Eme Ic Engine Module-3 22eme13

Elements of Mechanical Engineering (22EME13/23)
Module-3
1. Introduction to IC Engines: Components and working principles, 4-Stroke Petrol and Diesel
engines, Application of IC Engines, performance of IC engines (Simple numerical).
2. Introduction to Refrigeration and Air Conditioning: Principle of refrigeration, Refrigerants

and their desirable properties. Working principle of VCR refrigeration system, working principle of
room air conditioner & Applications of air Conditioners
Mr. Praveen D.N. Asst. Professor, Dept. of Mechanical Engineering, A.I.T., Tumakuru Page 1
Unit-1- Introduction to IC Engines

IC ENGINES
Heat engines are thermal prime movers which converts the chemical energy contained in the fuel
into heat energy by the combustion, further utilizes this heat energy to produce useful mechanical
work. Heat engines are classified as
a) Internal combustion Engine (IC Engine): are those in which combustion of fuel takes place
inside the engine cylinder. Example: Petrol engines, Diesel engines, Gas engines, etc.
b) External combustion Engine (EC Engine): are those in which combustion of fuel takes place
outside the engine cylinder. Example: Steam engines, Steam turbines.
CLASSIFICATION OF I.C. ENGINES

I.C Engines can be classified into the following types:
(i)According to the type of fuel used

a) Petrol engines - fuel used in these engines is petrol.
b) Diesel engines - fuel used is Diesel.
(ii)According to the number of strokes

a) 4-strokeengine - the working cycle is completed in four different strokes.
b) 2-strokeengine - the working cycle is completed in two different strokes.
(iii) According to the method of ignition

a) Spark ignition engine (S.I engine) - Fuel is ignited by an electric spark.
b) Compression ignition engine (C.I. engine) – Ignition takes place due to high compression.
(iv) According to the cycle of combustion

a) Otto cycle engine – Combustion of fuel takes place at constant volume.
b) Diesel cycle engine - Combustion of fuel takes place at constant pressure.
(v) According to the number of cylinders

a) Single cylinder engine – These engines consist of only one cylinder.
b) Multi-cylinder engine - It consists of 2,3,4,6 or 8 cylinders.
(vi) According to the arrangement of cylinders

a) Inline or parallel engines - Cylinders are arranged in a line.
b) Radial engines – Cylinders are arranged radially.
c) V-engines – the arrangement of two cylinders are at an angle.
d) Opposed type engine - Cylinders are arranged opposite to each other.
(vii) According to the method of cooling

a) Air cooled engines – the cooling of the engine is done by air. Example: bike
b) Water cooled engines – the cooling of the engine is done by water, here a radiator is used for
cooling purpose. Example: cars
PARTS OF IC ENGINE
The figure 3.1 illustrate major parts of an IC Engine
Fig 3.1 Parts of IC Engine
The parts of internal combustion engines are Cylinder, head, piston, piston rings (compression
rings and oil control ring), connecting rod and crankshaft.
1. Cylinder:
a) It is the main body and heart of the engine in which fuel is burnt and piston
reciprocates to develop the power.
b) It is in direct contact with the products of combustion and it must be cooled to
avoid damage. The cylinder isdesigned to with stand high gas pressure.
c) The cylinder block material is grey cast iron.
2. Cylinder Head:
a) The head is fitted on the top of the cylinder block and is provided with the inlet
valve; exhaust valve and spark plug/fuel injector.
b) There is a gasket is provided between cylinder and cylinder head in order to
prevent the leakage of high pressure gases
c) The material used for cylinder head is grey cast iron and for gasket is copper and
asbestos.
3. Piston:
a) It is a gas-tight movable cylindrical component fitted perfectly inside the cylinder. The
piston is used to compress the fuel during compression stroke.
b) It transmits the force exerted by the combustion of fuel to the connecting rod and finally to
the crankshaft.
c) Piston Reciprocates inside the cylinder due to compressed gas.
d) Piston is usually made up of cast iron (or) aluminum alloy.
4. Connecting rod:
a) The one end of the connecting rod is connected to the piston and the other end of the
connecting rod is connecting to the crankshaft.
b) It converts reciprocating motion of piston into rotary motion of crank.
c) It transmits the force from piston to crank.
5. Crank and Crankshaft:

a) The crank is a rotating element with one of its ends connected to the connecting rod while
the other end is connected to the shaft called crankshaft.
b) Crank rotates about the axis of the crankshaft and causes the connecting rod to oscillate.
c) The main function of crankshaft is to transmit the power developed by the engine to useful
work
6. Crank case:
a) Crankcase is fitted at the bottom of the cylinder block.
b) Encloses the crankshaft
c) Acts as an oil sump for lubricating oil.
7. Valves: Two types of valves i.e., inlet and exhaust valves located on the cylinder head (or) on the
side of the cylinder.
i) Inlet valve: It is provided on the cylinder head for regulating the charge coming into the
cylinder.
ii) Exhaust valve: It is provided on the cylinder head for removing exhaust gases (products of
combustion.
IC ENGINE TERMINOLOGY
1) Bore: The nominal inside diameter of the engine cylinder is known as Bore. (D)
2) Stroke: It is the linear distance, measured parallel to the axis of the cylinder, between extreme
upper and lower positions of the piston.
3) Top Dead Centre (TDC): TDC in vertical engine is the extreme position of the piston nearer to
the cylinder head.
4) Bottom Dead Centre (BDC): Extreme position of the piston towards the crank end is BDC
5) Clearance volume: the volume contained in the cylinder above the top of the piston When the
piston is at TDC is known as clearance volume and it is denoted by (Vc)
6) Swept volume: The volume swept by piston while traveling from TDC to BDC in known as
swept volume and is denoted by (Vs).
Vs = ( D2 / 4 ) L m3
7) Compression ratio: It is the ratio of total volume of cylinder (Vs+Vc) to the clearance volume
(Vc). It is denoted (r).
r = (Vs+Vc) / Vc
The compression ratio of petrol engine varies from 7:1 to

12:1 & diesel engine varies from 16:1 to 22:1
Fig 3.2 Terminology of IC Engine
FOUR-STROKE PETROL ENGINE
The four-stroke petrol engine works on the principle of Otto (constant volume) cycle. As heat addition
takes place at constant volume, this cycle is known as constant volume cycle.
The parts of four-stroke petrol engine are cylinder, piston, head, crankcase, connecting rod, crankshaft,
spark plug, and inlet and exhaust valve.
The four different strokes are

1. Suction stroke
2. Compression stroke
3. Power or Expansion stroke
4. Exhaust stroke
Since the ignition in these engines is due to the spark of a

spark plug, it is very commonly known as spark ignition
engines (S.I Engines).
Fig 3.3 Working of Four stroke Petrol Engine
1. Suction stroke
a) During suction stroke piston starts moving from TDC to BDC. ( Inlet valve opened &
Exhaust Valve Closed)
b) The volume above the piston increases, results in decrease in pressure (vacuum), this
decrease in pressure draws the petrol and air mixture (Charge) from the carburetor to the
cylinder.
c) This process is continuous till the pressure inside the cylinder becomes equal to
atmosphere. at the end of suction stroke the cylinder is completely filled with petrol and air
mixture..
d) The line AB in the PV diagram represents suction stroke
a) During this stroke, the piston moves from BDC to TDC in upward direction (Inlet valve
Closed & Exhaust Valve Closed).
b) Compression of Air Fuel Mixture takes place at this stroke.
c) This stroke is represented by a line BC on the (Pressure -Volume) P-V diagram.
d) At the end of this stroke a spark is produced by a sparkplug, resulting in the combustion of
the fuel and air & is represented by a line CD on P-V diagram.
3. Power/ Working/Expansion stroke
a) In this stroke the piston travels from TDC to BDC with both the valves remain closed.
b) The high pressure burnt gases (products of combustion) expands and forces the piston in
downward direction. This stroke is called as power stroke as the Mechanical power is
produced during this stroke.
c) It is represented by the curve DE on a P-V diagram.
d) As the piston moves further, the pressure of the hot gases gradually decreases at constant
volume as represented by the line EB in PV diagram.
4. Exhaust stroke
a) During Exhaust stroke the exhaust valve opens with inlet valve closed
b) The piston moves from BDC to TDC pushing the burnt gases to atmosphere through open
exhaust valve.
c) This stroke is represented by a line BA on the (Pressure -Volume) P-V diagram.
The exhaust valve closes after the piston reaches TDC so as to allow the fresh charge to enter the
cylinder and the cycle repeats.
FOUR-STROKE DIESEL ENGINE

The working principle of a 4-stroke Diesel engine is based on Diesel cycle (constant pressure cycle).
Hence, it is also called as constant pressure cycle engine.
Since the ignition in these engines is due to high compression of

air, it is very commonly known as Compression Ignition engines
(C.I Engines).
The four strokes that are performed are,
1. Suction stroke
3. Working stroke or Power stroke or Expansion stroke &
4. Exhaust stroke
The figure 3.4 represent working principle of 4-stroke Diesel engine with Theoretical Diesel-cycle.
Fig 3.4 Working of Four stroke Diesel Engine
1. Suction stroke
a) During suction stroke piston starts moving from TDC to BDC. ( Inlet valve opened &
Exhaust Valve Closed)
b) The volume above the piston increases, results in decrease in pressure (vacuum), this
decrease in pressure draws the air from the carburetor to the cylinder.
c) This process is continuous till the pressure inside the cylinder becomes equal to atmosphere.
d) The line AB in the PV diagram represents suction stroke.
a) During this stroke, the piston moves from BDC to TDC in upward direction (Inlet valve
Closed & Exhaust Valve Closed).
b) Compression of Air takes place at this stroke.
c) This stroke is represented by a line BC on the (Pressure -Volume) P-V diagram.
d) At the end of this stroke a metered quantity of fuel is injected through the fuel injector,
the high temperature of the air ignites the fuel as soon as it is injected. This is called
Auto-ignition or Self-ignition.
e) Combustion of fuel takes place at Constant Pressure This constant pressure expansion
with simultaneous combustion is represented by the line CD on PV diagram
3. Power/ Working/Expansion stroke

a) In this stroke the piston travels from TDC to BDC with both the valves remain closed.
b) The high pressure burnt gases (products of combustion) expands and forces the piston in
downward direction. This stroke is called as power stroke. It is represented by the curve
DE on a P-V diagram.
c) As the piston moves further, the pressure of the hot gases gradually decreases at constant
volume as represented by the line EB in PV diagram.
4. Exhaust stroke
a) During Exhaust stroke the exhaust valve opens with inlet valve closed.
b) The piston moves from BDC to TDC pushing the burnt gases to atmosphere through open
exhaust valve.
c) This stroke is represented by a line BA on the (Pressure -Volume) P-V diagram.
The exhaust valve closes after the piston reaches TDC so as to allow the fresh charge to enter the
cylinder and the cycle repeats.
Comparison between Petrol Engine & Diesel Engine
Sl SI Engines CI Engines
No (Petrol engine) (Diesel engine)
1 Ignition of the fuel by spark plug Ignition of the fuel by spraying fuel to
compressed air at high temperature
2 Works on theoretical Otto cycle Works on theoretical Diesel cycle
3 Fuel used is petrol Fuel used is diesel
4 A mixture of air and petrol is drawn Only air is drawn during suction stroke
during suction stroke
5 Combustion is at constant volume Combustion is at constant pressure
6 Low compression ratio ranging from 7:1 High compression ratio ranging from 16:1 to
to 12:1 22:1
7 Fuel cost is high Fuel cost is low
8 Power output will be less Power output will be more
Terms related to two stroke engine
1. Scavenging: The exhaust gases are removed from the cylinder with the help of fresh
compressed charge. This process of removing exhaust gases is called scavenging.
2. Deflector: In order To prevent the loss of incoming charge and helps for exhausting hot gases
piston is provided with a deflector at its top. It is mainly used in scooters and motor cycles. It is
having 3 ports.
3. Inlet Port: Through this inlet port only, Fresh charge from the carburetor is taken into the
cylinder.
4. Transfer port: Through this Transfer port only, fresh charge entering into the cylinder from
the crankcase.
5. Exhaust port: The Hot exhaust gases are pushed out from the combustion chamber.
When the piston is at TDC the exhaust and transfer ports are covered and inlet port is uncovered.
When the piston is at BDC the exhaust and transfer ports are uncovered and inlet port is covered.
One cycle is completed in 2 strokes of the piston in one revolution of the crankshaft. It has only
ports at the cylinder walls and has no valves.
TWO-STROKE PETROL ENGINE

A 2-stroke petrol engine works on the principle of Otto cycle & involves the following two strokes.
Upward stroke & downward stroke.
Fig 3.5 Working of Two stroke Petrol Engine
The following figure 3.5 represent working principle of 2-stroke Petrol engine.
1. Upward Stroke:
a) During upward stroke the piston moves from BDC to TDC & causing the compression of air
and fuel mixture.
b) Due to this upward movement of the piston, a partial vacuum is created in the crankcase &
fresh air and fuel mixture is drawn from the inlet port to the crank case
c) As the piston moves upward, the exhaust port and the transfer port are covered by the piston.
d) At the end of this upward stroke, the compressed charge is ignited in the combustion chamber
by a spark plug.
2. Downward Stroke:
a) During this stroke, as soon as the charge is ignited, the hot gases force the piston to move from
TDC to BDC
b) This linear motion of the piston is transmitted to the crankshaft through the connecting rod to
produce Mechanical power.
c) Further downward movement of the piston uncovers first the exhaust port & then the transfer
port.
d) The burnt gases escape through the exhaust port
e) The compressed charge from the crankcase flows into the cylinder through the transfer port.
Here deflectors are used, so that the fresh air and fuel should not mix up with the burnt gases as
shown in figure (d).
TWO-STROKE DIESEL ENGINE

A 2-stroke petrol engine works on the principle of Otto cycle & involves the following two strokes.
Upward stroke & downward stroke.
Fig 3.6 Working of Two stroke Diesel Engine
The following figure 3.6 represent working principle of 2-stroke Diesel engine
1. Upward stroke:
a) During upward stroke the piston moves from BDC to TDC & the crankshaft revolves by half
rotation, causing the compression of air.
b) Due to this upward movement of the piston, a partial vacuum is created in the crankcase &
fresh air is drawn from the inlet port to the crank case .As the piston moves upward, the
exhaust port and the transfer port are covered by the piston.
c) At the end of this upward stroke, a metered quantity of fuel is injected into the cylinder &
ignited by the hot compressed air.
2. Downward Stroke:
a) During this stroke, as soon as the charge is ignited, the hot gases force the piston to move from
TDC to BDC & the crankshaft revolves by half rotation.
b) This linear motion of the piston is transmitted to the crankshaft through the connecting rod to
produce Mechanical power.
c) Further downward movement of the piston uncovers first the exhaust port & then the transfer
port.
d) The burnt gases escape through the exhaust port & the compressed air from the crankcase
flows into the cylinder through the transfer port. Here deflectors are used, so that the fresh air
should not mix up with the burnt gases as shown in figure (d).
Comparison between 2-stroke & 4-stroke IC Engine
Sl Two-stroke Engines Four-stroke Engines

No
1 One cycle is completed in two strokes of the One cycle is completed in four strokes
piston of the piston
2 Power is developed during each revolution of Power is developed during every
the crank alternate revolution of crank
3 Flywheel not essential but small flywheel can Flywheel is essential
be provided for smooth operation
4 Ports are used Valves are used
5 Charge is admitted first into crank case and then Charge is admitted directly into cylinder
to cylinder
6 Construction is simple Construction is complicated
7 Exhaust gases are driven out by the piston Exhaust gases are driven out by the
during the exhaust stroke incoming fresh charge
APPLICATION OF IC ENGINES
1. Application of IC Engines in Power Generation:
a) In a diesel power station, diesel engine is used as the prime mover for the generation of
electricity. The diesel burns inside the engine and the products of this combustion act
as the working fluid to produce mechanical energy.
b) The diesel engine drives alternator which converts mechanical energy into electrical
energy.
2. Application of IC Engines in Agriculture Field: Most agricultural operations are carried out
Using I.C. Engines for tractors, harvesters, and self-propelled sprinklers.
3. Application of IC Engines in Marine: Compared to the diesel engine, the hydrogen fuelled engine
is found to be lower in thermal efficiency and fuel consumption however, some adjustments are
needed.
4. Application of IC Engine in Aircraft Propulsion: Airplanes used internal combustion engines

to turn propellers to generate thrust. Today, most general aviation or private airplanes are still
powered by propellers and internalcombustion engines, much like automobile engine.
PERFORMANCE PARAMETERS OF IC ENGINES
i) Mean effective pressure (pm):

It is defined as the average pressure is acting on the piston during the entire expansion (power
stroke) stroke.
pm = Mean effective pressure N / m2
Net area of the indicator diagram  spring cons tan t a  s

Pm = =
Length of the indictor diagram l
Pm is the hypothetical pressure acting on the piston throughout the power stroke.
s = spring constant of the spring used in the piston indicator, pa or N/ m2
l = length of the indicator diagram in m
a = area of the indicator diagram. in m2.
ii) Indicated power (IP):
The power developed within the piston –cylinder arrangement by the combustion of fuel is
known as the indicated power.
pm L AN n K
IP =  KW
60 x 1000
Where,
pm = mean effective pressure, N/ m2
L = stroke length, in m
A = area of cross-section of the piston, m2
n = number of cylinders
N = crank shaft speed, rpm.
K= 0.5-----4-S Engine, K=1-----------2-S Engine.
iii) Brake power (BP):

The Net power actually available at the crank shaft is called the brake power. It can be
measured using dynamometers. One such dynamometer is the brake-drum dynamometer.
The torque on the brake drum is given by,
T = (W - S) x R---N.m Where, W = weight on the rope, N.
S = spring balance reading, N.
R = mean radius of brake drum, m.
Brake power is given by,
2πNT
BP =  KW
60 x 1000
Π (W - S) (Db+dr) N
BP =  KW
60 x 1000
iv) Frictional power (FP):

The difference between indicated power and brake power is known as frictional power
FP = IP – BP KW
v) Mechanical efficiency:
It is defined as the ratio of brake power to indicated power
Brake power
ηmech = 
Indicated power
vi) Thermal efficiency:

It is defined as the ratio of Power developed by the engine to the Heat supplied by the fuel
The thermal efficiency can be calculated either for the indicated power, or for the brake
power. Accordingly they are referred to as indicated thermal efficiency, and brake thermal efficiency.
Heat supplied to the engine per sec = mass of fuel burnt x calorific value = mf X CV
Indicated power
η indicated thermal = 
mf x CV
Brake power
η brake thermal = 
mf x CV
Where,
mf = Mass of fuel used in kg / sec.
CV = Calorific value of fuel kJ / kg
vii) Specific fuel consumption (SFC):

It is the mass of fuel supplied per hour in order to get unit power output.
mf
SFC =  kg/kW-hr
Power
SFC can be calculated on indicated power basis or on brake power basis.
UNIT-2 Introduction to Refrigeration and Air Conditioning
Refrigeration
Refrigeration may be defined as a method of reducing the temperature of a system below

that of the surroundings & maintaining at that lower temperature by continuously
abstracting the heat from it.
The device is used to produce the refrigeration effect is known as refrigerator.

Working substance used to produce this effect is known as refrigerant.
Principle of Refrigeration
1. Heat is always transferring from body at a high temperature region to the body
at a lowtemperature region.
2. Heat transfer is possible from a lower temperature system to higher temperature
surroundings by some external means as per the 2nd law of thermodynamics.
3. The working fluid changes from vapour phase to liquid phase after heat rejection
and fromliquid phase to vapour phase after heat absorption.
4. The change of phase of the working fluid from liquid phase to vapour phase results in
coolingeffect.
Parts of a Refrigerator
The different parts of Refrigerator are
1. Evaporator 2. Compressor 3. Condenser and 4. An Expansion valve
Fig 3.7 Parts of Refrigerator
1. Evaporator:
It has cooling coils arranges in form of U – tubes. The function of the evaporator is to
reduce the temperature of the refrigerator cabinet. The low temperature two phase
mixture of refrigerant passing through the evaporator coils absorbs heat from the
cabinet and changes into vapour phase.
2. Compressor (or) Pump:
To compress and circulate the low temperature and low pressure working fluid
into high temperature and high-pressure vapor. They are power absorbing mechanical
devices and need input power. An electrical motor supplies power to these drives.
3. Condenser:
The high pressure, high temperature refrigerant entering from the compressor
rejects its heat to the surrounding atmosphere in the condenser. It consists of a series of
coils in the form of U – tubes. The latent heat of the refrigerant is given to the
surrounding atmosphere, which results in change of phase of the refrigerant. (From
Vapour to Liquid)
4. Expansion Value:
The high pressure and low temperature liquid refrigerant expands in the
expansion valve to low pressure & low temperature two-phase mixture. The
temperature of the refrigerant drops in the expansion valve due to partial evaporation.
Refrigerants: The working fluid used to of reducing the temperature of a system below that of
the surroundings & maintaining at that lower temperature by continuously abstracting the heat
from system is called as Refrigerant.
The most commonly used refrigerants are:
1. Ammonia (NH3) -In vapour absorption refrigerator.

2. Carbon dioxide (CO2)-In marine refrigerators.
3. Sulphur dioxide(S02) - In household refrigerators.
4. Methyl chloride-In small scale refrigeration and domestic refrigerators.
5. Freon-12- In domestic vapour compression refrigerators.
6. Freon-22- In Air Conditioners.
List of Commonly Used Refrigerants:

The following represent some of the commonly used refrigerant.
No. Refrigerant Properties
 It is the most widely used refrigerant in vapour absorption
system. (33.3°C).
 It is highly inflammable,
 But this refrigerant is used where its toxic nature is not
Ammonia (NH3) considered seriously. It is used in large industries for cold
1
storage, ice manufacturing plant packaging plants etc.
 It is non-toxic and non-flammable.
 Its normal boiling point is -77.6°C
Carbon dioxide (CO2)  Due to its low specific volume the plant size is compact.
2
 It is used in ships where space consideration is more
important.
 It is Colourless, suffocating and possesses irritating odour.
Sulphur dioxide (S02)  It has a high boiling point of-10°C.
3
 This refrigerant was used in house hold refrigerator in
olden days.
 It is non-flammable, non-explosive, non corrosive and
odourless.
 It has a boiling point of -29.8°C.
Freon-12
4  It is used in small capacity equipment such as
domesticrefrigerators, water coolers, air-conditioner etc.
 It has a normal boiling point of -40.8°C that is about
10°less than that of Freon-l2.
Freon-22
5  It is therefore, a comparatively high-pressure refrigerant.
 Freon-22 is employed for air-conditioners in large
capacityplants, food freezing, freeze drying etc.
Properties of a good refrigerant

1. Boiling Point: It should have very low boiling point and very low freezing point.
2. It should have high enthalpy of evaporation and low specific volume.
3. Latent Heat of Evaporation: It should have high latent heat of evaporation so that minimum
amount of refrigerant can accomplish the work.
3. Thermal Conductivity: It should have good thermal conductivity for rapid heat transfer
4. Non-Toxicity Refrigerant: A good refrigerant should be non-toxic, because any leakage of the
toxic refrigerant increases suffocation and poisons the atmosphere.
5. Non- flammable: Refrigerant should be should be non-inflammable.
6. Corrosiveness: Refrigerant should be non-corrosive to the working parts.
7. Odour: A good refrigerant must be odourless, otherwise some foodstuff such as meat, butter
etc. loses their taste.
8. Economical: Refrigerant should be economical for both in initial cost and maintenancecost.
Terms Related to Refrigeration
1. Refrigeration Effect:
It is the amount of cooling produced by a refrigeration system.
It is defined as the rate at which the heat is removed from the space (or system) to be cooled in a cycle.
It is also called 'capacity of refrigerator'. It is expressed in kW or kJ/s.
2. Ton of Refrigeration or Units of Refrigeration:

The unit of refrigeration is expressed in terms of 'ton of refrigeration'.
It is defined as the amount of heat absorbed in order to produce one ton of ice in 24 hours from water,
whose initial temperature is 0°c.
In S.I. units the value of 1Ton of refrigeration =210 kJ/min or 3.5 kW
3. Ice Making Capacity:

Ice making capacity is the ability of a refrigerating system to make ice. In other words, it is the
capacity of a refrigerating system to remove heat from water to make ice.
4. Co-efficient of Performance:
The performance of a refrigerator is measured by a factor known as Co-efficient Of
Performance (COP). It is defined as the ratio or the amount of heat removed from a given space to
the work supplied to achieve the heat removal.
Heat extracted(absorbed ) from the refrigerat or
COP 
Work sup plied to the system
or
Heat absorbed Q T2
COP   
Heat rejected  Heat absorbed W T1  T2
Where, Q = heat removed in kJ/s and W = work supplied or work done in kJ/s
5. Relative COP:
It is defined as the ratio of actual COP to the theoretical COP of a refrigerator.
Relative COP = Actual COP
Theoretical COP
Refrigeration System:
The system maintained at lower temperature is called as refrigerated system and equipment used to
produce this is called as refrigerator. There are two types of Mechanical Refrigerator systems.
They are: 1. Vapour Compression Refrigerator. 2. Vapour Absorption Refrigerator.

1. Vapour Compression Refrigerator
Fig 3.8 shows the arrangement of Vapour Compression Refrigerator, Usually Freon 12 is
used as Refrigerant. The arrangement consists of
1. Evaporator 2. Compressor 3. Condenser and 4. Expansion valve.
Fig 3.8 Vapour Compression Refrigerator
1. Evaporator: Low pressure liquid refrigerant enters in Evaporator where considerable

Amount of heat is absorbed by Liquid Refrigerant and undergoes a change of phase from
liquid to vapour. Thus the Evaporator cabinet is cooled.
2. Compressor: The Dry vapour refrigerant at low pressure is drawn into the compressor
where it is compressed to a high pressure.
3. Condensers: During condensation, high pressure refrigerant vapour enters the

condenser where the cooling medium absorbs the heat and converts the vapour into liquid at
room Temperature.
4. Expansion valve: The high-pressure liquid refrigerant at Room Temperature leaves the
condenser and passes through the Throttle valve where it is expanded to low pressure and
low Temperature.
After expansion, low pressure & Low temperature liquid refrigerant enters the evaporator
the cycle Repeats, Thus heat is continuously extracted from the system, thereby keeping the
system at the required lower temperature.
2. Vapour Absorption Refrigerator:

The VAR system differs from VCR system only in the method of compression of refrigerant .
In this system, the compression process is eliminated. Instead of that the three following
process are introduced.
1. Ammonia vapour is absorbed into water (For student reference: See point 2 )
2. This mixture is pumped into a high pressure cycle (For student reference: See point 3 )
3. This solution is heated to produce ammonia vapour. (For student reference: See point 4 )
Fig 3.8 Vapour Compression Refrigerator
The basic components of the vapor absorption refrigeration systems are as

1. Evaporator
2. Absorber
3. Circulating pump
4. Heat Exchanger
5. Heater-Separator
6. Expansion Valve
1. Low pressure liquid refrigerant enters in Evaporator where considerable Amount of heat is
absorbed by Liquid Refrigerant and undergoes a change of phase from liquid to vapour. Thus
the Evaporator cabinet is cooled.
2. The low pressure vapour refrigerant is then passed to the absorber. In the absorber, the low
pressure vapour refrigerant (NH3) is dissolved in the weak ammonia solution producing strong
ammonia solution at low pressure.
3. The strong ammonia solution at low pressure is then pumped to a heat exchanger raising its
pressure. While passing through the heat exchanger, the strong ammonia solution is warmed up
by the hot weak ammonia solution
4. This warm strong ammonia solution is heated in the heater-separator and hence High
pressure ammonia vapours are separated from water. The weak ammonia in water solution is
returned to the Heat Exchanger. & the high pressure ammonia vapour from the heater-
separator passes to a condenser.
5. During condensation, high pressure ammonia vapor enters the condenser where the
cooling medium absorbs the heat and converts the vapor into liquid at room Temperature.
6. The high pressure liquid ammonia then passes through the expansion valve where it
isexpanded to low pressure and temperature.
7. Low pressure liquid refrigerant again enters the Evaporator where it absorbs the heat from
the system and the cycle repeats.
Comparison between Vapour Compression Refrigeration system & Vapour Absorption

Refrigeration
Vapour
Sl Vapour Compression
Principle Absorption
No. Refrigeration
Refrigeration
1 Working method Refrigerant vapour is compressed Refrigerant vapour is absorbed.
2 Type of energy supplied Works solely on Mechanical energy Works solely on Heat energy
3 Mechanical work done More due the compressor used. Less due the pump used.
4 Refrigerant used Freon-12 Ammonia
More than 1000 tons of
5 Capacity 1000 tons of refrigeration. refrigeration
6 Noise More due the compressor used. Almost quiet in operation.
7 Maintenance High due the compressor. Less.
8 Operating cost More Less
9 Leakage of Refrigerant Is a major problem Almost no Leakage problem.
Relatively higher but reduces at Relatively lower but increases at
10 COP
part loads. part or full loads.
Applications of Refrigerator
I– Domestic Applications of Refrigeration:
1. Storage of Raw Fruits and Vegetables.

2. Storage of fish, Meat and poultry Application of refrigeration in
3. Storage of Dairy Products Food processing, preservation &
4. Storage of Beverages Distribution
II– Industrial Applications of Refrigeration: (Chemical & Process Industries)
1. Separation of gases: In petrochemical plant, 10,000 Tons of Refrigeration (TR) is Used

for separation of gases by fractional distillation.
2. Condensation of Gases: Some gases that are produced synthetically, condensed to
liquid state by cooling, so that these can be easily stored & transported in liquid state.
3. Storage as liquid: Liquid occupies less space than gases Hence Most of the refrigerants are
stored in liquid In order to convert gas to liquid condensation is necessary.
III– Special Applications
1. Cold Treatment of Metals: The dimensions of precision parts and gauge blocks can be
stabilized by soaking the product at temperature around – 900 C. Thus, hardness and wear
resistance can be increased.
2. Medical: Blood plasma and antibiotics are manufactured by freeze-drying process where
water is made to sublime at low pressure and low temperature. This does not affect the tissues
of blood.
3. Ice Manufacture: This was the classical application of refrigeration. Ice was manufactured
in plants by dipping water containers in chilled brine. (This takes 36 hours).
Air Conditioning:
Air conditioning is the process of controlling and maintaining the moisture
content (Humidity) and temperature of air as per prescribed limits.
Principle of Air conditioning:

An Air conditioner is a machine which continuously draws the air from an indoor space (to be
cooled) & cools it by refrigeration principles & discharge back into the same indoor space.
Such continuous draw and re-circulation of cooled air keeps the indoor space at the required
low temperature.
Air conditioning is broadly divided into two categories – comfort air conditioning and
industrial air conditioning.
1. Comfort air conditioning: Comfort air conditioning is the controlling of humidity

and temperature of air to give maximum comfort to the human beings.
 In Residential buildings - single house and apartments.
 Institutional buildings - offices, large complex buildings etc.
 Commercial buildings - shopping centers, malls etc.
 Transportation - in aircrafts, automobiles, ships etc.
2. Industrial air conditioning: Industrial air conditioning is required in controlling the

humidity and temperature in processing and manufacturing industries.
 Hospitals - in operation theatres (to reduce infection risk)
 Clean rooms - for production of integrated circuits,
 Pharmaceuticals – To control of temperature and humidity are required.
 Nuclear facilities
 Food cooking and processing areas
 Data processing centers etc.
Room air conditioner: The Air conditioning system consist of
1. An air filter
2. Evaporator & Evaporator Fan
3. Compressor
4. Condenser & Condenser fan
5. A double shaft motor that drives a both fans
6. The Room side & Outdoor side of unit is Separated by Wall.
1. The blower sucks the warm air from the room through the air filter; the air filter cleans the
warm air & delivers it to Evaporator.
2. The air from the room passing over the evaporator coils is cooled by the Liquid
refrigerant, which consequently evaporates by absorbing the heat from the air & converts to
low pressure dry vapour refrigerant.
3. After absorbing the heat from air, the air Becomes cool which is circulated back to Inside
for maintain the low temperature.
Fig 3.9 Room Air conditioner
4. Low pressure dry vapour refrigerant from the evaporator is drawn by the suction of
the compressor, which compresses it to high-pressure-temperature refrigerant.
5. The high-pressure-temperature refrigerant vapour now flows through the condenser coils.
6. The condenser fan draws the atmospheric air from the exposed side-portions of the air
conditioner which is projecting outside the building into the space behind it & discharges to
pass through the centre section of the condenser unit over the condenser coils.
7. The high-pressure-temperature refrigerant passing inside the condenser coils condenses by

giving off the heat to the atmospheric air.
8. The cooled high pressure refrigerant from the condenser passes through the capillary tube,
where it undergoes expansion & is again re-circulated to Evaporator & repeat the cycle
continuously.
Application of Air-Conditioning
Air conditioning applications can be divided into two categories, namely industrial and
comfort Air-conditioning.
I - Comfort Air-conditioning:
1. Residential Buildings - Air-conditioning system used in house, apartments for a human

being Comforts.
2. Institutional buildings - Offices, large complex buildings etc. uses Air-conditioning

system for workers comfort.
3. Commercial buildings - Air-conditioning system used as the commercial purpose for a

human being. Example, in Theatres, Departmental store-room etc.
4. Transportation - Many of transport vehicles use air-conditioning systems such as cars,

trains, aircraft, ships etc. This provides a comfortable condition for the passengers.
II- Industrial Air-conditioning:
1. Laboratories: Laboratories carrying out research in electronics and biotechnology areas

require very clean atmosphere.
2. Printing: This requires control over temperature as well humidity. Improper humidity may
cause static electricity, curling and buckling of paper.
3. Textile industries: Air conditioning plants are installed to maintain correct ambient
condition for spinning and weaving process to work smoothly.
4. Pharmaceutical industries: Drug and medicine production are stored in very controlled
conditions, usually at low temperatures. For these reasons, the Pharmaceutical industry must
rely on highly sophisticated Air conditioning systems.
5. Data Centres: Data centres store groups of servers used to process and distribute data. The
servers naturally produce heat during operation; unfortunately, this can adversely affect the
functioning of the servers. To prevent this problem, powerful air-cooling systems are usually
placed in these data centres.
Questions
INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINE
1. How I.C. Engines are are classified?

2. Explain with a neat sketch, the working of a single cylinder four stroke petrol engine.
3. Explain the working of a two-stroke petrol engine.
4. With the help of a PV diagram explain the working of a four-stroke diesel engine.
5. Draw a neat sketch of a two-stroke Diesel engine and describe the working principle.
6. Distinguish between two-stroke and four strokes I.C. engines.
7. Distinguish between spark ignition and compression ignition.
8. Briefly explain the functions of parts of I.C. Engines.
9. Write a Note on I.C. Engine Terminology.
10. Explain: Scavenging & Deflector.
REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING
1. Explain the basic concepts of refrigeration.

2. Show the main parts of a refrigerator using a simple sketch and explain their functions.
3. Define refrigeration effect, unit of Refrigeration, Ice making capacity, COP & Relative COP
4. Sketch ,name the important parts of a vapour compression refrigerator & Explain its working
5. Describe with a neat sketch the working of a vapour absorption refrigerator.
6. List difference in the working of vapour compression and vapour absorption refrigerators?
7. Name the refrigerants that are commonly used.
8. What are the properties of a good refrigerant? Explain.
9. Explain the principle of air conditioning.
10. List and explain the industrial application of Air conditioning & Refrigerator.
NUMERICALS ON I.C. ENGINES

Eme Ic Engine Module-3 22eme13

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Elements of Mechanical Engineering (22EME13/23)

2. Introduction to Refrigeration and Air Conditioning: Principle of refrigeration, Refrigerants

Unit-1- Introduction to IC Engines

CLASSIFICATION OF I.C. ENGINES

(i)According to the type of fuel used

(ii)According to the number of strokes

(iii) According to the method of ignition

(iv) According to the cycle of combustion

(v) According to the number of cylinders

(vi) According to the arrangement of cylinders

(vii) According to the method of cooling

The figure 3.1 illustrate major parts of an IC Engine

Fig 3.1 Parts of IC Engine

5. Crank and Crankshaft:

The compression ratio of petrol engine varies from 7:1 to

Fig 3.2 Terminology of IC Engine

FOUR-STROKE PETROL ENGINE

The four different strokes are

Since the ignition in these engines is due to the spark of a

Fig 3.3 Working of Four stroke Petrol Engine

FOUR-STROKE DIESEL ENGINE

Since the ignition in these engines is due to high compression of

Fig 3.4 Working of Four stroke Diesel Engine

3. Power/ Working/Expansion stroke

Comparison between Petrol Engine & Diesel Engine

Terms related to two stroke engine

TWO-STROKE PETROL ENGINE

Fig 3.5 Working of Two stroke Petrol Engine

TWO-STROKE DIESEL ENGINE

Fig 3.6 Working of Two stroke Diesel Engine

Comparison between 2-stroke & 4-stroke IC Engine

Sl Two-stroke Engines Four-stroke Engines

4. Application of IC Engine in Aircraft Propulsion: Airplanes used internal combustion engines

PERFORMANCE PARAMETERS OF IC ENGINES

i) Mean effective pressure (pm):

Net area of the indicator diagram  spring cons tan t a  s

iii) Brake power (BP):

iv) Frictional power (FP):

vi) Thermal efficiency:

vii) Specific fuel consumption (SFC):

UNIT-2 Introduction to Refrigeration and Air Conditioning

Refrigeration may be defined as a method of reducing the temperature of a system below

The device is used to produce the refrigeration effect is known as refrigerator.

Fig 3.7 Parts of Refrigerator

1. Ammonia (NH3) -In vapour absorption refrigerator.

List of Commonly Used Refrigerants:

Properties of a good refrigerant

Terms Related to Refrigeration

2. Ton of Refrigeration or Units of Refrigeration:

3. Ice Making Capacity:

They are: 1. Vapour Compression Refrigerator. 2. Vapour Absorption Refrigerator.

1. Evaporator 2. Compressor 3. Condenser and 4. Expansion valve.

Fig 3.8 Vapour Compression Refrigerator

1. Evaporator: Low pressure liquid refrigerant enters in Evaporator where considerable

3. Condensers: During condensation, high pressure refrigerant vapour enters the

2. Vapour Absorption Refrigerator:

Fig 3.8 Vapour Compression Refrigerator

The basic components of the vapor absorption refrigeration systems are as

Comparison between Vapour Compression Refrigeration system & Vapour Absorption

1. Storage of Raw Fruits and Vegetables.

II– Industrial Applications of Refrigeration: (Chemical & Process Industries)

1. Separation of gases: In petrochemical plant, 10,000 Tons of Refrigeration (TR) is Used