Lab Rep 4

UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES – VISAYAS TACLOBAN COLLEGE
Division of Natural Sciences and Mathematics
Name: Reign Ceasa D. Rosada 2022-03885

BS - BIOLOGY BOT 111.1 JK
Exercise #4
THE STEM
Introduction
In botany, a stem is the primary above-ground structural axis supporting vascular plants' leaves,
flowers, and fruits. Moreover, it delivers water, minerals, and nutrients from the roots to the rest of the
plant. The stem normally consists of three major tissues: the epidermis, the ground tissue, and the
vascular tissue containing the xylem and phloem in the middle.
Stems vary in size and shape based on the plant species and its environment of growth. Some
plants, for instance, have a single, unbranched stem, whereas others have numerous stems that sprout
from a single base. The stem may be upright, trailing, or climbing and may be coated with hairs, thorns,
or other support or defense structures.
They provide support for leaves, flowers and fruit and transport water, gases, nutrients and
carbohydrates between leaves and roots. Stems possess a variety of defensive properties that aid in
protecting a plant from infection and from being consumed by insects, birds, and animals. They can also
serve as crucial photosynthesis sites for numerous plant species. Stems play an important part in plants'
success by increasing a plant's height, hence increasing its exposure to sunlight. The stem is essential to
plant growth and development because it enables the plant to reach for the light, acquire nutrients and
water, and reproduce by producing flowers and fruits.

Objectives
The objective of this activity is for students to recognize the different types of stems and stem
modification, identify and describe the parts of the stem and differentiate between monocots and dicots
in terms of stem structure.
Materials
The materials used in this exercise were; Homalocladium platycladum (Tapeworm Plant),
Brassica oleracea (cabbage), Zingiber officinale (ginger), Cucurbita maxima (kalabasa), Sechium edule
(sayote), Solanum tuberosum (patatas), Cynodon dactylon (Bermuda grass), Citrus sp., Psidium guajava
(guava), Ophiopogon jaburan (Jaburan Lilyturf), Colocasia esculenta (gabi), Eichornia crasippes (water
hyacinth), Opuntia sp. (prickly pear cactus), Bougainvillea spectabilis (Bougainvillea), Sanseviera sp.
(snake plant), Allium cepa (sibuyas), Cordyline fruticosa (tungkod pari), Zea mays (corn), Bambusa sp.
(bamboo), Coleus blumei (mayana), Chlorophytum comosum (spider plant), Ficus sp. (fig tree),
Euphorbia tirucalli (pencil tree), Prepared slide of a young dicot stem in c.s., Zea mays stem in c.s. and
A. cepa stem tip in l.s., and a Microscope.
Procedure
Part A. Morphology of the Stem
In order for the students to learn about the structure of stems, the following types of stems were
observed in the lab: underground or subterranean stems (e.g., bulbs, corms, rhizomes, and stem tubers);
aerial stems, which can be categorized by texture (e.g., herbaceous, suffrutescent, woody, or
arborescent), growth direction or habit (e.g., erect, ascending or assurgent, decumbent, prostate or
procumbent, creeping or repent, climbing, twinning, lianas), and other types and modifications in stems
(e.g., boles, caudex, culm, stolons or runners, scape, cladophyll, prickle, stem tendril, spines, thorns).
Sketches of the different specimens were created to familiarize oneself with the various stem
types presented by the plant specimens included in this laboratory evaluation. A tabulation of data
regarding the stem modifications of the plant specimens and their specialized function was outlined.
After identifying the various types of stems displayed by the specimens, plant characteristics were
further identified. Buds, which are undeveloped leaves or flowers, come in various forms, including
dormant, flower, leaf, mixed, accessory, hairy, resinous, scaly, and naked buds. Phyllotaxy, which refers
to the pattern or arrangement of the leaves along the stem, has also been identified as a unique
characteristic of stems. Under it are three fundamental types: alternating, opposite, and whorled or
verticillate. Other types of phyllotaxy are the decussate, distichous, fasciculate or fascicled, and second.
The exercise also involved examining a monocot and a dicot stem. The nodes, internodes, leaf
scars, lenticels, buds, and leaf sheath were located, recognized, and subsequently represented with their
respective labels and sections. Also, the various types of present buds have been analyzed.
Part B. Anatomy of the Stem
i. Herbaceous dicot
A prepared slide of the cross-section of a young dicot stem with distinct bundles
was observed. The outermost cells, the epidermis, cortex, vascular bundles, pith, and pith
rays were observed. The primary xylem and phloem were differentiated on the bundle's
inner and outer surfaces. The fiber cap linked with the phloem was observed. The
observations were then sketched and appropriately labeled.
ii. Monocot Stem
A corn (Zea mays) stem prepared on a slide was observed. The bundle sheath,
primary phloem, companion cells, sieve-tube members, xylem, vessel members, xylem
parenchyma, ground tissue, and air space were identified. The observations were then
illustrated with their respective labels.
iii. Coleus shoot tip
Under the various magnifications of the microscope, the longitudinal section of
the stem tip of Allium cepa (onion) was observed. The apical meristem, protoderm,
ground meristem, procambium primary tissues, leaf primordia, bud primordia, vascular
strand, and leaf trace have been observed. Each observation was labeled and
an illustration was provided.
Data and Results
Morphology of the Stem
Types of stems
a) Underground
An underground stem is any form of stem that grows beneath the soil or substrate's surface.
These stems have evolved as a means of storage and reproduction, helping plants endure unfavorable
situations like drought, fire, and frost. They are often adapted to store nutrients, water, or
carbohydrates, and the structures along their length produce new shoots and roots. Numerous forms
of underground stems, including rhizomes, bulbs, corms, and tubers, are found in both herbaceous
and woody plant species.
Allium Cepa (onion)
Figure 1. Allium Cepa ©H. Zell Figure 2.1 Allium Cepa sketch
/plants.cs. / ncsu.edu/
Onion, also known as Allium cepa, has a modified subterranean stem known as a bulb. The bulb
is formed of scales and modified storage leaves that store food and water for the plant. The bulb's base
creates roots, while the top produces a shoot, which eventually develops into a stalk and a flower. The
onion bulb is typically used for vegetative propagation because it contains a latent bud that can
develop into a new plant under ideal conditions. The stem that develops above the soil from the onion
bulb is slender and elongated and is commonly referred to as a stalk or stem; it supports the onion
plant's leaves and flowers.
Zingiber officinale (ginger)
Figure 2. Zingiber officinale Figure 2.1 Zingiber officinal

©Snehal ata/Shutterstock.com sketch
Zingiber officinale is an example of a rhizome, it is typically used for cooking and medicinal
purposes. The stem is the underground horizontal part of the plant that sends up shoots and roots from
nodes along its length. The ginger stem is usually beige or yellowish-brown in color and covered with a
thin, papery skin. The flesh of the stem is fibrous and juicy, with a pungent, spicy flavor that is
commonly used to add flavor to a wide range of dishes, including stir-fries, curries, and soups.
Solanum Tuberosum
Figure 3.1 Solanum Tuberosum Figure 3.2 Solanum Tuberosum

© https: //www.webindia123.com/ sketch
The underground stem of the potato plant Solanum Tuberosum is cultivated widely for its edible
tubers. The stem of the potato plant is an essential component that helps develop the plant's leaves,
flowers, and tubers. Potato tubers have enlarged ends of underground lateral stems or a rootstock's
thickened part. The stem of a potato plant is typically green in color and is covered with small, pointy
leaves.
Colocasia esculent
Figure 4.1 Colocasia esculent Figure 4.2 Colocasia esculent

©Brad Lewis/agstockusa/sciencelibrary sketch
Colocasia esculenta, known as taro, is a tropical plant farmed for its edible corms (underground
stems) and leaves. They have vertical, thick stems that have thin, papery leaves and the typical root-like
structure underneath which lies the corm itself
a) Aerial
Homalocladium platycladum
Figure 5.1 Homalocladium platycladum Figure 5. Homalocladium platycladum

sketch
The stems of Homalocladium platycladum, commonly known as tapeworm plant, are

herbaceous. Herbaceous stems do not have the characteristics of woody stems; they lack bark and
secondary growth. The stems of Homalocladium platycladum are long, flat, and ribbon-like; they
originate from the plant's underground roots. The plant stems are slick, glossy, slightly waxy in texture,
and green in color. They are also leafless, which contributes to the plant's unusual appearance. Growing
stems can reach lengths of several feet and frequently coil and twist around the plant's support system.
Cucurbita maxima
Figure 6.1 Cucurbita maxima Figure 6.2 Cucurbita maxima

©Studio Barcelona/depositphotos sketch
The stem of Cucurbita maxima, commonly known as winter squash, is herbaceous while young
and develops slightly woody with age. The stem of Cucurbita maxima is normally green, meaty, and
cylindrical, with a slightly ridged surface. As the plant ages, the stem may become stiffer and more
rigid, but it still lacks the full bark and secondary development of a genuine woody stem. The Cucurbita
maxima stem is an essential component of the plant's structure, bearing the weight of the plant's leaves,
tendrils, and fruits. The stem can reach lengths of several feet and is often covered with tiny, stiff hairs.
The plant's leaves and tendrils originate from the stem, and the fruits also form on the stem.
Sechium edule
Figure 7.1 Sechium edule Figure 7.2 Sechium edule

©G.Renu/IndianBiodiversity.rg sketch
The stem of Sechium edule, also known as chayote, is herbaceous. Chayote has a tall, slender,
and slightly ribbed stem. The stem is normally green in color, and it is coated with fine, silky hairs. The
plant's leaves and tendrils also develop from the stem, which can grow to be many feet long. In the case
of Sechium edule, the stem supports the weight of the plant's fruits, which are pear-shaped and have
smooth, pale green skin.
Cynodon dactylon
Figure 8.1 Cynodon dactylon Figure 8.2 Cynodon dactylon

© JH van Steenis/observation.org sketch
The stem of Cynodon dactylon, sometimes known as Bermuda grass or Durva grass, has a
herbaceous stem. It is thin and wiry that grows horizontally along the ground, forming roots at regular
intervals throughout its length. This allows the plant to create dense mats or lawns.
Citrus sp.
Figure 9.1 Citrus sp Figure 9.2 Citrus sp sketch

© Dinesh Valke/commons wikepedia
Citrus plants have woody stems ranging from small shrubs to big trees. The stem of a Citrus
plant is typically brown or grayish-brown in color and is covered in a rough, textured bark. The bark of
an older tree or shrub may become thicker and more deeply furrowed. The stem develops branches and
leaves that grow alternately throughout the length of the stem.
Psidum guajava
Figure 10.1 Psidum guajava Figure 10.1 Psidum guajava

©Luz Melgajero sketch
The guava fruit, Psidium guajava, has a woody stem. In cultivation, the guava tree normally
attains a maximum height of approximately 10 meters (33 feet) along its stem. The stem is brown or
grayish-brown in hue, and its bark may peel off in little pieces. The stem of the guava tree normally
produces thin and rather fragile branches.
Euphorbia tirucalli
Figure 11.1 Euphorbia tirucalli Figure 11.2Euphorbia tirucalli

©exotenherz.com sketch
The stem of Euphorbia tirucalli, often known as the pencil tree or milk bush, is succulent. The
stem of Euphorbia tirucalli is thick, meaty, and bluish-gray with a smooth exterior. The stem can grow
several meters (10 feet) tall, although it is typically much shorter in cultivation.
Eichornia crasippes
Figure 12.1 Eichornia crasippes Figure 12.2 Eichornia crasippes

© Wikipedia.org sketch
The stem of water hyacinth, also known as Eichhornia crassipes, can be characterized as a
prostate. A water hyacinth is an aquatic plant with a soft, sponge-like stem that floats on the water's
surface. The stem of a water hyacinth is flexible and can bend in response to changes in the flow or
depth of the water, but it grows horizontally over the water's surface, forming a mat-like structure. Its
growth pattern is classified as "prostrate," meaning the plant lies flat along the water's surface rather
than standing upright.
Opuntia sp.
Figure 13.1 Opuntia sp. Figure 13.2 Opuntia sp. sketch

©britanica.com
Opuntia species have a unique stem shape in that they frequently feature leaves-like, flattened,
photosynthetic stems known as phylloclades or cladodes. These structures have evolved to adapt to arid
settings, in which decreasing surface area lowers transpirational water loss.
Bougainvillea spectabilis
Figure 14.1 Bougainvillea ` Figure 14.2 Bougainvillea

spectabilis ©Klaus Rudlof spectabilis sketch
The stem of Bougainvillea spectabilis is woody and can reach a maximum length of 30 feet in
the wild; however, in cultivation it is typically cut to a more manageable size. The Bougainvillea
spectabilis stem is normally green when young and turns brown as it ages; it is coated with stinging
thorns. The plant develops long, trailing branches that can be coaxed to grow up a trellis or along a wall,
and its small, inconspicuous flowers are surrounded by colorful bracts.
Cordyline fruticose
Figure 15.1 Cordyline fruticosa Figure 15.2 Cordyline fruticosa

©bambooland.com sketch
The upright, woody stem branches from the base to generate a circular leaf canopy. The stem is
coated in leaf scars and may be slightly ridged or furrowed. Even in windy conditions, the woody stem
of Cordyline fruticosa supports the plant and keeps its upright growth pattern.
Zea mays
Figure 16.1 Zea mays Figure 16.2 Zea mays sketch

©plantingman.com
The stem of Zea mays is considered an herbaceous structure. Even while the bottom portion of
the stem may become slightly woody as the plant ages, it is often not considered woody like a tree or
shrub. Herbaceous plants have soft and flexible stems, lacking the bark and woody tissue that
characterize woody plants.
Chlorophytum comosum
Figure 17.1 Chlorophytum Figure 17.2 Chlorophytum

Comosum ©buyforgarden.com Comosum sketch
Chlorophytum comosum has a thin, flexible, herbaceous stem. It produces long, slender leaves
that can reach a maximum length of 45 cm. In addition to being herbaceous, the leaves lack any woody
substance. It is a typical indoor plant valued for its attractive foliage, low maintenance, and air filter
capability.
Coleus blumei
Figure 18.1 Coleus blumei Figure 18.2 Coleus blumei

©Tamer/iStock sketch
Coleus blumei is a herbaceous plant with soft, non-woody stems that normally die at the
conclusion of the growing season. The aerial portions of a plant include the stems, leaves, and flowers
that are located above the ground. Cuttings of Coleus blumei stems are relatively simple to propagate.
Ficus sp.
Figure 19.1 Ficus sp. Figure 19.2 Ficus sp. sketch

©NParksFauna&Flora
Ficus sp. is a diverse group of plants commonly referred to as figs, can either have herbaceous or
woody stems depending on the specific species. Certain species of Ficus have soft and green herbaceous
stems, which lack woody tissue and tend to grow trailing or creeping, with their stems reaching several
meters in length. Examples of Ficus species with herbaceous stems include the climbing fig (Ficus
aspera) and the creeping fig (Ficus pumila).
Brassica oleracea
Figure 20.1 Brassica oleracea Figure 20.2 Brassica oleracea

©alamy sketch
The stem of cabbage is herbaceous, meaning it is soft and non-woody, and its characteristic color
is pale green or white. The cabbage stem is also edible, although it is generally fibrous and difficult. In
some cultivars of Brassica oleracea, including some types of cabbage, the stems are transformed into
cladophylls, which resemble flattened leaves. Cladophylls are primarily utilized in photosynthesis and
help plants preserve water in arid environments.
Sanseviera sp.
Figure 21.1 Sanseviera sp. Figure 21.2 Sanseviera sp.

©NParksFauna&Flora sketch
Snake plants, or Sansevieria sp., usually have short, thick underground rhizomes that serve as
their main storage organs and support the plant. The rhizomes grow fleshy, juicy leaves, where
photosynthesis happens. They are usually very short, and they are often not visible above the soil. The
leaves grow directly from the rhizome and form dense rosettes. The size and shape of the rosettes can
vary depending on the species or cultivar.
Bambusa sp.
Figure 22.1 Bambusa sp. Figure 22.2 Bambusa sp. sketch

©Guadua Bamboo
Bamboo or Bambusa sp., has a special root system called a rhizome that is important for its
growth and reproduction. Bamboo rhizomes are horizontal stems that grow underground and send out
new shoots and culms. Bamboo rhizomes can grow very long, sometimes up to several meters, and new
shoots can grow from any point along their length. This allows bamboo to grow in large groups and
quickly spread to new areas. The rhizomes of bamboo not only help the plant grow and reproduce, but
they also store nutrients, which help the plant survive and grow back after drought or other stress.
Ophiopogon jaburan
Figure 23.1 Ophiopogon jaburan Figure 23.2 Ophiopogon jaburan sketch

The stem of Ophiopogon jaburan, sometimes known as mondo grass, consists primarily of
underground rhizomes. The rhizome is a horizontal stem that develops roots and branches that grow
close beneath the soil's surface. Ophiopogon jaburan has slender, upright shoots that normally reach a
height of 20 to 30 cm. The leaves are thin and elongated, and they emerge from the base of the stem in
dense clusters. While most of the plant is buried below ground, the stem is not particularly noticeable
above the dirt.
Other information for the sample’s type of stem and modifications are found in table 1.
Table 1. Variation in stems
SPECIALIZED
KIND OF STEMS AND
SCIENTIFIC NAME FUNCTION
MODIFICATION
Homalocladium platycladum aerial, herbaceous, cladophyll
conduct, water storage,
photosynthesis
Brassica oleracea- aerial, herbaceous,cladophyll
food storage
Zingiber officinale underground (subterranean),
food storage and
propagation
rhizome
Cucurbita maxima aerial, herbaceous, tendrils
climbing
Sechium edule aerial, herbaceous, tendrils
climbing
Solanum tuberosum underground (subterranean),
food storage
stem tubers
Cynodon dactylon subaerial, prostate, runner support and reproduction
Citrus sp. aerial, thorns protection
Psidium guajava- aerial, suffrutescent,prickle protection
Ophiopogon jaburan underground (subterranean),
production of new shoots
rhizome
Colocasia esculenta underground (subterranean),
storage
corm
Eichornia crasippes- subaerial, offset storage
Opuntia sp. aerial, phylloclade photosynthesis
Bougainvillea spectabilis aerial, thorns protection
Sanseviera sp. underground (subterranean),
production of new shoots
rhizome
Allium cepa underground (subterranean),
storage
bulb
Cordyline fruticose- aerial, suffrutescent structure
Zea mays aerial, herbaceous structure
Bambusa sp.- underground (subterranean),
storage
rhizome, culm
Coleus blumei aerial, herbaceous,erect structure
Chlorophytum comosum aerial, herbaceous structure
Ficus sp. aerial, woody protection
Euphorbia tirucalli aerial, herbaceous,cladophyll support
Phyllotaxy is the arrangement of leaves on the stem of a plant. Phyllotaxy can vary greatly
amongst plant species and significantly affect plant growth and development. There are various
phyllotaxy types, including alternate, opposite, and whorled.
The arrangement of leaves on a plant's stem can significantly affect parameters such as light
absorption, nutrition intake, and water loss. For instance, leaves placed in a spiral design can minimize
shade between leaves and enhance exposure to sunshine, but leaves positioned horizontally can limit
water loss via transpiration. Phyllotaxy can be used to identify plant species as a diagnostic trait.
Botanists may often determine a plant's family, genus, or even species based on the arrangement of its
leaves on its stem. Below are the types of phyllotaxy for each plant sample:
SPECIMEN TYPE OF PHYLLOTAXY
Homalocladium platycladum alternate
Brassica oleracea opposite
Zingiber officinale alternate
Cucurbita maxima alternate
Sechium edule whorled
Solanum tuberosum alternate
Cynodon dactylon alternate
Citrus sp. alternate
Psidium guajava opposite
Ophiopogon jaburan whorled
Colocasia esculenta alternate
Eichornia crasippes whorled
Opuntia sp. distichous
Bougainvillea spectabilis alternate
Sanseviera sp. rosette
Allium cepa basal
Cordyline fruticosa spiral
Zea mays alternate
Bambusa sp. alternate
Coleus blumei alternate
Chlorophytum comosum spiral
Ficus sp. alternate
Euphorbia tirucalli alternate
Table 2. Types of phyllotaxy

Examining a monocot and Dicot Stem
DICOT MONOCOT
Terminal
bud
node
Axillary leaf
lenticels
bud
Leaf scars
Leaf sheath
In some plants, a stipule is a tiny, leaf-like structure found at the base of the leaf. Stipules are
commonly found in pairs, one on each side of the leaf's base. They are often small and may be green or
color corresponding to the petiole or stem. An axillary bud, on the other hand, develops in the axil or
angle between a stem and a leaf or branch. Axillary buds, unlike stipules, have the potential to grow into
a new branch or stem. The placement of the stipule and axillary bud on the stem can be used to
distinguish between the two. Stipules are situated at the base of the leaf, whereas axillary buds are
positioned at the angle between the leaf and stem. In addition, stipules are typically smaller and leaf-
like, whereas axillary buds resemble little, spherical lumps.
Anatomy of the Stem
a) Aristolochia Young dicot stem in c.s.

Aristolochia is a genus of dicot flowering plants, and the cross-section (c.s.) of a young Aristolochia
plant's stem usually shows multiple layers.The stem's outermost layer is the epidermis, a thin layer of
cells that protects and covers the plant. The cortex consists of multiple parenchyma cell layers and is
underneath the epidermis. These cells function as nutrient
storage and aid in transporting water and minerals throughout
the plant. The vascular tissue, composed of the xylem and
phloem, is in the
middle of the stem. The xylem transports water and minerals
from the roots to the leaves,
whereas the phloem transfers sugars and other nutrients
throughout the plant. Moreover, the Aristolochia stem
contains cambium, a layer of actively dividing cells that give
rise to new xylem and phloem cells. The pith is in the middle
Figure 23.1 Aristolochia Young dicot
stem c.s. under 4x magnification of the stem and comprises big, thin-walled parenchyma cells
that serve as water and nutrient storage areas.
Parts of Aristolochia Young dicot stem in c.s.
cambium
Xylem
phloem
pith
cortex
Epidermis
b) Monocot stem Zea Mays Figure 23.2 Aristolochia Young dicot
stem c.s. sketch
The stem of Zea Mays, or corn, possesses distinct characteristics that differentiate it from the dicot
stems of other plants. Unlike dicot stems arranged in a ring, the stem of monocot Zea mays contains
vascular bundles dispersed throughout it. These bundles are
comprised of xylem and phloem tissues, which enable the
transport of water, nutrients, and sugars throughout the plant.
The stem is protected by a single layer of cells that compose its
epidermis. This layer acts as a barrier to protect the plant
against external stressors, such as water loss and insect damage
and features small openings called stomata that facilitate gas
exchange. It also has a unique configuration of ground tissue
that consists of parenchyma cells. These cells play a crucial role
Figure 24.1 Monocot stem Zea Mays in storing and transporting nutrients within the plant. The
under 4x magnification
dicot stems increase in diameter over time, while the stem of
Zea Mays grows taller as the plant matures, with new vascular bundles forming to support this growth.
This feature means that the plant lacks secondary growth. Monocot Zea Mays is specifically adapted to
support the plant's development and growth while also providing necessary protection and nourishment.
Parts of Monocot stem-Zea Mays
epidermis
Vascular
bundle
Ground
tissue
c) Coleus stem tip in l.s.

Figure 24.1 Monocot stem Zea Mays
sketch
The stem of Zea Mays, or corn, possesses distinct characteristics that differentiate it from the
dicot stems of other plants. Unlike dicot stems arranged in a
ring, the stem of monocot zea mays contains vascular bundles
dispersed throughout it. These bundles are comprised of xylem
and phloem tissues, which enable the transport of water,
nutrients, and sugars throughout the plant. The stem is protected
by a single layer of cells that compose its epidermis. This layer
acts as a barrier to protect the plant against external stressors,
such as water loss and insect damage and features small
openings called stomata that facilitate gas exchange. It also has a
Figure 25.1 Coleus stem tip in unique configuration of ground tissue comprising parenchyma
l.s.under 10x magnification cells. These cells play a crucial role in storing and transporting
nutrients within the plant. Unlike dicot stems that increase in diameter over time, the stem of Zea Mays
grows taller as the plant matures, with new vascular bundles forming to support this growth. This feature
means that the plant lacks secondary growth. The monocot stem of Zea Mays is specifically adapted to
support the plant's development and growth while also providing necessary protection and nourishment.
Parts of Coleus stem tip in l.s

Apical
meristem
Leaf
Protoderm primordia
procambium
Axillary
bud
Ground
meristem
Figure 25.2 Coleus stem l.s sketch

Conclusion
This laboratory report analyses the modifications, parts, and structural differences between
monocots and dicots that play an important role in plant growth and development. In plant morphology,
the study of stems and their constituents is an important area of study. Through rigorous inquiry,
students have been able to identify the intricate mechanisms and functions that drive the development
and proliferation of stems, including the complex connections between stem tissues and the external
environment. In addition, the observations of stem alterations have shown a vast array of plant
adaptations that have developed in response to particular ecological niches and selective pressures.
Stems offer a fascinating insight into the astonishing diversity of the plant kingdom, from the anatomical
features of vascular bundles to the exquisite patterns of stem architecture.
As a result, the continuous research into stem biology promises to expand our understanding of
plant development, ecology, and evolution. It may provide light on the mechanisms underlying the
incredible adaptability and resilience of the natural world.
Discussion
1. What are leaf scars? What are they for?
Scars left on a stem after a leaf has fallen off are known as leaf scars. Often circular or
semi-circular in shape, they are located on the stem where the leaf is connected.
Scars on leaves have multiple functions. They provide evidence of the previous year's
growth, which can be utilized to determine the plant's species. The size, shape, and arrangement
of leaf scars can distinguish many plant species. It also serves as an attachment point for the
following year's growth. Buds that will develop into new leaves or branches are generated in the
axils of the previous year's leaves, directly above the leaf scars. The bud is supported by the scar
tissue, which may give support when new growth emerges. Lastly, the leaf scar serves as a
healing zone for the wound caused by the severed leaf. By depositing protective tissue over the
incision, the plant prevents the spread of disease and stem damage.
2. What do you call the lower part of the leaf that encloses the monocot stem?
Sheath refers to the portion of a leaf that surrounds the stem of a monocot plant. In
monocot plants, such as grasses, lilies, and palms, the leaf sheath is a tubular structure that
encloses the stem at the leaf's base. The sheath may be short or lengthy, depending on the
species, and it may or may not be split along one side.
In monocots, the leaf sheath serves various purposes. It protects the stem against injury,
especially from grazing animals and environmental pressures such as wind and water. It also
supports the leaf, helping keep it upright and stable. In certain instances, the sheath may store
nutrients or water for the plant. It also comprises various structural tissues, including the
epidermis, mesophyll, and vascular bundles. These tissues collaborate to build a sturdy,
protective coating surrounding the stem, facilitating the transfer of nutrients and water between
the stem and the leaf.
3. What are lenticels? Are they present in all your specimens? What is its taxonomic
significance?
Lenticels are minute, porous, elevated structures found on the surface of numerous plant
species. They are often located on stems and roots and act as gas exchange apertures. Lenticels
are present on various plant species, including trees, shrubs, and certain herbaceous plants,
though they are not on all.
Regarding taxonomic significance, the presence or absence of lenticels can be utilized as
a diagnostic characteristic to differentiate between various plant species or families. Several tree
species, such as oaks and maples, possess lenticels as a distinguishing trait. In addition, the size,
shape, and distribution of lenticels can differ between species, providing additional information
for identifying and classifying plants.
4. Why are some of the specimens called specialized or modified stems? Give reasons.
Stems that have undergone structural or functional adaptations to adapt to certain

environmental circumstances or ecological niches are referred to as specialized or modified.
These adaptations may involve alterations in the stem's size, shape, texture, or growth pattern to
perform specialized roles like storage, support, or reproduction.
These modified or specialized stems are frequently crucial diagnostic characteristics for
recognizing and categorizing plant species. For instance, rhizomes or stolons can assist in
distinguishing between different types of grasses or ferns, while the presence of thorns can help
identify rose family species. In addition, the size, shape, and distribution of specialized or
modified stems can reveal crucial information regarding a plant's ecology and evolutionary
history.
5. Differentiate annuals, biennials and perennials? Which of the specimens observed are
annuals, biennials and perennials? Tabulate.
Annuals are plants whose life cycle, from seed to maturity, is completed in a single
growing season. They germinate from seed, grow, bloom, and die throughout a year.
Biennials are plants that have a life cycle that lasts for two years. They germinate from seed,
grow vegetatively, and store energy in their roots during the first year. In the second year, this
energy is used to develop flowers, set seeds, and die. Perennials are plants that survive longer
than two years and can grow and reproduce for several years. They can be herbaceous (non-
woody) or woody and either die back to the ground in the winter or remain evergreen.
Annuals Biennials Perennials
 Zingiber officinale  Brassica oleracea  Sechium edule

 Cucurbita maxima  Homalocladium
 Zea mays platycladum
 Solanum tuberosum
 Cynodon dactylon
 Citrus sp.
 Psidium guajava
 Ophiopogon jaburan
 Colocasia esculenta
 Eichornia crasippes
 Opuntia sp.
 Bougainvillea
spectabilis
 Sanseviera sp.
 Allium cepa
 Cordyline fruticose
 Bambusa sp.
 Coleus blumei
 Chlorophytum
comosum
 Ficus sp.
 Euphorbia tirucalli
6. Which tissue occupies the center of the dicot stem?
Pith, a form of ground tissue, occupies the middle of a dicot stem. In a ring-like
configuration, the vascular tissue (xylem and phloem) and the cortex (another form of ground
tissue) surround the pith in the middle of the stem. The pith normally consists of large
parenchyma cells with thin cell walls that store and transmit nutrients throughout the stem. In
some plants, it can also act as a water storage place.
In contrast, monocot stems lack a distinct pith and have a more homogeneous
arrangement of circulatory bundles surrounding ground tissue.
7. Do monocot stems have a vascular cambium?
Monocot stems do not have a vascular cambium. Vascular cambium is a form of

meristematic tissue that produces new vascular tissue in the stems and roots of dicot woody
plants. The vascular cambium generates secondary xylem (wood) on the inside and secondary
phloem (inner bark) on the exterior, allowing the plant to expand in width over time.
However, in monocot stems, the vascular bundles are dispersed throughout the ground
tissue instead of being grouped in a ring-like arrangement as in dicot stems. Hence, monocot
stems lack the lateral meristem tissue (vascular cambium) that creates new vascular tissue in
dicot stems. In contrast to dicot stems, monocot stems do not undergo secondary growth and do
not increase in circumference or diameter over time.
8. What are the differences between a monocot and a dicot stem?
The vascular bundle arrangement is the primary difference between the stems of both
plants. In dicot stems, the vascular bundles are arranged as one or two broken rings; hence, they
have a distinct form. The vascular bundles on the stems of monocots are dispersed without a
discernible pattern. The bundle sheath is not present in dicots; in monocots, it is present as it
encases the dispersed vascular bundles. In dicot, the stem hypodermis is composed of
collenchyma, but in monocot, it is composed of sclerenchyma. The cortex and stele are the two
separate sections that make up the vascular system of dicots. Without a defined cortex and stele,
the vascular bundles are dispersed.
References
5.4: The Stem. (2019, January 3). Biology LibreTexts.
https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Botany/Introduction_to_Botany_(Shipunov)/
05%3A_Tissues_and_Organs_-_How_the_Plant_is_Built/5.04%3A_The_Stem
Allam, G. (n.d.). Investigating the role of boundary genes in plant vascular cambiums. Retrieved March
1, 2023, from https://curve.carleton.ca/system/files/etd/85233579-1599-4536-b923-
9319a8ef1f2f/etd_pdf/9b497a786df427807c8c0dca0b1a62f3/allam-
investigatingtheroleofboundarygenesinplant.pdf
Difference Between Herbaceous Monocot and Herbaceous Dicot Stems. (2020, February 17). Compare
the Difference between Similar Terms. https://www.differencebetween.com/difference-between-
herbaceous-monocot-and-herbaceous-dicot-stems/?
fbclid=IwAR0QrCkjuk3izwvMzIJT2rHsmZxIx4y-Io3jYCU8QsbXSWldEgBQ8ktAmnE
Guest. (2022). Write A Book And Publish - PDF Free Download. Docer.tips; DOCER.TIPS.
https://docer.tips/solomon-berg-martin-biology-9th-edition.html
Plant Stems. (n.d.). Basic Biology. https://basicbiology.net/plants/physiology/stems

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UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES – VISAYAS TACLOBAN COLLEGE

Division of Natural Sciences and Mathematics

Name: Reign Ceasa D. Rosada 2022-03885

Part A. Morphology of the Stem

Part B. Anatomy of the Stem

Data and Results

Morphology of the Stem

Allium Cepa (onion)

Zingiber officinale (ginger)

Figure 2. Zingiber officinale Figure 2.1 Zingiber officinal

Figure 3.1 Solanum Tuberosum Figure 3.2 Solanum Tuberosum

Figure 4.1 Colocasia esculent Figure 4.2 Colocasia esculent

Figure 5.1 Homalocladium platycladum Figure 5. Homalocladium platycladum

The stems of Homalocladium platycladum, commonly known as tapeworm plant, are

Figure 6.1 Cucurbita maxima Figure 6.2 Cucurbita maxima

Figure 7.1 Sechium edule Figure 7.2 Sechium edule

Figure 8.1 Cynodon dactylon Figure 8.2 Cynodon dactylon

Figure 9.1 Citrus sp Figure 9.2 Citrus sp sketch

Figure 10.1 Psidum guajava Figure 10.1 Psidum guajava

Figure 11.1 Euphorbia tirucalli Figure 11.2Euphorbia tirucalli

Figure 12.1 Eichornia crasippes Figure 12.2 Eichornia crasippes

Figure 13.1 Opuntia sp. Figure 13.2 Opuntia sp. sketch

Figure 14.1 Bougainvillea ` Figure 14.2 Bougainvillea

Figure 15.1 Cordyline fruticosa Figure 15.2 Cordyline fruticosa

Figure 16.1 Zea mays Figure 16.2 Zea mays sketch

Figure 17.1 Chlorophytum Figure 17.2 Chlorophytum

Figure 18.1 Coleus blumei Figure 18.2 Coleus blumei

Figure 19.1 Ficus sp. Figure 19.2 Ficus sp. sketch

Figure 20.1 Brassica oleracea Figure 20.2 Brassica oleracea

Figure 21.1 Sanseviera sp. Figure 21.2 Sanseviera sp.

Figure 22.1 Bambusa sp. Figure 22.2 Bambusa sp. sketch

Figure 23.1 Ophiopogon jaburan Figure 23.2 Ophiopogon jaburan sketch

Table 2. Types of phyllotaxy

Anatomy of the Stem

a) Aristolochia Young dicot stem in c.s.

Parts of Aristolochia Young dicot stem in c.s.

Parts of Monocot stem-Zea Mays

c) Coleus stem tip in l.s.

Parts of Coleus stem tip in l.s

Figure 25.2 Coleus stem l.s sketch

1. What are leaf scars? What are they for?

Stems that have undergone structural or functional adaptations to adapt to certain

 Zingiber officinale  Brassica oleracea  Sechium edule

6. Which tissue occupies the center of the dicot stem?

7. Do monocot stems have a vascular cambium?

Monocot stems do not have a vascular cambium. Vascular cambium is a form of

8. What are the differences between a monocot and a dicot stem?

5.4: The Stem. (2019, January 3). Biology LibreTexts.

1, 2023, from https://curve.carleton.ca/system/files/etd/85233579-1599-4536-b923-

the Difference between Similar Terms. https://www.differencebetween.com/difference-between-

Plant Stems. (n.d.). Basic Biology. https://basicbiology.net/plants/physiology/stems

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