
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