UNIVERSITY OF MAKATI

HIGHER SCHOOL NG UMAK

Mathematics, Science & Research Department

General Biology 2
Module 2: Parts of Plants

Plants are extremely important to life on Earth. They grow on mountains, in valleys, in deserts, in fresh
and saltwater—almost everywhere on the planet. Plants come in all shapes and sizes from the smallest
seedling to the towering Giant Sequoias. Not only are plants beautiful to look at, but they also play a
vital role in keeping people, animals, and the
Earth healthy. Plants provide food, medicine,
shelter, and the oxygen we need to breathe.
Everything we eat comes directly or indirectly
from plants.
Herbivores (plant-eaters) and omnivores (animal
and plant eaters) depend on plants for survival.
Even carnivores (meat-eaters) depend on plants
because they often prey on animals that eat
plants. Plants also provide shelter and habitats for
many animals. Our precious soil also needs
plants. When plants die they decompose and
provide topsoil that is rich in nutrients and helps
seeds to germinate and grow into seedlings.
Plants also help to slow erosion because their
roots hold soil in place. When plants carry out
photosynthesis, they take in carbon dioxide from
the atmosphere and release oxygen for us to
breathe. The basic parts of most land plants are
roots, stems, leaves, flowers, fruits, and seeds.
The function of each plant parts is described
below.

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 • Roots anchor the plants in the soil and absorb nutrients and water that are needed by the rest
of the plant.
• Stems support the upper part of the plant and act as a transport system for nutrients, water,
sugar, and starches. Photosynthesis can occur in the stem of some plants such as cacti, celery,
asparagus, and bananas.
• Leaves are the parts of the plant where photosynthesis usually occurs—where food for the plant
is made. The green substance, chlorophyll, captures light energy and uses it to convert water
and carbon dioxide into plant food and oxygen.
• Flowers are the reproductive part of plants. They often have showy petals and fragrances to
attract pollinators such as birds, bees, and other insects. Most flowers have four main parts:
petals, stamen (anther and filament), pistil (stigma, style, and ovary), and sepals. After flowers
are pollinated and fertilized, they produce seeds in the ovary of the flower.
• Fruits are the fleshy substances that usually surround seeds. They protect the seeds and attract
animals to eat them. This helps in seed dispersal.
• Seeds contain plant material that can develop into another plant. This plant material is called an
embryo. Seeds are covered with a protective seed coat and have one or two cotyledons.
Cotyledons are the food for the baby plant until it can make their food from light and are often
the first embryonic leaves of the plant.

Leaves are the lateral outgrowth of the stem, it is

typically a thin, flat, expanded green structure of the
plant. It is a highly efficient solar energy converter. It
has chloroplast within leaf are cells that capture light
energy and through the process of photosynthesis,
they can trap energy from the sun and convert it to
chemical energy in the form of sugar molecules that
are constructed from carbon dioxide and water. All
the energy required by living organisms is ultimately
dependent upon photosynthesis. Leaves are also
important to the movement of water absorbed by the
roots and transported throughout the plant. The water
that reaches the leaves mostly evaporates off into the
atmosphere via transpiration. Leaves are complex
plant organs upon which life depends. Leaves
originate as primordial in the buds regardless of their
ultimate size and shape.

A typical leaf is composed of three parts-blade, petiole, and stipule

• Blade-broad, flat, expanded light-harvesting portion of the leaf. It provides a large surface of
absorption of light energy and carbon dioxide
• Midrib-is a long thickened structure which is a continuation of the petiole up to the opposite end
of a leaf; vascular tissue
• Veins-networks at both sides of the midrib/continuation of vascular tissue
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• Petiole-stalk which is cylindrical and attaches the blade to the stem; for conduction
• Stipules-earlike lobe at the base of the petiole
• Some leaves have a pair of appendages called stipules at the base of their petiole. In some
cases, there is no petiole or stalk, and these leaves are called sessile.

A. Leaf according to composition

Simple leaf and compound leaves

B. Leaf according to venation

Parallel vein and Netted veins

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C. Leaf according to texture

Fleshy leaves (Crassula)

Succulent leaves (Aloe vera)

Coriaceous leaf
(Magnolia grandiflora)

Chartaceous
(Baumea articulate)

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D. Leaf according to shape

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Stem, in botany, the plant axis that bears buds and shoots with leaves and, at its basal end, roots. The
stem conducts water, minerals, and food to other parts of the plant; it may also store food, and green
stems themselves produce food. In most plants the stem is the major vertical shoot, in some it is
inconspicuous, and in others, it is modified and resembles other plant parts (e.g., underground stems
may look like roots).

The primary functions of the stem are to support the leaves; to conduct water and minerals to the
leaves, where they can be converted into usable products by photosynthesis; and to transport these
products from the leaves to other parts of the plant, including the roots. The stem conducts water and
nutrient minerals from their site of absorption in the roots to the leaves through certain vascular tissues
in the xylem. The movement of synthesized foods from
the leaves to other plant organs occurs chiefly through
other vascular tissues in the stem called phloem. Food
and water are also frequently stored in the stem.
Examples of food-storing stems include such
specialized forms as tubers, rhizomes, and corms and
the woody stems of trees and shrubs. Water storage is
developed to a high degree in the stems of cacti, and
all green stems are capable of photosynthesis.
The first rudiment of the young stem, or shoot, of an
embryonic plant, appears from the seed after the root
has first protruded. The growing portion at the apex of
the shoot is the terminal bud of the plant, and by the
continued development of this bud and its adjacent
tissues, the stem increases in height. Lateral buds and
leaves grow out of the stem at intervals called nodes;
the intervals on the stem between the nodes are called
internodes. The number of leaves that appear at a node depends on the species of plant; one leaf per
node is common, but two or more leaves may grow at the nodes of some species. When a leaf drops
off a stem at the end of a growing season, it leaves a scar on the stem because of the severing of the
vascular (conducting) bundles that had connected stem and leaf. As the stem continues to grow, lateral
buds are produced that develop into lateral shoots more or less resembling the parent stem, and these
ultimately determine the branching of the plant. In trees, the lateral shoots develop into branches, from
which other lateral shoots, called branchlets, or twigs, arise. The point at which a leaf diverges in the
axis from a stem is called the axil. A bud formed in the axil of a previously formed leaf is called an
axillary bud, and it, like the leaves, is produced from the tissues of the stem. During the development
of such buds, vascular bundles are formed within them that are continuous with those of the stem.

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In the stems of young dicotyledons (angiosperms with two seed leaves) and gymnosperms, the
vascular bundles (xylem and phloem) are arranged in a circle around a central core of spongy ground
tissue called the pith. Surrounding the vascular bundles is a layer that varies in thickness in different
species and is called the cortex. Surrounding this and comprising the exterior surface of the stem is a
layer called the epidermis. In plants with woody stems, a variety of secondary tissues are added to
these primary tissues. Among the most important of these is a ring of meristematic cells that in turn
give rise to the vascular cambium. This tissue arises between the primary xylem and phloem and gives
rise to
secondary
phloem on
the outside
and
secondary
xylem on the
inside; the
latter tissue is
the wood of
trees.

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Root, in botany, that part of a vascular plant normally underground.
Its primary functions are anchorage of the plant, absorption of water
and dissolved minerals and conduction of these to the stem, and
storage of reserve foods. The root differs from the stem mainly by
lacking leaf scars and buds, having a root cap, and having branches
that originate from internal tissue rather than from buds.
The primary root, or radicle, is the first organ to appear when a seed
germinates. It grows downward into the soil, anchoring the seedling.
In gymnosperms and dicotyledons (angiosperms with two seed
leaves), the radicle becomes a taproot. It grows downward, and
secondary roots grow laterally from it to form a taproot system. In
some plants, such as carrots and turnips, the taproot also serves as
food storage.

Grasses and other monocotyledons (angiosperms with a single

seed leaf) have a fibrous root system, characterized by a mass of
roots of about equal diameter. This network of roots does not arise
as branches of the primary root but consists of many branching
roots that emerge from the base of the stem.

Some roots, called adventitious roots, arise from an organ other than
the root—usually a stem, sometimes a leaf. They are especially
numerous on underground stems, such as rhizomes, corms, and
tubers, and make it possible to vegetatively propagate many plants
from stem or leaf cuttings. Certain adventitious roots, known as aerial
roots, either pass for some distance through the air before reaching
the soil or remain hanging in the air. Some of these, such as those
seen in corn (maize), screw pine, and banyan, eventually assist in
supporting the plant in the soil. In many epiphytic plants, such as
various orchids and Tillandsia species, aerial roots are the primary
means of attachment to non-soil surfaces such as other plants and
rocks.

Some other specialized roots exist among vascular plants.

Pneumatophores, commonly found in mangrove species that grow
in saline mudflats, are lateral roots that grow upward out of the mud
and water to function as the site of oxygen intake for the submerged
primary root system. The roots of certain parasitic plants are highly aerial root
Banyan tree (Ficus species) with aerial roots
modified into haustoria, which embed into the vascular system of the
emerging from the branches.© Andrey
host plant to feed the parasite. The nodular roots of many members Sliozberg/Fotolia
of the pea family

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Roots grow in length only from their ends. The very tip of the root is covered by a thimble-shaped root
cap, which serves to protect the growing tip as it makes its way through the soil. Just behind the root
cap lies the apical meristem, a tissue of actively dividing cells. Some of the cells produced by the apical
meristem are added to the root cap, but most of them are added to the region of elongation, which lies
just above the meristematic region. It is in the region of elongation that growth in length occurs. Above
this elongation zone lies the region of maturation, where the primary tissues of the root mature,
completing the process of cell differentiation that begins in the upper portion of the meristematic region.

Flower, the characteristic reproductive structure of angiosperms. As popularly used, the term “flower”
especially applies when part or all of the reproductive structure is distinctive in color and form. In their
range of color, size, form, and anatomical arrangement, flowers present a seemingly endless variety of
combinations. They range in size from minute blossoms to giant blooms. In some plants, such
as poppy, magnolia, tulip, and petunia, each flower is relatively large and showy and is produced singly,
while in other plants, such as aster, snapdragon, and lilac, the individual flowers may be very small and
are borne in a distinctive cluster known as an inflorescence. Regardless of their variety, all flowers have
a uniform function, the reproduction of the species through the production of seed. Each flower consists
of a floral axis upon which are borne the essential organs of reproduction (stamens and pistils) and
usually accessory organs (sepals and petals); the latter may serve to both attract pollinating insects
and protect the essential organs. The floral axis is a greatly modified stem; unlike vegetative stems,
which bear leaves, it is usually contracted, so that the parts of the flower are crowded together on
the stem tip, the receptacle. The flower parts are usually arrayed in whorls (or cycles) but may also be
disposed of spirally, especially if the axis is elongate. There are commonly four distinct whorls of flower
parts: (1) an outer calyx consisting of sepals; within it lies (2) the corolla, consisting of petals; (3)
the androecium, or group of stamens; and in the center is (4) the gynoecium, consisting of the pistils.
The sepals and petals together make up the perianth or floral envelope. The sepals are usually
greenish and often resemble reduced leaves, while the petals are usually colorful and showy. Sepals
and petals that are indistinguishable, as in lilies and tulips, are sometimes referred to as sepals. The
androecium, or male parts of the flower, comprise the stamens, each of which consists of a supporting
filament and an anther, in which pollen is produced. The gynoecium, or female parts of the
flower, comprises one or more pistils, each of which consists of an ovary, with an upright extension, the
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style, on the top of which rests the stigma, the pollen-receptive surface. The ovary encloses the ovules
or potential seeds. A pistil may be simple, made up of a single carpel, or ovule-bearing modified leaf;
or compound, formed from several carpels joined together.

(Left) Generalized flower with parts; (right) diagram showing the arrangement of floral parts in cross-section at the flower's base
Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

A flower having sepals, petals, stamens, and pistils

are complete; lacking one or more of such structures, it is
said to be incomplete. Stamens and pistils are not present
together in all flowers. When both are present the flower is
said to be perfect, or bisexual, regardless of a lack of any
other part that renders it incomplete (see photograph). A
flower that lacks stamens is pistillate, or female, while one
that lacks pistils is said to be staminate, or male. When the
The radiate head of the treasure flower
same plant bears unisexual flowers of both sexes, it is said
(Gazania rigens), a daisylike inflorescence
to be monoecious (e.g., tuberous begonia, hazel, oak, corn); composed of disk flowers in the centre
when the male and female flowers are on different plants, surrounded by marginal ray flowers. E.S. Ross
the plant is dioecious (e.g., date, holly, cottonwood, willow);
when there are male, female, and bisexual flowers on the
same plant, the plant is termed polygamous.

A flower may be radially symmetrical (see photograph), as

in roses and petunias, in which case it is termed regular
or actinomorphic. A bilaterally symmetrical flower, as in
orchids (see photograph) and snapdragons, is irregular
or zygomorphic.

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Although most of us have a good idea of what fruits and vegetables are when we eat them, it is difficult
to define the convention of just what makes one food a vegetable and another fruit. For a botanist, the
definitions are easier; fruit is the structure of an angiosperm that develops from the ovary and accessory
tissues and surrounds and protects the seed(s). Fruits are also important in seed dispersal. A vegetable
is a part of one of the vegetative organs of the plant: roots, stems or leaves, or shoot systems. There
are a few "vegetables” that are difficult; broccoli and cauliflower are inflorescence buds, and artichoke
is the entire inflorescence. Since flowers, the reproductive organ of the plant produces fruits and seeds,
perhaps those vegetables that are inflorescences are more similar to fruits than they are to vegetables.
The pineapple is an example of an inflorescence that we call multiple fruits. No matter what we call our
nutritious dietary components, in botany what constitutes a fruit is straightforward, and this exercise
looks at the structure and classification of fruits. The process of fertilization initiates both seed and fruit
development. While seeds are developing from the ovules, the ovary tissue undergoes a series of
complex changes that result in the
development of the fruit. Many fruits are
"fleshy" and contain sugars that attract
animals who disperse the enclosed seeds to
new locations after successfully passing
through the digestive system of the animal.
Non-fleshy, fruits use other mechanisms for
seed dispersal. In some plants, fruits can
develop without fertilization. This is called
parthenocarpy, and such fruits are typically
seedless. As the ovary develops into a fruit, its
wall often thickens and becomes differentiated
into three, more or less distinct, layers. The
three layers together form the pericarp, which
surrounds the developing seed or seeds.
The three fruit layers are:
• Exocarp, the outermost layer often consisting of only the epidermis
• Mesocarp, or middle layer, which varies in thickness
• Endocarp, which shows considerable variation from one species to another

Classifying Fruits
All fruits may be classified into three major groups based on the number of ovaries and the number of
flowers involved in their formation. The following outline includes most of the common types of fruits. A
simple key to classifying fruits is provided here. Use these descriptions and the "Key to Fruit Types"
provided to identify the types of fruits you observe today.

A. Simple Fruits. Simple fruits develop from a single matured ovary in a single flower.
1. Fleshy Fruits, pericarp fleshy at maturity

a. Berry, consisting of one or more carpels with one or more seeds, the ovary wall fleshy
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 (1) Pepo (an accessory fruit), a berry with a hard rind, the receptacle partially or
completely enclosing the ovary

(2) Hesperidium, a specialized berry with a leathery rind

b. Drupe, a stone fruit, derived from a single carpel and containing (usually) one seed.
Exocarp a thin skin

c. Pome (an accessory fruit), derived from several carpels, receptacle, and the outer
portion. of pericarp fleshy, inner portion of pericarp papery or cartilaginous, forming a core
d. Hip (an accessory fruit), several separate carpels enclosed within the fleshy or semi-
fleshy receptacle

2. Dry Fruits, pericarp dry at maturity

a. Dehiscent fruits, those which dehisce or split open when fully mature

(1) Follicle, composed of one carpel and splitting along a single suture
(2) Legume, composed of a single carpel and splitting along two sutures
(3) Capsule, composed of several carpels and opening at maturity in one of four

ways:
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 (a) Along the line of carpel union (septicidal dehiscence)
(b) Along the middle of each carpel (loculicidal dehiscence)

(c) By pores at the top of each carpel (poricidal dehiscence)

(d) Along a circular, horizontal line (circumscissile dehiscence)
(4) Silique, composed of two carpels which separate at maturity, leaving a
persistent partition between them b. Indehiscent fruits, those which do not split open at
maturity
(1 ) Achene or akene, one-seeded fruit with the seed attached to the fruit at one

point only
(2) Caryopsis or grain, a one-seeded fruit in which the seed is firmly attached to
the fruit at all possible points

(3) Samara, a one- or two-seeded fruit with the pericarp bearing a wing-like
outgrowth. A modified achene
(4) Schizocarp, consisting of two carpels which at maturity separate along the
midline into two one-seeded halves, each of which is indehiscent
(5) Loment, having several seeds, breaking into one-seeded segments at
maturity

(6) Nut, a hard, one-seeded fruit, generally formed from a compound ovary, with
the pericarp hard throughout

B. Aggregate Fruits. Aggregate fruits consist of many mature ovaries formed in a single flower
and arranged over the surface of a single receptacle. Individual ovaries are called fruitlets.
C. Multiple Fruits. Multiple fruits consist of the mature ovaries of several to many flowers more
or less united into a mass. Multiple fruits are almost invariably accessory fruits.
D. Accessory Fruits. Fruits that develop from tissues surrounding the ovary are called
accessory fruits. Accessory fruits generally develop from flowers that have inferior ovaries, and
the receptacle or hypanthium becomes a part of the fruit. Accessory fruits can be simple,
aggregate, or multiple fruits.

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Seed, the characteristic reproductive body of
both angiosperms (flowering plants)
and gymnosperms (e.g., conifers, cycads,
and ginkgos). Essentially, a seed consists of a
miniature undeveloped plant (the embryo),
which, alone or in the company of stored food
for its early development after germination, is
surrounded by a protective coat (the testa).
Frequently small in size and making negligible
demands upon their environment, seeds are
eminently suited to perform a wide variety of
functions the relationships of which are not
always obvious: multiplication, perennation
(surviving seasons of stress such as winter), dormancy (a state of arrested development), and
dispersal. Pollination and the “seed habit” are considered the most important factors responsible for the
overwhelming evolutionary success of the flowering plants, which number more than 300,000 species.
Structure of a Monocotyledonous Seed
A Monocotyledonous seed, as the name suggests, has only one cotyledon. There is only one outer
layering of the seed coat. A seed has the following parts:
• Seed Coat: In the seed of cereals such as maize, the seed coat is membranous and generally
fused with the fruit wall, called Hull.
• Endosperm: The endosperm is bulky and stores food. Generally, monocotyledonous seeds are
endospermic but some as in orchids are non-endospermic.
• Aleuron layer: The outer covering of endosperm separates the embryo by a proteinous layer
called the aleurone layer.
• Embryo: The embryo is small and situated in a groove at one end of the endosperm.
• Scutellum: This is one large and shield-shaped cotyledon.
• Embryonal axis: Plumule and radicle are the two ends.
• Coleoptile and coleorhiza: The plumule and radicle are enclosed in sheaths. They are
coleoptile and coleorhiza.

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Structure of a Dicotyledonous Seed
Unlike monocotyledonous seed, a dicotyledonous seed, as the name suggests, has two cotyledons. It
has the following parts:
• Seed coat: This is the outermost covering of a seed. The seed coat has two layers, the
outer testa, and the inner tegmen.
• Hilum: The hilum is a scar on the seed coat through which the developing seed was attached
to the fruit.
• Micropyle: It is a small pore present above the hilum.
• Embryo: It consists of an embryonal axis and two cotyledons.
• Cotyledons: These are often fleshy and full of reserve food materials.
• Radicle and plumule: They are present at the two ends of the embryonal axis.
• Endosperm: In some seeds such as castor, the endosperm formed as a result
of double fertilization, is a food storing tissue. In plants such as bean, gram, and pea, the
endosperm is not present in the matured seed. They are known as non-endospermous.

Fruits play an important role in the seed dispersal of many plant species. In dehiscent fruits, such as
poppy capsules, the seeds are usually dispersed directly from the fruits, which may remain on the plant.
In fleshy or indehiscent fruits, the seeds and fruit are commonly moved away from the parent plant
together. In many plants, such as grasses and lettuce, the outer integument and ovary wall are
completely fused, so seed and fruit form one entity; such seeds and fruits can logically be described
together as “dispersal units,” or diaspores

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PERFORMANCE TASK (Use short bond paper with 0.5-margin)

LEAF

Draw the following leaves and label the parts. Tabulate all leaves as to common name, scientific name,
venation, composition, shape, texture as to monocot and dicot.
(Malunggay, Papaya, Cactus, Sampaloc, Mayana, Grass, Orchids, Bougainvilla, Comote tops,
Kangkong)

STEM

Make a tabulation of the different specialized stems, give examples, identify the common name and
scientific name, and their special functions. (onion, corms, rhizomes, bulb, tuber)

FLOWER
Illustrate the following flower. (Gumamela, Aratiles flower, Guava flower, Rose, Orchids, Squash,
Papaya, Bouganvilla, Kalachuchi, Santan, and Sampaguita ) Label the parts and discuss the functions.
Tabulate the flower according to complete or incomplete, perfect or imperfect,

ROOT
Illustrate the different plant roots (potato, pandan, corn, balete, orchids, mangrove) and label the parts.
Indicate their common name, scientific name, and their special usage and functions.

SEED
Illustrate how seed disperse; Illustration must show (1) monocot plant seed and (1) dicot plant seed;
Explain the agent of dispersal. Tabulate the different types of the root and give their significant features
(taproot, fibrous, adventitious, buttress and aerating roots)

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GUIDE QUESTION

1. What is the difference between simple and compound leaf?

2. What are the types of venation? Give at least 3 examples each type

3. What is the major process that happens in the leaf?

4. What are the cells present in the leaves?

5. Enumerate and describe the different structures found in the stem.

6. What is the significance of vascular tissues in stem?

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7. Differentiate primary growth and secondary growth.

8. What is an annual ring? What forms an annual ring?

9. Differentiate the following and give at least 3 examples for each category
a. The complete and incomplete flower

b. Male flower parts and female flower parts

c. Regular and irregular flower

d. Perfect and imperfect flower

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10. Identify the differences in the internal structure of the roots between monocot and dicot plants.

11. What is root hair?

12. What are adventitious roots?

13. Give the significance and importance of the roots. Indicate the relationship of tissues in your
explanation.

14. What is a fruit?

15. Define and identify the layers of the pericarp.

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 16. What is an accessory fruit?

17. “The seed is for the perpetuation of the species” Explain the quote.

18. Give a situation of animal dispersal.

19. Define seed germination, and explain the process.

Guide Question

1. List down 3 observable characteristics of monocot and dicot plant.

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 2. Give the basic functions of each organ of the plant body.
3. Complete the table below.

GYMNOSPERM/
PLANT SCIENTIFIC NAME MONOCOT/DICOT
ANGIOSPERM
ADELFA
CORN
RICE
CARABAO GRASS
BAMBOO
ROSE
GUMAMELA
SQUASH
BANANA
MONGO
SANTOL
ACACIA
PINE TREE

Aldea, K.K. (2010). General Botany

California Foundation for Agriculture Retrieve from http://marinmg.ucanr.edu/files/187894.pdf
Fruit Types and Classification of Fruits retrieved from
http://faculty.valenciacollege.edu/tklenk/bio2labs/FruitTypes.pdf
Retrieved from https://www.britannica.com/science/stem-plant#
Retrieved from https://www.britannica.com/science/root-plant
Retrieved from https://www.britannica.com/science/seed-plant-reproductive-part
Retrieved from https://www.toppr.com/guides/biology/morphology-of-flowering-plants/the-seed/

PREPARED BY: PICHAY, ANGELO T.

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