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UPDATED TO 2023 SYLLABUS

CAIE CHECKPOINT
SCIENCE
SUMMARIZED NOTES ON THE BIOLOGY SYLLABUS
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1.4. Respiration
1. The Characteristics of A process where food is converted to energy.
It is a chemical reaction within our bodies.
Living Things Glucose reacts with oxygen to release energy, along with
carbon dioxide and water.
1.1. MRS. GREN Breathing is inhaling and exhaling - moving air in and out
of our bodies.
M - Movement Respiration should NOT be confused with this.
R - Respiration Plants photosynthesize to produce food, and they also
S - Sensitivity respire.
G - Growth
R - Reproduction
E - Excretion
N - Nutrition

1.2. Characteristics of plants

Plants move as they grow and spread out over the
ground.
Plants respire and gaseous exchange happens through
leaves.
Green plants are sensitive towards light and grow
towards it.
Plants reproduce by making seeds or spores some make
copies of themselves - plantlets.
Waste may be stored in leaves.
Plants make food from carbon dioxide and water.
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1.5. Sensitivity

Animals detect changes with their sense organs.

Skin (feel), Eyes (see), Ears (listen), Tongue (taste), and
Nose (smell).
Insects have long antennae - which they use to touch the
ground in front of them, to decide if it is safe to move or
not.

1.3. Movement

Muscles provide movement for all animals.

Animals move to find food, shelter, and to avoid
predators.
Some animals may move to mate, reproduce or give birth.

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2.1. Organs of a flowering plant

Roots

Anchors the plant in place.

Takes up water and minerals from the soil.
Roots also take in oxygen from the air-pockets in the soil.
The roots of some plants (example – carrots), store food.
Tap root – the main root grows downwards, and lateral
roots grow sideways.
Fibrous root – all roots are the same size and can grow
downwards and sideways.

Stem

Transports water and food.

1.6. Growth and reproduction
Food is important to grow, repair damaged body parts,
and to live.
Reproduction is important to keep a plant/animal species
in existence.
If the elephants in a herd stopped producing offspring, the
herd would eventually disappear (become extinct), as the
old elephants died.
Every single species in the world is important to maintain
the balance.
Supports the leaves and flowers.
Some plants who don’t have a strong stem, grow up on
the sides of larger plants.
Some plants (example – trees), store food in their
stems/trunks.
Some plants (example – ginger), have underground
stems, which store food.
Leaf
Produces food.
Traps sunlight to make food.
Controls amount of water inside the plant.
Controls Carbon dioxide and Oxygen entering and leaving.
Different leaves are shaped differently – and come in
various sizes and colours, based on the plant’s needs.

Flower

Contains the reproductive organs of the plant.

Many flowers use insect’s help to reproduce and have
brightly coloured flowers to attract them.
Flowers are shaped differently in different plants, based
on their habitat.

Bud

Contains tiny new branches, leaves and flowers ready to

grow.

2.2. Organ systems of a human

Skeletal System
Muscle System
Circulatory System
Respiratory System
Digestive System
Nervous System
Excretory System
2. Major Organ Systems Sensory System
Endocrine System

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2.3. Skeletal system
There are 206 bones in the human skeleton.
Each arm and hand together have 30 bones.
Each leg and foot together have 29 bones.
The skeleton accounts for 15% of the body's mass.
Tissue of the skeleton (bone) is hardened as it takes
calcium from digested food.
Protection
The brain and spinal cord form the CNS (Central Nervous
System) and are made form soft tissue.
They can be damaged without a hard covering.
The bones of the skull are fused together to make a
strong barrier around the brain.
The backbone is made of 33 bones known as vertebrae
(singular : vertebra).
There's a hole in each vertebra through which the spinal
cord runs.
The column of Vertebrae makes a tube of bone around
the spinal cord.
There are gaps between the vertebrae through which
nerves pass from the spinal cord to the body.
The ribs and backbone form a protective structure around
the lungs and heart.
The ribs aren't heavy to allow for the movements of the
heart.
Support
The organs form systems (digestive, circulatory,
excretory, and respiratory) account for 20% of the body's
weight.
The organs are made from soft material and have no
supporting material inside them.
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The bones of the skeleton provide a strong structure to
which the organs are attached.
They allow the organs to be spread out in the body
without squashing into each other.
Movement
Joint - the place where bones meet.
In some joints (skull), the bones are fused together and
cannot move.
Most joints allow some movement.
Joints at the elbow or knee are called hinge joints - as they
move like the hinge on a door. They can only move back
and forth.
Joints at the hip and shoulder are called ball-and-socket
joints - the end of the bone forms a round structure like a
ball that fits into a cup-shaped socket. These allow more
movement.
Ligament - fibres that prevent the bones from coming apart.
Cartilage - a hard, slippery surface that prevents bones from
wearing out when they rub against each other. Reduces
friction, and allows ease of movement.
Synovial Fluid - a liquid present in joints that require a lot of
movement (knees). It spreads out over the surface of the
cartilage and acts like oil. Reduces friction, and wear.
2.4. Muscles
Is a tissue that can move.
It can contract and expand.
A muscle is attached to two bones across a joint, with the
help of Tendons.
The action of one muscle produces an opposite effect to
the other muscle and causes movement in the opposite
direction.
These 2 muscles are called as Antagonistic Muscle Pairs
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Smooth Muscle - Found in other organ systems such as
the digestive system, where it moves food down the
alimentary canal.
Cardiac Muscle - The heart is made of this muscle. It's
movement pumps blood throughout the body.
The nervous system controls the movement of these 2
muscles, so that you don't have to voluntarily perform an
action.
2.5. Circulatory system
The heart is located near the centre of the chest - closer
to your left.
It is made of Cardiac Muscles - which makes the heart
beat.
The heart pushes blood into the arteries and draws blood
from the veins
The beating of the heart gives pressure to the blood, to
flow throughout your body.
The heart and the blood vessels make up the circulatory
system.
The beating of the heart can be checked by taking the
pulse.
Check your pulse
1. Hold out your right hand with your palm up.
2. Put the thumb of your left hand under your wrist.
3. Let the first two fingers of your left-hand rest on top of
your wrist.
4. Feel around the wrist to find a throbbing artery. This is
your pulse.
5. You can measure your pulse rate by counting how
many times your pulse beats in a minute.
2.6. Respiratory system
Diaphragm - is a muscle that moves up and down to help
you breathe.
The ribs are light-weight and move as you inhale and
exhale.
The number of breaths you take in a certain time is called
the rate of breathing.
The oxygen taken in as you inhale, is used to release
energy from food - and to keep other cells alive.
1. Air enters through your nose/mouth.
2. Passes down the back of the mouth and into the voice
box and windpipe (trachea)
3. The bottom of the windpipe divides into 2 tubes called
bronchi (singular: bronchus)
4. The bronchi carry the air into the lungs.
5. Here, the oxygen passes through the walls of the
lungs and into the blood.
6. Carbon dioxide from the blood passes through the
walls of the lung and into the air as you exhale.
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2.7. Digestive system
Alimentary canal - is the main part of the digestive system. It
is a tube that runs throughout the body. It includes the :
Oesophagus (food pipe)
Stomach
Intestines (Large and Small)
The alimentary canal is approximately 9 metres long - and
it folds inside your abdomen to fit in there.
It takes between 24 and 48 hours for the food to
completely travel throughout the alimentary canal.
Process of mechanical and chemical digestion
Your teeth brake down the food into small chunks.
Saliva in the mouth breaks the chunks into smaller
molecules.
The saliva helps moisten the food (now called the bolus) -
so they travel down the oesophagus smoothly.
In the stomach, acids help turn the bolus into a creamy
liquid called chyme.
The small intestines absorb nutrients in the food.
The large intestines absorb water. This now then gets
excreted after the whole process.
2.8. Nervous System
Comprises of the brain, spinal cord, and nerves.
The brain is enclosed in the skull.
The spinal cord is enclosed in the backbone.
Nerves connect the brain to the eyes, ears, tongue, nose,
skin, and to all the other organs in your body.
Messages travel through the nervous system in tiny
electrical signals (called impulses).
The sense organs send signals to the spinal cord and the
brain.
The brain can also send signals to your muscles - to move
so you can walk, dance, raise your hand, nod etc.
2.9. Excretory system
Waste produced by the body in chemical reactions collect
in the blood.
As the blood passes through the kidneys, a waste product
called urea is filtered from the blood with water.
The mixture of urea and water is called as urine.
On a hot day, little urea and water are released from the
blood - through the skin. This is your sweat. As the sweat
evaporates, your skin cools down.
As the blood passes through the lungs, carbon dioxide is
removed and passed into the air.
2.10. Sensory system
The sensory system is made of sense organs - the eyes,
ears, nose, tongue, and skin.
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These are the organs of sight, hearing, smell, taste, and
touch respectively.
The function of the system is to provide information about
the surrounding of an animal.
The information is sent along in the form of electrical
impulses along the nerves to the brain.
2.11. Endocrine system
This is made of glands- which release chemicals called
hormones into the blood.
The adrenal gland is found above the kidneys and
releases/secretes a hormone called adrenaline.
You may feel the effect of adrenaline when you are asked
to talk in front of the class, or face something you're
scared of.
It makes your heartbeat faster and directs more blood
into your muscles - so your body is prepared to run in
case of danger.
Hormones also control your growth, and your body's
development.
The hormone insulin helps the body store a sugar that has
been absorbed from digested food.
A lack of this hormone, or less of it - leads to a disease
called diabetes.
This can be controlled by taking in extra insulin into the
body.
3. Cells
3.1. Palisade cells
Found underneath the upper epidermis of a plant leaf.
Makes food for the plant by photosynthesising, using
carbon dioxide, water, and light.
Adaptations
Found closer to the surface of the leaf, so absorbs more
sunlight to photosynthesise.
Has many chloroplasts to absorb energy from the sun.
Very thin and long.
Many palisade cells can be packed together in 1 leaf to
ensure maximum light energy absorption.
3.2. Animal cell
Nucleus
Is the control Centre of the cell.
Contains genetic material - DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid)
DNA is made from groups of atoms linked together,
forming a long chain.
DNA gives Instructions to the rest of the cell, on how to
function and build cell parts.
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When the cell divides to create more cells - the DNA also
divides, and new cells have the same DNA as the original.
Cytoplasm
Is a watery jelly-like substance.
Takes up most of the space in the cell.
Can move around inside the cell.
Contains stored food in the form of grains.
Chemical reactions that keep the cell alive takes place
here.
Cell membrane
Covers the outside of the cell.
Is semi-permeable (controls and allows movements of
specific substances in and out of the cell.)
Stops harmful chemicals and substances from entering.
Allows food, oxygen and carbon dioxide to pass through.
3.3. Plant cell
Note: Plant cells also have the same parts in an animal cell,
and they work in a similar fashion. Apart from this, plant cells
have few other parts as well.
Cell wall
Found outside the cell membrane.
Made of cellulose- a tough material that gives support to
the cell's structure.
Chloroplast
Found in the cytoplasm in leaf cells and stem cells of
some plants.
Contains a green pigment called chlorophyll - which traps
energy from the sunlight.
Chlorophyll helps make food for the plants through
photosynthesis.
Large vacuole
The large space in the cytoplasm of a plant cell.
Filled with a liquid called cell sap.
When the vacuole is full of cell sap, the liquid pushes
outward on the cell wall, giving it support.
If the plant doesn't have enough water, the support is lost,
and it wilts.
3.4. Red Blood Cells
Found in the blood stream
Haemoglobin combines with oxygen to form
oxyhaemoglobin.
Red Blood Cells carry this substance to all parts of the
body.
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When the Red blood cells reach their destination, they
release the oxygen, so the organs can use it.
Haemoglobin forms again, for another trip to the lungs.
The haemoglobin gives the red blood cells their pigment.
Adaptation
Mature red blood cells lose their nucleus - to make more
space for haemoglobin.
Red blood cells have a disc-like structure. The bi-concave
shape gives a larger surface are for the cells.
Both these adaptations maximize the amount of
haemoglobin the red blood cell can carry. This means
more oxygen can get diffused, and can be transported
around.
3.5. White Blood Cells
Found in the blood stream.
White blood cells have an irregular shape. They keep
changing as the cytoplasm flows inside.
White blood cells are a part of the body's immune system.
They help you stay healthy by attacking harmful bacteria
and micro-organisms that may make you ill.
Adaptation
Lymphocytes (a type of WBC) produces antibodies, which
attack harmful substances in the blood, like bacteria.
Phagocytes (another type of WBC) engulfs, and destroys
these harmful substances in the blood.
3.6. Smooth muscle cells
Found in the oesophagus (food pipe) and in the intestines.
Moves the bolus as you swallow to the stomach.
Adaptation
Smooth muscle cells are arranged in layers at right
angles to each other.
They contract and relax, creating wave-like motions -
moving the food. This motion is known as peristalsis.
3.7. Ciliated epithelial cells
Found in the lining of the nose, and the trachea
(windpipe).
These are epithelial cells.
Cilia are microscopic hair-like structures that are
extensions of the cytoplasm.
Cells that have cilia are ciliated.
Adaptation
Air entering the throat and nose contain foreign
substances and dust. This is not good for the lungs.
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These particles get trapped by the mucus secreted by
goblet cells.
The cilia wave to and fro, and carries the dust away from
the lungs. This is why we sneeze!
3.8. Root hair cells
Found in roots of plants.
They grow a short distance after the tip of each root.
Adaptation
The tiny extensions in the cell allow them to grow easily
between soil particles.
The shape of the extensions gives the root hair cells a
larger surface area.
Both these features help increase the amount of water
and mineral salts absorbed from the soil.
The cell membrane controls which dissolved substances
can enter the cell, so no foreign substance is allowed in.
3.9. Nerve cells
Found throughout the body.
Makes up the nervous system.
Nerves are made from neurones.
They conduct electrical impulses to and from the brain
and Spinal cord.
Adaptations
Has long fibres called dendrites - which connect distant
parts of the body to the brain and spinal cord, like your
feet!
Most have a myelin sheath. The impulses jump between
the gaps of the sheath, making the travel time faster,
rather than traveling the whole length of the neuron.
4. Microorganisms
4.1. Kingdoms
Some organisms are not made from tissues, organs and
organ systems.
These organisms are unicellular - meaning that they have
only 1 cell.
Most are so tiny, that you need a microscope to see them
clearly.
They are divided into three large groups or kingdoms.
Fungi, Monera and Protoctista are the different kingdoms.
4.2. Fungi kingdom
Fungi can be seen without a microscope when they are in
large numbers.
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But when there is a stage in their life cycle where they
behave like other micro-organisms.
Fungal reproduction :
1. Fungal spores are released from the parent.
2. They are carried by air and water currents and can
travel long distances.
3. They have a protective coat (spore coat) that helps
them survive in heat, cold, and dry conditions.
4. This spore coat only opens when the spores land in a
place with favourable conditions.
5. A thin thread called hypha grows out and begins to
digest any food around it.
6. As it feeds, many hyphae (plural) are produced.
7. As they grow many hyphae form a larger structure
called mycelium.
8. Which in time produces fruiting bodies (example -
mushroom).
More about fungi
Moulds produce mycelium that can be seen growing on
food like bread. Their fruiting bodies are tiny black globes
called sporangia.
Yeasts are micro-organisms in all stages of their life cycle.
They do not produce hyphae, but just split into identical
copies of themselves.
A few types of fungi are parasites- they feed on other
organisms.
Athlete’s Foot is a fungal infection cause by fungi that
feeds on damp spots between the toes.
4.3. Monera kingdom
Living things under this kingdom are unicellular (single
celled organism)
They are prokaryotes (doesn’t contain a nucleus)
They consist of Bacteria, and Blue-green algae.
Bacteria
They are found everywhere - air, water, surfaces of
plants, animals, rocks and inside living things too.
Spherical, spiral or rod shaped.
Some bacteria feed on the insides of living things - where
they cause disease.
Diphtheria, Whooping Cough, Cholera, Typhoid,
Tuberculosis and Food Poisoning are all diseases caused
by different kinds of bacteria.
Some bacteria are useful.
Yoghurt is made by introducing certain bacteria to milk
and making it sour.
Vinegar is made by allowing bacteria to feed on ethanol
and change it into acetic acid.
Bacterial reproduction
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1. They reproduce by a process called binary fission -
where each bacterium (singular) divides into two.
2. Under perfect conditions of warmth, moisture and
food - bacteria can reproduce by fission once every 20
minutes!
3. When conditions become dry, hot, and unsuitable for
feeding - some bacteria form spores.
They can survive inside these spores for a long time
and break out once favourable conditions return.
Blue-green algae
They live in seas, oceans and lakes.
They grow and damp, wet rocks at the sides of rivers and
streams.
You can see them if they occur in large numbers.
4.4. Protoctista kingdom
All living things under this kingdom have microscopic
bodies
Made from one cell (unicellular)
Contains nucleus (prokaryote)
Outside of their cell bodies may contain a single long
haired structure (flagellum/flagellates)
The flagellum is covered with a coating of tiny hairs called
cilia - to help move around in water.
The flagellates lash their long hair like a whip to move,
and the ciliates move to and fro.
Protophyta- unicellular ‘plants’ that make their own food
from photosynthesis.
Protozoa- unicellular ‘animals’ that consume other
organisms like animals do.
Amoeba is a type of protozoan which doesn’t have
flagellum, or cillia - but makes projections from its body
wall called pseudopodia or ‘false feet’.
This helps it move along and find food.
Some members of the Protoctista live in the bodies of
other organisms.
Some live inside humans cause diseases like malaria,
sleeping sickness, and amoebic dysentery.
4.5. Viruses
Do not have a cell structure.
Basically, RNA stores inside a protein coat.
Can be stored for years without changing - like mineral
specimens.
When they are in their dormant state, they do not feed,
respire, or excrete.
When they are placed inside living tissues - they come out
of their dormant state.
Viruses try to take over the host’s cells by making multiple
copies of themselves.
They reproduce at high rates and destroy the host’s cells
in the process.
Each type of virus attacks a certain set of cells in the body.
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Cold virus- attacks cilia and cells in the lining of the nose.
This leads to excess mucus, and a stuffy nose.
Some examples: Influenza, Corona Virus, Chicken Pox,
Measles, and rabies.
This can lead to the development of AIDS.
4.6. Decomposers
These microorganisms feed on the dead bodies and rot
them down.
When animals and plants die - their bodies would remain
unchanged if there were no bacteria and fungi.
Minerals from the body tissues are released into the soil
in this process - and are available to plants to take them
up in their roots.
The plants build up the minerals in their own bodies as
they grow, and then they are passed into the animal’s
bodies when they are consumed.
The minerals that are now in the animal’s body, help it
grow and keep them alive.
Without micro-organisms - these minerals would be
locked up inside of the plants and animals and would
never be available for new living things.
Decomposers ensure that the minerals that living
organisms need are recycled (e.g. maggots, earthworms).
Biodiversity
Term used to describe the number and variety of species
in an ecosystem.
Most ecosystems have a high biodiversity- meaning they
have a large number of different species showing great
variety of features.
If the balance in abiotic and biotic factors is disrupted, it
can cause some plants and animals to die out- leading to
loss of biodiversity.
5.2. Food chains
Is the sequence of energy transfer between organisms
through feeding.
Producers- organisms that make their own food; plants.
Consumers- organisms that eat the food.
Herbivores- organisms that consume only plants.
Carnivores- organisms that consume other organisms.
Omnivores- organisms that consume both plants and
other organisms.

5. Living things in their

environment
5.1. Ecology
Ecology- study of living things in their habitats.
Habitat- is the home of a plant or animal (place where it is
adapted to live in)
Community- large number of living things sharing the
same habitat (community of living things)

Environment

Environment of a living thing is everything that could

affect it’s survival.
Abiotic factors (Factors due to non-living parts of the
environment) - temperature, oxygen levels, terrain,
weather, water, amount of light, and more.
Biotic factors (Factors due to living things in the
environment) - Amount of food, number of predators,
number of offspring, and more.
Ecosystem
Made up of community of living things and the abiotic
factors.
Living things and the abiotic factors are interdependent.
Most ecosystems are self-sustaining, and only require
sunlight as a form of energy - unless there is something
that throws off the balance of the ecosystem.
5.3. Recording plant life
Quadrat
Is a square frame.
It is placed over an area of ground and the plants inside
are recorded.
The are of ground should not be chosen carefully- as it
may not give a fair record of plant life in that habitat, and
instead supports the idea that ecologists have worked on
beforehand.
To make it a fair test- the quadrat is thrown and is allowed
to land anywhere at random.
The number of plants of each species is recorded.
The method is repeated a set number of times.

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The results of the random samples are used to build up a
record of how the plants are distributed.
The average is calculated to determine how many kinds of
plants are in the area.
Transect
A line transect is used to investigate plant life along a
bank/footpath/hedge in the habitat.
The position of the transect is chosen carefully so that it
cuts across the feature being examined.
It’s made by stretching a length of rope along the line to
be examined.
The number of plant species are recorded along the line.
At certain intervals, abiotic factors such as pH,
temperature or dampness of the soil is measured when
necessary.
5.4. Collecting small animals
Soil and leaf filter
A Tullgren funnel is used to collect small animals from a
sample of soil or leaf litter.
A funnel is placed over a beaker that has water.
The opening of the funnel is covered with gauze - and the
sample is placed over this.
A strip of paper is placed around the sample, to prevent
the animals escaping.
A warm lamp is turned on above this setup.
The warmth from the lamp dries out the top layers of the
sample, so the animals/insects move down to the moister
regions - where they fall through the gauze, and into the
water.
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Pitfall trap
Is used to collect small animals that move over the
surface of the ground.
A hole is dug in the soil to hold two container - like yoghurt
pots and are arranged one inside the other.
The containers are placed inside the whole.
A few small leaves are placed inside the container, and 4
pebbles are placed on the surface of the soil.
A piece of wood is balanced over the 4 pebbles, which
allows for a tiny gap for small animals to crawl through.
The wood makes a roof to keep out the rain and keeps out
bigger predators.
The small animals fall in and cannot climb out due to the
smooth walls of the container - and remain under the
leaves until the trap is emptied.
Sweep net
Is used to collect small animals from leaves and flower
stems of herbaceous plants, especially grasses.
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The lower edge of the net is held slightly forward of the
upper edge to scoop out the animals as the net is swept
through the plants.
After one or two sweeps, the wide opening of the net
should be closed by hand, and the contents emptied into a
plastic jar.
Here they can be identified, and counted, and then
replaced back in nature.
Sheet and Beater
Is used to collect small animals in bushes or trees.
A sheet is et up below the branches, and the branch is
shaken or hit with another stick - hard enough to cause
the animals to fall onto the sheet, but gentle enough to
not cause any harm to the tree.
Pooter
Is used to collect extremely tiny animals from leaves, or
the soil.
Tube A of the pooter is placed close to the animal and air
is sucked out of Tube B.
This creates low air pressure in the pooter, so air rushes
in through Tube A, carrying the insect with it.
Pond animals
Drag Net- used to collect organisms from the bottom of
the pond.
Pond-Dipping Net- used to sweep through vegetation
around the edge of the pond to collect animals living on
the leaves and stems.
Plankton Net- is pulled through open water to collect small
animals swimming there into a specimen tube.
5.5. Plant adaptations to daily changes
Flowers
Some plants open their flowers during the day, and close
them at night.
The flowers are open during the day- and this allows the
insects to rink nectar and pollinate.
They close at night to protect the delicate structures
inside the petals from low temperatures, and the dew.
The cold can freeze parts of the flower, and the dew can
wash the pollens off the stamen- which prevents the
flower from reproducing.
The night-scented stock is an unusual plant. It’s flowers
open only during the night- so that moths can visit them,
and pollinate.
Leaves
Leaves not only provide food, but provide a large surface
are for the evaporation of water.
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During the day, the leaves are horizontal and spread out -
to allow maximum light to enter the cells, increasing rate
of photosynthesis and food production.
This also increases the surface area of the leaf, so a lot of
water evaporates out of the leaf. To make up for the loss
of water, the roots quickly take in water from the soil.
During the night, some leaves roll up or shrink to prevent
more water leaving the leaf.
Leaves can control this by moving water in and out of the
cells.
More water in cells- plant swells up- leaf and stem is
erect.
Lesser water in cells- plant is flaccid and sags- leaf curls
up.
Animal adaptations to daily changes
Owls
Is a nocturnal bird.
It has large eyes that are sensitive to the low intensity of
light at night time - this allows it to see well in the dark,
and fly safely.
The edges of the owl’s wings are shaped to move
noiselessly in the air - so it’s prey cannot sense the owl
when it attacks.
It has sharp talons on it’s toes that acts a dagger to kill it’s
prey quickly, and carry it away to eat in a safer place.
5.6. Plant adaptations to seasonal
changes
Trees and plants in the winter
The daffodil’s leaves die, and the plant forms a bulb inside
the soil, and stays alive.
Bark is an adaptation of trees that provide a protective
insulating layer around the woody shoot in the winter.
In regions where the soil water freezes up, the trees can’t
take up water through the roots. These trees loose their
leaves as their broad shape allows for more water loss.
Trees that loose their leaves in the winter are called
deciduous trees.
Some trees have leaves that have lose very little water in
the winter.
Trees that have their leaves all year round are called
evergreen trees.
Water plants in the winter
Plants that float on the open water of a pond during spring
and summer, don’t remain here in winter.
Duckweed produces individuals that sink to the pond floor.
A water plant called Frogbit produces heavy seeds.
The plants around the water’s edge die back and survive
in the mud as thick stems called rhizomes.

Bats Animal adaptations to seasonal

changes
Bats do not use their eyes, but have a highly developed
echo-location system.
Hair
They send out high-pitched squeaks that we cannot hear.
These sounds reflect off all the surfaces around the bat
Lives in the woodlands in Europe and Asia
and travel back to the bat’s ears.
In summer and spring, when it is warm, it ha a coat of
The bat uses information from these sounds to work out short hair to keep it cool.
the distance, size, and shape of the objects around it. In the autumn and winter, it grows longer hair that traps
This allows the bat to fly safely and detect insects in the
insulating layer of air next to it’s skin - reducing heat loss.
air.
Coat colour
Advantages of the nght
Stoats grows a white coat in the winter, which loses lesser
The darkness allows for stealth, and hides the predators. heat than its darker coat in the summer.
The climate is much cooler during the night, and has an
Preys on rabbits, and the white coats allows it to
increased humidity.
camouflage in the snow.
This causes water vapour to condense and form dew. This
Ptarmigan has brown plumage in the summer, and this
is ideal for slugs and woodlice who have trouble retaining helps it hide from predators while it nests and rears its
water in their bodies in warm conditions. young.
They hide in damp spots during the day, and roam freely
In the winter, it has white plumage that reduces heat loss,
at night searching for food.
and gives it camouflage.
Feathers also grow on the Ptarmigan’s toes and make it’s
Animals during the day feet into ‘snowshoes’ allowing it to walk on the snow
without sinking.
Many insects are active and fly during the day, as the
nectar they eat from the flowers open only during the day.
Aestivation
Some insects like moths are active during the night, as the
nectar they eat from the flowers open at night.

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CAIE CHECKPOINT SCIENCE
Lung Fish live in rivers, but when the rivers dry up in the
dry season they can still survive.
They make a burrow in the riverbed and rest there,
breathing air until rainy season returns.
This is called aestivation.
Hibernation
In the woodlands of Europe, insects avoid winter
conditions by spending their lives in the inactive stages of
their life cycles - the egg and the pupa.
This means that insect-eating animals like the bat, have
nothing to eat all winter.
So the bats store up fat in the autumn, and this gives them
enough energy to keep them alive when they are in a
continuous state of sleep in the winter.
This is called hibernation.
Migration
Some birds like the swallow spend winter eating insects in
Africa.
They return to Europe in the spring.
When an animal moves it’s location as the seasons
change it is said to migrate.
5.7. Adaptations to the desert
Plants
Deserts have a short rainy season, followed by a long dry
season.
Some flowering plants have very short life cycles so that
their seeds can germinate as soon as it rains.
They can then grow, flower and seed before the soil loses
all of its moisture.
The cactus (plural cacti) survives this by storing water
inside their bodies.
They have a thick waxy covering to prevent water from
escaping from their surfaces, and spikes to prevent biting
into them for a drink.
Some cacti have long roots that spread out close to the
soil surface, so that as much water can be collected as
possible from the soil surface when the rains arrive.
Some cacti do the opposite, and have long roots that go
down deep to collect the draining rain water.
Animals
The camel can drink hundred litres of water and walk for
several days without taking another drink.
Its feet have thick pads, which insulate it from the hot
desert sand. They are also webbed so that their weight is
spread out over a larger area- this reduces pressure on
the sand and stops the camel from sinking into it.
It has long legs which hold the body above the hot air
close to the ground.
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There are muscles in the camel’s nose that enable it to
shut it’s nostrils, this keeps sand out of it’s respiratory
system when there’s a sandstorm.
It has long eyelashes that prevents flying sand reaching
the eye. If it does, it has a third eyelid to get it out- it
moves side to side until the sand particle gets out. It is so
thin that camels can see through it, and often camels
keep this transparent eyelid closed when walking through
sandstorms.
If camels don’t find food, it uses energy stored in the fat in
its hump.
Desert plants have tough leaves, but the camel has strong
teeth to grind them up.
5.8. Adaptations to mountains
Plants
There are long seasons when it is too cold for plants to
grow, and the ground is covered with snow.
Plants may spend the cold season as seeds, and sprout
into life when warm conditions arrive.
The plants complete their life cycles in a few weeks, so
that the seeds are ready for the next season of cold
weather.
Some plants survive the cold by having hairy leaves. The
hairs prevent loss of water, and trap air to provide
insulation.
Mountain plants grow close to the ground. If they were
tall, they’d get damaged by the frequent strong winds at
high altitudes.
Animals
Birds such as the Golden Eagle and Raven visit the
mountaintops in summer to look for food but avoid them
in the winter.
Large animals like mountain goats and red deer also visit
the higher parts of the mountains to feed on the plants in
summer. But in the winter, they move closer to the foot of
the mountain to avoid being trapped in the snow.
The ptarmigan is a bird that remains on the mountainside
all year. It changes its plumage to white to blend in with
the snow and avoid predators.
Mountain hares also change their coat colour from brown
to white in the winter.
5.9. Adaptations to aquatic Habitats
Freshwater plants
Roots of land plants have oxygen around them in the air
spaces in the soil. In waterlogged mud at the bottom of a
pond there is very little oxygen for the root cells.
The stems of water plants such as water lilies have
cavities in them through which air can pass through the
roots.
CAIE CHECKPOINT SCIENCE

Water plants use gaseous exchange they produce, to hold Sea anemones also have a sucker-like base that helps
their bodies up in the water, and therefore do not need them to grip the sides of a rock pool.
strong supporting tissues as land plants do.
Minerals can be taken in from the water through the 5.10. Adaptations for feeding
shoot surfaces of the plants, leaving the roots to act as an
anchor.
Herbivores
The leaves of submerged water plants are thin, allowing
minerals in the water to pass through. They also have Organisms that eat plants are herbivores.
feathery structures that make a large surface area in Plant material is tough, so herbivores have adaptations
contact with the water - which increase mineral intake. that allow them to break it up for digestion.
Floating plants have roots that stabilize them. Herbivorous mammals like deer, cows, and sheep have
strong back teeth that can grind up the food.
Freshwater animals Caterpillars have strong jaws for nibbling along the edge
of a leaf.
The Diving Beetle lives underwater.
Slugs and snails have a tongue covered in tiny teeth,
It comes to the surface and pushes the tip of its abdomen
which they use like sandpaper to scrape away the surface
out of the water.
of the food.
It raises its wing covers and takes in air through breathing
Many herbivores from caterpillars to giraffes have body
holes called spiracles on its back.
colours that help them blend into their surroundings,
Land insects have spiracles on the sides of their bodies.
protecting them from predators.
When the wing covers are lowered, more air is trapped in
Deer hides in vegetation during the day and come out at
the hairs between them.
night when the predators can’t see them.
It is able to breathe air while it swims underwater.
Rabbits have eyes on the sides of their heads, giving them
a full rounded vision, so they can detect the carnivores
Marine algae
immediately.
Rabbits also have large ears that can turn to face all
Billions of algae live in the sunlit seas and oceans.
directions, so the sound of an approaching carnivore can
They contain drops of oil to helps them float, and long
be detected.
spines to slow down the speed at which they sink.
The more slowly they sink, the greater the chance of a
Carnivores
water current pushing them back up near to the surface.
These algae make food by photosynthesis, so it is
Organisms that eat other animals are carnivores.
important they remain under sunlight.
Spiders set web traps to catch their prey.
Seaweed are large algae that live at the edge of seas and
Frogs flick out their tongue to catch flies.
oceans and on rocky shores.
Many carnivorous mammals have large conical canine
They also need sunlit water.
teeth for stabbing their prey, and molars that are adapted
Since they live closer to the shore, there are strong
for holding bones while the jaw muscles crack them open
currents due to the tides. Seaweeds have root-like
for their marrow.
structures called holdfasts, which grip the rocks and stop
The shrew belongs to a group of mammals that feed on
the seaweeds from being swept away.
insects. It has pointed teeth, and this allows it to catch the
insect and chew it up.
Marine Animals
Owls and Eagles have long claws on their feet called
Animals that live on the ocean floor, such as the sea talons, which they use to grab and stab their prey. They
also have hooked beaks for ripping up their prey into
spider - have long legs to help them walkover the mud.
smaller pieces.
In the deep ocean water where sunlight doesn’t reach,
Carnivorous mammals and birds both have eyes that face
many animals have special organs that generate light.
Light generated by living things is called bioluminescence. forward. This means that the field of vision in each eye
overlap one another. This allows them to judge how far
Very little heat is generated by the chemical reactions that
away their prey is.
produce light, so the cells of the organism are not
They need to be able to judge distance extremely
damaged.
accurately to pounce on their prey. Else they will starve.
The light is used by the animals to recognise each other
and food. As herbivorous mammals are constantly on the lookout
for their predators, carnivores have to be stealthy.
Animals on the seashore are in danger of being swept
away by water currents. Lugworms and molluscs burrow
in sandy beaches to stay on the shore.
Limpets have a fleshy foot, which acts like a sucker to hold
6. The Planet
it in place on a rocky shore.

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CAIE CHECKPOINT SCIENCE
6.1. Types of fuel
Non-renewable sources
These fuels are finite resources and can be used up in our
lifetime.
These include: coal, oil and natural gas.
Over thousands and millions of years, dead organic
matter under a lot of heat and pressure formed into these
substances.
Coal is burnt to produce heat, which cause water to turn
to steam - turning a turbine and producing electricity.
Using these cause a lot of harm to our environment.
Renewable sources
These fuels are infinite and will last for billions of years.
These include: solar, wind, hydroelectricity, tidal and
geothermal.
This is more environment friendly.
6.2. Changes on land
Pesticides
When people started farming, local habitats were
destroyed to make space for crops and farm animals.
This destroyed organisms and food chains.
Today, farmers need to produce HUGE amounts of food,
so insects and pests that attack the crop must be killed.
Pesticides are chemicals that can kill these insects. But
they are also harmful to the entire food chain.
Pesticide slowly builds up in the body of the pest as it
feeds.
A bird eats this insect, so now the pesticide is inside the
bird’s body too.
A hawk eats the bird, and the pesticide is now in the
hawk’s body. The hawk eats many birds, so the amount of
pesticide inside the hawk’s body increases dangerously.
The poison can cause the hawk to lay weak-shelled eggs,
which fail to survive.
Mines
When factories and trade began to grow, large amounts
of fuel were required.
Coal mines were dug up, and large areas of land were
destroyed.
All these organisms lost their habitat, and soon died.
This destroys countless ecosystems.
6.3. Changes on sea
Oil spills
If there is a break in oil pipe at sea, or if an oil tanker has a
leak - an oil spillage occurs.
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Removing oil spills is very tough, and the damage can last
for years.
Oil coats the seagull’s wings, not allowing them to fly.
Oil covers the gills of the fish and chokes them.
This ends up killing many aquatic organisms in a short
amount of time, destroying the balance of the ecosystem.
6.4. Changes in the atmosphere
The greenhouse effect
Rays of the sun pass through the earth’s surface. Some of
the heat energy they carry warms the planet.
Rest of the heat energy is radiated back to space.
As it travels back through the atmosphere, some of it is
absorbed by Carbon dioxide (greenhouse gas).
The heat that is trapped by greenhouse gasses warms the
planet.
Today, large amounts of carbon dioxide and other
greenhouse gasses are entering the atmosphere due to
fossil fuels, increase in vehicle use, increase in factory
production, and mostly factory farming.
This makes the planet warmer.
The earth has the ability to cool down naturally over time.
But the rate of greenhouse gas production due to human
activities is faster than the earth’s natural rate.
The warming of the earth causes very dangerous changes
to habitats around the world.
Increase in sea level, melting of polar regions, islands
submerging, forest fires, droughts, floods, and more.
Acid rain
There are some gasses occurring naturally in the
atmosphere that dissolve in the water droplets in clouds -
making the rain slightly acidic.
Some of the gases contain sulphur - which is produced by
erupting volcanoes and algae that live in the sea.
Some other acidic gases containing nitrogen, are
produced by lightning reacting with nitrogen in the
atmosphere.
These gases are also produced when fossil fuels are
burnt at power stations and factories.
Acid rain kills plants and causes soil damage. It turns
water bodies acidic - killing all organisms that can’t
survive in low pH levels.
The ozone layer
In the 1920s, gases called chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)
were made. They were used for keeping things cool in
fridges and air conditioning. The CFCs entered the
atmosphere.
In the 1980s, scientists noticed that holes were developing
in the ozone layer around the North and South Poles.
CFCs destroy the ozone layer - which helps reflect back
warmth into space and cools down the earth.
CAIE CHECKPOINT SCIENCE

Governments of 196 countries have agreed to reduce the

7.2. Vertebrates
use of these chemicals.
Have internal skeleton.
7. Classification and Variation Mammals

7.1. Invertebrates Fur/hair on skin

Have a placenta
Do not have internal skeleton of cartilage, or bone. Young feed on milk from mammary glands
Coelenterates - aquatic invertebrates (jellyfish, corals, Externals ears ( pinna) visible
and sea anemones) Endothermic - absorbs heat
Flatworms - Single flattened body without blood vessels, Warm blooded
containing only one digestive tract (tapeworms, parasite Types of mammals - Insectivores, Carnivores, Rodents,
worms) Primates
Nematode Worms - Thin, cylindrical bodies that are not Example : Humans and monkeys are primates
divided into segments
Annelids - Long, thin, soft bodies divided into segments Birds
(earthworm)
Arthropods - invertebrates with jointed legs Skin covered in feathers
Molluscs - Soft, unsegmented body with a hard protective Have 2 legs + 2 wings instead of forelimbs
shell (snails, slugs, mussels) Lay eggs with hard shells on land
Echinoderms - marine invertebrates with hard, spiny Have beaks
covering on skin (starfish, sea urchin) Endothermic - absorbs heat
Warm blooded
Example : Kingfisher, Eagle
Arthropods
Reptiles
Myriapods
Dry scaly skin
Contains multiple segments Fixed scales - they don’t move
Each segment contains at least 1 pair of jointed legs Lay eggs with rubbery shells on land
1 pair of antennae Cold blooded
Example : Lizard, Alligator
Insects
Amphibians
3 part body ( Head, Thorax, Abdomen)
3 pairs of jointed legs Smooth, moist, slimy skin
2 pairs of wings Adults live on land - has lungs
1 pair of antennae Larvae live on water - has gills
1 pair of compound eyes - hundreds of separate lenses
Lay eggs without shells in water
with light sensitive cells beneath Cold blooded
Example : Frog
Arachnids
Fish
2 part body ( Cephalothorax, Abdomen)
4 pairs of jointed legs Wet skin
Several pairs of simple eyes
Loose scales - move easily
Chelicerae for biting and poisoning prey Lay eggs without shells in water
Cold blooded
Crustaceans Breathes with gills

2-part body ( Cephalothorax, Abdomen)

More than 4 pairs of jointed legs 7.3. Plant kingdom
Exoskeleton formed from hardened calcium
Breathes through gills Algae
2 pairs of antennae
1 pair of compound eyes Do not have roots, stems, or leaves
Contains green pigment called chlorophyll - which all
plants have.

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Most species of algae need a microscope to be seen.
When they occur in large numbers, they can be clearly
seen.
They turn pond water green, form bright green patches
on tree trunks, and create slime on rocks.
Algae form a large part of the plankton that is found in
seas and oceans.
Liverworts and Mosses
Discontinuous variation
Liverworts are small plants that do not have true roots,
stems, or leaves.
They grow in damp places near streams or ponds.
Mosses have stems and leaves, but no roots.
They are found growing together in different habitats. Dry
walls, soils, etc
Both liverworts and mosses reproduce by producing
spores.
Spores are made in a capsule, which is carried by the air.
The capsule opens to let out tiny spores - which are
spread by air currents.
8. How Plants Grow
Ferns
8.1. Testing for starch
Has true toots and stems.
Reproduces by making spores.
Spores are made in structures called sporangia on the
underside of the fern’s leaves called fronds.
When the sporangia opens, spores are released to the air.
Conifers
Has roots, woody stem, and needle-like leaves.
They are evergreen. They lose and replace their leaves all
year round.
Almost all conifers reproduce by making seeds that
develop in cones.
When seeds are ready, the cone opens up and the seeds
fall out.
Each seeds has a ‘wing’ that prevents the seed from
falling quickly, and allows the wind to blow it away.
Flowering plants
De-starching a plant
Has root, stem, and leaves.
In some plants the stem is woody.
All these plants reproduce by flowering and making
seeds.
7.4. Variation
Continuous variation
Features that vary in small amounts from one individual to
the next of the same species
Features that have a wide range of characterization.
Effect of CO2 on starch production
Examples: height, body mass
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Examples: A healthy human new-born can weigh between
2.5 to 3.6 kg. This is a range, and new-borns can fall
anywhere between these values.
Environmental factors like nutrition, exercise and
healthcare can affect these features.
Example: A child growing in poverty in a under-developed
country will be malnourished and will have a lesser body
mass.
Distinct features that have no in-between values.
Examples: blood group, sex
Example: A human can have only one blood group. For
example, they can either be O or AB. They can’t change
this.
Environmental factors cannot affect these features.
Example: A child’s blood group will remain the same since
birth no matter where they grow up.
Plant cells are found to contain colourless grains of starch
under the microscope. This is quite difficult to see, so
dilute solution of iodine is added. This makes the starch
turn blue-black.
1. Place a leaf in boiling water for few minutes. This
removes the cell wall and allows the starch-identifying
agent iodine to enter the cells.
2. Now put the leaf in a test-tube of ethanol and hold it
above a warm water bath. Ethanol is volatile and
cannot be directly heated. It removes the green-
pigment chlorophyll and allows us to see the colour
change easily.
3. Use tweezers to place the leaf on a petri-dish.
4. Add few drops of iodine solution.
5. The leaf turns blue-black in the presence of starch.
In an experiment where you have to check if starch has
been made by the plant, you have to start out with a plant
that does not contain starch.
1. A green plant with leaves containing starch must be
left in darkness for 2-3 days. Cutting off access to light
prevents photosynthesis, and glucose (simpler form of
starch) isn’t produced.
2. Test the leaves to make sure they’re starch-free.
3. This is a de-starched plant.
CAIE CHECKPOINT SCIENCE
Soda Lime- substance that absorbs Carbon dioxide and
takes it out of the air.
Sodium hydrogencarbonate solution - liquid that releases
Carbon dioxide into the air.
1. Set up two identical destarched plants and cover them
with transparent plastic bags, sealing them around the
pot using elastic bands.
2. Before sealing them, place a small dish of soda lime
inside pot A and a dish of sodium hydrogencarbonate
inside B.
3. Leave both plants in daylight for a few hours.
4. Test a leaf from plant A and a leaf from B for starch.
5. Conclusion - leaf from plant with soda lime (absorbs
CO2) didn’t contain starch, this suggests that CO2 is
necessary for starch production.
Investigating oxygen production in
plants
Water plants can be used to investigate the gases
produced as they escape from the leaf surface in bubbles
that are easily seen and collected.
1. Set up two samples of pondweed as shown in the
figure.
2. Place one sample in a sunny spot, and the other in the
dark.
3. After a week, examine the gas collected in the two test
tubes.
4. The plant under sunlight would have produced gas,
and the plant in the dark would have not.
5. Test the gas using a glowing splint. The splint should
re-ignite, showing that the gas contained more oxygen
than normal air.
8.2. Biomass
Is the amount of matter or mass in a living thing, and can
be found by weighing it.
Wet biomass - mass of a living thing when it is alive.
Dry biomass - mass of a living thing when it’s dead and
dried out (water is removed)
It is used to monitor the environment and as an
approximate measure of a species within a habitat.
Minerals
Soil contains substances called mineral salts.
Plants need different mineral salts in different amounts to
survive.
The minerals dissolve in the water in the soil and are
taken up by the plants via the roots.
They move through the plant to where they’re needed.
8.3. Transport of water in plants
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Root hair cells
Root hair cells - tiny hair like projections in the roots that
increase the surface area of absorption.
They grow between soil particles and take in large
quantities of water.
Water in the soil is drawn in to replace the water that has
evaporated from the leaves.
Plants do not require energy to take in water.
Mineral salts are dissolved in soil water, and root cells use
energy made from respiration to take in the salts.
Roots get oxygen to respire from the air spaces between
soil particles.
Xylem and Vascular bundles
Cells in the plant form tubes to transport water. They form
columns in the plant and the cells die, causing the walls
between them to break down - forming tubes.
Each water conducting tube is called a xylem (pronounced
zylem) vessel.
A group of vessels form a xylem tissue, which make up a
part of structures called vascular bundles.
They run through the plant from the root to the leaf where
they form leaf veins.
Roots and water
The root has the ability to push water up the plant only a
little way.
Water reaches all parts of the stem due to the action of
the leaves.
8.4. Role of the leaf
Structure
Epidermis- upper and lower layer of the leaf, one cell
thick.
Outer surface of epidermal cells has a layer of wax which
prevents water passing in/out of the leaf.
Palisade tissue- layer of palisade cells found below upper
epidermis, involved in making food.
Spongy Mesophyll tissue- layer of cells below palisade
layer, make food and also provide a surface for
evaporation of water.
CAIE CHECKPOINT SCIENCE

Vascular bundle- contains xylem tissue (carries water and

minerals) and phloem tissue (carries amino acids and
sucrose)

Leaves and water

When water evaporates from cells in the spongy

mesophyll layer, water vapour forms.
If there is less water vapour outside than inside the leaf,
water vapour diffuses out through the stomata.
This makes the spongy mesophyll cells short of water, so
they take more from the xylem tissue in the veins.
The water lost in the veins is replaced by water passing up
the xylem in the stem and root.
Transpiration- process by which plants lose water from
their leaves.
Transpiration stream- movement of water from the roots
through the stem due to loss of water in the leaves

9.2. Carbohydrates
Structure

Made from the elements carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen.

The atoms of these elements link together to form
molecules of sugar.
Most commonly occurring and simplest molecule is
glucose.
Testing for transpiration
Multiple glucose molecules linking together in long chains
1. Place a plastic bag around the shoot of a pot plant. form larger macromolecules such as starch.
2. Wait for a day, and test the liquid collected inside the
bag.
Uses in the body
3. If it is water, it should turn cobalt chloride paper pink.
Cellulose is a carbohydrate which makes up cell wall of
plant cells. It is known as dietary fibre in foods. We cannot
9. Healthy Diet digest this, but it helps to move food along the intestines.
As fibre moves through the large intestine, bacteria feed
on it and add bulk to the food.
9.1. Nutrients Fibre also takes up water like a sponge and this makes the
undigested food form soft faeces.
Chemicals needed by the body to keep it in good health If a person’s diet lacks fibre, they may suffer from
are called nutrients. constipation.
The human body needs a large number of nutrients to Carbohydrates are instant sources of energy, as they are
keep it healthy. broken down to glucose in the digestive tract. Glucose can
In addition, the body also needs water. It accounts for 70% be oxidised to produce energy.
of the body’s weight.

9.3. Fats
Structure

Made from a large number of carbon and hydrogen

atoms linked into long chains with a few oxygen atoms.
Saturated fats - produced by animals, required in
moderate amounts for the human diet, hard to digest.
Unsaturated fats - produced from plants, no harm to
human diet, easy to digest.

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Uses in the body Vitamin Effect on Body Deficiency Good Sources

- Helps in
Needed for the formation of cell membranes. metabolism
Contains more energy than carbohydrates.
(converting food
The body cannot release the energy in fats as quickly as in Bread, Milk,
B1 into energy) \n - - Beriberi \n -
carbohydrates. So fats are used to store energy. Brown rice,
(Thiamine) Maintains and Anaemia
In mammals the fat forms a layer under the skin, acts as a Soybean, Potato
helps in the
heat insulator and keeps the mammal warm in cold making of
conditions.
healthy cells
Many mammals increase their body fat in autumns so
- Helps body
that they can use the stored energy if little food is
absorb iron
available in the winter.
which is needed - Scurvy (poor
Some plants store oil in their seeds.
for RBC oral and gum Blackcurrant,
C production \n - health, leading Orange, Lemon,
9.4. Proteins Helps maintain to bleeding and Papaya, Guava
healthy body infections)
Structure tissues and
immune system
Made form atoms of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen
- Helps in
and sometimes sulfur.
absorption of
Atoms of these elements join to make molecules of amino
calcium which is Egg yolk, Butter,
acids. - Rickets
necessary for Cod-liver oil,
Amino acids link together to form protein molecules. (disease where
D healthy bones, Pilchard,
bones become
teeth and skin. Herring,
Uses in the body soft and bend)
\n - Essential for Sunlight
Are the building blocks of the body. collagen
Needed for building structures inside cells and the protection
formations of tissues and organs.
Helps in growth, repair of damaged parts, and replaces
tissues that are constantly worn out (eg: lining of the
10. Digestion
mouth)
Enzymes, hormones, and antibodies are made from 10.1. Breakdown of food
proteins.
Physical breakdown
9.5. Vitamins
Incisors- chisel shaped, used for biting down into soft
Vitamin Effect on Body Deficiency Good Sources foods (fruits)
Canines- fang shaped, can tear into tougher foods (meat)
- Helps in the
Premolars, Molars- raised parts called cusps with
formation of
grooves, used to grind and crush food at back of the
mucus lining to
mouth,
the respiratory,
We have 20 sets of milk teeth that emerge at 6 months
digestive and - Poor immunity
and are fully formed by year 3 of life.
excretory \n - Night Milk, Liver, Cod-
A They are replaced by 32 permanent teeth from age 7 to
systems. Lining blindness, and liver oil
17.
protects against poor vision.
infection from
microorganisms
\n - Helps to see
in the dark

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Longitudinal muscles contract to stretch the circular

muscles once again.
The wave of muscular contraction is called peristalsis, you
can feel the movement against your throat when you
swallow.

Chemical breakdown 10.3. Organs and their roles

Carbohydrates, fats and protein are large molecules that
are made of chains of smaller molecules. They do not
Stomach
dissolve in water and cannot pass through the lining of
Glands lining the stomach wall produce hydrochloric acid
our digestive system and into the blood stream.
and pepsin (protein digesting enzyme)
Digestive enzymes catalyse (speed up) the breakdown of
HCl acid kills bacteria in the food and provides ideal acidic
larger molecules into smaller ones.
conditions for the enzyme pepsin to function optimally.
Region of Food is churned by the peristaltic waves created by the
Type of enzyme Notes muscles at a rate of 3 per minute.
production
Food is prevented from leaving the stomach by a valve -
Salivary glands Enzyme is called
Carbohydrase opens once food is digested into chyme (creamy liquid)
in mouth salivary amylase
and allows it to pass into the duodenum.
Enzyme is called
pepsin \n Duodenum, liver and pancreas
Gastric glands in
Protease Hydrochloric acid is
mouth
used to make the Duodenum is a part of the small intestine and is
enzyme work connected to the stomach.
Protease, Enzymes enter the A green liquid called bile enters the duodenum via the bile
Pancreas Carbohydrase, duodenum and mix duct from the gall bladder.
Lipase with food and bile. Bile is made in the liver and contains chemicals that
mechanically breakdown fat into smaller droplets. Allows
lipase to break down the lipids faster, as there is higher
10.2. Chewing and swallowing surface area.
Pancreatic juices enter the duodenum via the pancreatic
Saliva is made up by 3 pairs of salivary glands which are
duct from the pancreas.
made up by groups of cells, and salivary ducts (tubes)
The juices contain a mix of chemicals that digest fat,
deliver it to the mouth. carbohydrates and proteins.
Saliva is 99% water and also contains a slimy substance
called mucin and an enzyme called amylase.
Mucin coats the food and makes it easy to swallow.
Amylase begins the breakdown of starch molecules in the
food into sugar molecules.
Once you chew the food, it is made into a pellet called the
bolus. It is pushed to the back of the mouth by the tongue.
Swallowing causes the bolus to slide down your gullet
(food pipe / oesophagus)
The oesophagus has an outer longitudinal muscle layer
and an inner circular muscle layer.
Circular muscles on the top of the gullet contract and
push food along the tube.

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Water and dissolved vitamins are absorbed into the body.

Remaining semi-solid substance forms the faeces, which
is stored in the later part of the large intestine known as
the rectum.
Faeces are removed from the body in a process called
egestion/defecation through the anus once a day.

Small Intestine

Cells lining the wall of the small intestine make enzymes

that complete the digestion of carbohydrates and
proteins.
Small molecules are soluble and pass through the walls of
the small intestine and into the blood stream, where they
are sent to all the cells in the body.

Large insoluble molecule Small soluble molecule

Protein Amino acid
Carbohydrates Sugar 11. The Circulatory System
Fats Fatty acids + glycerol
Transports substances around the body in the blood.
Substances include digested food - amino acids, glucose,
fatty acids and glycerol along with oxygen taken in by
lungs and carbon dioxide produced in body cells.
Blood is moved by the pumping action of the heart and
directed around the body by blood vessels.

11.1. The heart

Oxygenation of blood

1. Right atrium receives deoxygenated blood from the

body via the vena cava.
2. Blood enters the right ventricle via the bicuspid valve
3. Blood is pumped into the lungs through the pulmonary
artery (only artery that carries deoxygenated blood)
4. Blood is oxygenated in the lungs, and enters the left
atrium of the heart via the pulmonary vein (only vein
that carries oxygenated blood)
5. Blood flows into left ventricle via tricuspid valve
6. Heart pumps the blood with force to the aorta - which
then sends the blood to all parts of the body.

10.4. Egestion Functions

Valves prevent backflow of blood.

Indigestible parts of the food, such as cellulose pass on
through the small intestine to the large intestine and
colon.
First part of the large intestine is known as the caecum,
the rest is the colon.
Thick section of cardiac muscle called septum separate
the left and right side of the heart.
Muscles are the thickest around the left ventricle. When
contracted, it increases the pressure of the oxygenated
blood before it passes into the aorta.

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Arteries branch into smaller blood vessels called

arterioles
The smallest blood vessel are called capillaries
Walls are only one cell thick, gasses can diffuse in and out
rapidly.
Are spread throughout the organ so all cells have
oxygenated blood passing close to them.
Where the blood leaves an organ, capillaries join together
to form larger vessels called venules, carrying
deoxygenated blood.
Venules branch together to form larger veins.
Carry both oxygenated and deoxygenated blood
Connect arterioles and venules together
Blood is at its lowest pressure, else the one cell thick walls
will burst.

11.3. Composition of Blood

45% of a drop of blood is made from cells.
Red Blood Cells contain haemoglobin, which transport
oxygen from the lungs to other parts of the body.
Haemoglobin allows the blood to carry 100x more oxygen
that the same amount of water.
\
White Blood Cells fight disease, attack bacteria and
produce chemicals to stop viral infections.
WBCs gather at the site of a wound and engulf bacteria
that try to enter the body. White cells die in the process
and their bodies collect to form pus in the wound.
\
Platelets are fragments of cells which collect in the
capillaries at the site of the wound and act to block the
11.2. Blood vessels flow of blood, forming clots.
Clots stop blood leaking out of the wound, preventing
Arteries blood loss.
\
Carry oxygenated blood 55% of the blood is a watery liquid called plasma.
Away from the heart, towards parts of the body Contains digested foods, hormones, waste products from
Blood is at high pressure the liver (urea) and carbon dioxide produced by body
Arteries have thick walls with elastic fibres and a cells.
muscular layer which stretches and shrinks as the blood
moves through it
11.4. Movement of molecules
This movement of the artery wall makes a pulse. When an
artery passes close to the skin, the pulse can be felt
Moving oxygen to the cells
It is used to count how fast the heart is beating
Oxygen enters RBCs via the capillaries in the lungs, and
Veins
then travel along the pulmonary vein to the heart, where
the aorta distributes the oxygenated blood to the body.
Carry deoxygenated blood
The one-cell thick capillary walls maximise diffusion as it
Towards the heart, away from parts of the body
has a large surface area.
Blood is at low pressure
Veins have thin walls than arteries, made of fibrous tissue.
Moving carbon dioxide to the lungs
Veins contain valves to prevent the slow moving blood
from flowing backward.
CO2 is a product of aerobic respiration.
It leaves the cells where it is produces and passes through
Capillaries
the walls of the capillaries, into the plasma in the blood.

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It travels along the veins which take the blood back to the
right side of the heart.
From here, the deoxygenated (CO2 containing) blood
enters the pulmonary artery and travels to the lungs.
Carbon dioxide escapes through the capillary walls, into
the air in the alveoli (refer Respiratory System notes)
Moving glucose to the cells
Glucose contains the store of energy that is released
during respiration.
Glucose passes through the walls of the small intestine
and into blood plasma in the capillaries.
It travels in the plasma along the veins to the right side of
the heart, then passes to the lungs where it picks up
oxygen.
Then the blood passes into the left side of the heart, and
into the aorta.
From here the body travels along arteries and takes the
glucoses to the body again
11.5. A healthy heart
Heart problems and disease
Walls of the arteries are elastic, and in young people they
are free from obstruction and their diameters are large
enough to let the blood flow with ease.
As the body ages, the wall become less elastic.
Fatty substances such as cholesterol stick to the walls.
Calcium settles in the fatty layer and forms a raised patch
called an atheroma.
Blood has lesser space to pass along the artery, and its
pressure rises as it pushes through the narrow tubes.
Other components of the blood such as platelets settle on
the atheroma and make it larger.
This may cause a blood clot (which narrows the artery
even more) or can completely block it, causing
thrombosis. Artery cannot supply oxygen and nutrients to
the relevant organ.
Thrombosis in coronary artery (blood vessel that supplies
blood to the heart) causes heart attack.
Thrombosis in a brain artery causes stroke.
Features that develop in the body that cause heart
disease can be inherited. People who have relatives with
heart disease should take care to keep their own heart
and circulatory system healthy.
Keeping the heart healthy
Heart muscles require exercise to remain strong, just like
the rest of our muscles.
Heart muscles contract more quickly and strongly during
exercise that it does it at rest, so that more can be
pumped to your muscles that need extra oxygen.
Regular exercise keeps the organs healthy and uses up
large amounts of fat building up in the body.
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To prevent cholesterol blocking the arteries leading to the
heart, a lower fat diet can be adopted.
People who have high-fat diets and are obese will cause
strain to their hearts as it has to push the blood to the
enlarged body. The extra strain on the heart and the
build-up of fatty substances in the coronary artery can
cause the heart muscle to fail, leading to heart attack.
12. Respiratory System
12.1. Breathing and respiration
Breathing describes the movement of air in and out of the
lungs.
Respiration covers the whole process by which oxygen is
taken into the body and transported to the cells and used
in a reaction with glucose to release energy, with the
water and carbon dioxide as the waste products.
12.2. Air passages
The nose
Air enters normally via the nose.
Hairs in the nose trap some of the dust particles carried in
air currents.
Lining of the nose produces a watery liquid called mucus -
makes the air moist as it passes inwards + traps bacteria
carried in air currents.
Blood vessels beneath the nasal lining release heat that
warms the air before it passes into the lungs.
The trachea (windpipe)
About 10 cm long and 1.5 cm wide
Made from rings of cartilage, a fairly rigid substance.
Each ring is shaped like a ‘C’.
Mucus secreting cells lining the windpipe trap dust
particles and bacteria, preventing them from entering the
lungs.
Ciliated epithelial cells are microscopic hairs which beat
back and forth to move the mucus to the top of the
windpipe. Mucus enters the back of the mouth and is
swallowed.
Bronchi and bronchioles
Windpipe is divided into two smaller tubes called bronchi
(singular - bronchus) which extend into each individual
lung.
Both have the same lining as the windpipe, and are also
made of hoops of cartilage.
Bronchi divide into many smaller tubes called bronchioles,
which have a diameter of 1mm.
Bronchioles divide further many times.
Walls of the bronchioles are made of muscle (do not have
hoops of cartilage)
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Wall muscles can make the bronchioles narrower/wider.
People suffering from asthma or have allergies to certain
proteins in food/proteins that come from dust and
feathers.
Presence of these proteins in the air affects muscles of
the bronchioles, causing them to make the air passages
narrower, making breathing difficult.
A person suffering from asthmatic attack can use an
inhaler that releases chemicals to make the muscles
relax, widening the bronchioles, allowing ease of
breathing.
12.3. Air pump
Chest wall
Made by ribs and their muscles.
Each rib is attached to the backbone by a join that allows
only small amount of movement.
Muscles in-between the ribs are called the internal and
external intercostal muscles, which cause movement of
the ribs.
Tidal volume - amount of air breathed in and out of rest
(500 cm3 in humans)
Vital capacity - maximum amount of air that can be
breathed in and out (4000 cm3 in humans)
12.4. Gaseous exchange
Alveoli
At the end of each bronchiole is a very short tube called
the alveolar duct
Alveoli open into this duct (bubble like structures)
Each alveoli have a moist lining + thin wall + supplied with
tiny blood vessels called capillaries.
Forms the respiratory surface.
Gaseous exchange takes place here.
Spongy structure of lungs is produced by 300 million
alveoli: increases surface area for gaseous exchange.

Diaphragm

Large sheet of muscle attached to the edges of the tenth

pair of ribs and the backbone.
Separates the chest cavity (contains the lungs and the
heart) from the lower body cavity (stomach, intestines,
liver, kidneys, female reproductive organs)

Breathing movements

Breathing movement Inspiration Exhalation

How it works
External intercostal
Contract Relax
muscles 1. Oxygen from inhaled air moves by diffusion through
Rib action Move up Move down the walls of the alveolus and the capillary next to it.
Diaphragm muscles Contract Relax 2. Oxygen diffuses into the blood and enters the red
Moves down + Moves up + dome blood cells, which contain a dark red substance called
Diaphragm action haemoglobin.
flattens shaped
3. Oxygen binds with haemoglobin to make
Chest volume Increases Decreases
oxyhaemoglobin, which is bright red.
Air Moves in Moves out 4. Oxygen can now be transported by the cell more
easily to the parts of the body, after it has binded.
5. Carbon dioxide is dissolved in the watery part of the
blood called plasma.
6. CO2 moves by diffusion through the capillary and
alveolar walls.
7. Changes into a gas it leaves the moist lining of the
alveolus.
8. CO2 is exhaled.
9. Blood moves through the capillaries very quickly, large
amounts of oxygen and carbon dioxide can be
exchanged in a short time.

Depth of breathing

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12.5. Types of respiration
Aerobic respiration
Energy is released when sugar molecules take part in a
chemical reaction with oxygen.
Glucose is broken down by oxygen, producing carbon
dioxide and water as waste products.
glucose + oxygen → carbon dioxide + water + energy
Anaerobic respiration
Occurs when body doesn’t get enough oxygen for aerobic
respiration to take place (e.g. when you exercise, and you
cannot breathe fast enough to get the oxygen to release
energy for your muscles)
Body responds by releasing the energy anyway by
breaking down glucose and producing lactic acid as a by-
product.
Lactic acid is toxic to the body if it builds up in the muscles
for too long, it can be broken down by aerobic respiration.
That’s why after exercising you take deep breaths to
increase oxygen intake, allowing the body to respire
aerobically and break down the lactic acid.
12.6. Smoking and health
Cigarette smoke
Nicotine is a chemical that is the addictive component of
smoking.
Other chemicals in the smoke swirl around the air
passages and the linings
The heat from the smoke and the chemicals damages the
cilia lining, so the dust trapped in the mucus are unable to
be moved away.
More mucus is produced and is coughed up by a jet of air
as the lungs exhale strongly (smoker’s cough), instead of
the cilia carrying it up.
Impacts on the body
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During smoker’s cough, the amount of dirty mucus
reaching the throat may be too much to swallow.
Chronic bronchitis develops, the lining of the bronchus
becomes inflamed and open to infections from
microorganisms.
Inflammation of the air passages makes breathing more
difficult and the smoker develops a permanent cough.
Coughing causes the already weakened walls of the
alveoli to burst - reducing the surface area of the lungs to
respire.
This leads to a disease called emphysema, where the
alveoli is greatly reduced, causing breathing issues and
leading to formation of air pockets in the lungs
Cancer
Cells lining the air passages are killed by smoke.
They are replaced by cells below them as they divide and
grow.
The chemicals in the smoke can alter the DNA of the new
cells, causing mutations.
The new cells containing mutations divide uncontrollably
and are called cancer cells.
These cells replace the normal cells in the tissues around
them, but do not perform the functions of the cells they’ve
replaced.
The cancer cells continue to divide until they form a lump
called a tumour.
Tumours block the airway or break up and spread to other
parts of the lung where more tumours can develop.
13. # Male reproductive
organs
Testicles is the male gonad- sperm cells are developed
here.
Testicles develop inside the body of the unborn child and
usually move down to the outside before the baby is born.
Scrotum is a bag of muscle and skin that holds the
testicles.
They are positioned outside the body because the
conditions are cooler, more optimal for sperm production.
Seminiferous tubules are long microscopic pipes found
inside each testicle. Male gametes/sex cells are made
here.
Epididymis is a long-coiled tube where the sperm collect,
found on top of the testicle.
Sperms cells travel to the outside of the body along the
sperm duct and the urethra.
Glands along this path add liquid to the sperm cells, called
seminal fluid/semen.
Urethra runs through the middle of the penis. Also
connected to the bladder and is the tube through which
urine flows.
Semen and urine do not flow down the urethra at the
same time.
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The penis contains spongy tissue along its length that can
fill with blood to make it hard stiff and erect.
Glans penis (tip of the penis) has a large number of
receptors and is very sensitive.
The glans is covered with a fold of skin called the foreskin.
If circumcision has taken place, the foreskin will have
been removed.
Reproduction in Humans
13.2. Secondary sexual characteristics
Up until 20 years of age, sex of the child can only be
determined by looking at genitalia, until further changes
begin.
The pituitary gland beneath the brain (behind the nose) is
an organ that secretes hormones into the blood.
Hormones are chemicals that circulate all around the
body via the blood stream but have effect on specific
target organs/parts.
At around the age of 10-13 in females and 12-14 in males,
the gland secretes increased amounts of a growth
hormone and gonadotrophin.
Growth hormone travels across the body, stimulates
growth in hands, feet, hips, chest, and legs.
Gonadotrophin stimulates production of sex hormones.
In females sex hormones are produced in the ovaries and
are called oestrogen and progesterone.
In males they are produced in the testes or testicles and
the hormone is called testosterone
Sex hormones cause the development of body features
known as secondary sexual characteristics.
These changes take place in the first half of adolescence
and is called puberty.
It takes about 3 years in girls, may take longer in boys. It
varies person to person.
When the changes are complete, each person is capable
of reproduction.
Males Females
Facial hair + growth of hair in Growth of hair in armpits and
armpits and pubic region pubic region
Voice becomes lower and
Breasts develop
deeper
Growth of penis and testicles Growth of vagina and uterus
Shoulder broadens Pelvis widens
13.3. Female reproductive system
Ovaries develop inside the body, unlike testicles. Egg
production (ova/ovum) can take place only at body
temperature.
Each ovary contains about 200,000 potential egg cells
(female gametes)
Eggs are released as part of the menstrual cycle.
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When released, it passes through the oviduct - a tube that
connects to the uterus.
If egg is fertilised it develops into foetus in the uterus
Uterus is connected to the vagina by the cervix.
Vagina opens to the outside next to the opening of the
urethra.
Both openings are protected by folds of skin called labia
These folds also protect a region about the size of a small
pea called the clitoris, it has a large number of the
receptors like the glans of the penis.
13.4. Menstrual cycle
From the beginning of puberty, the menstrual cycle occurs
every month in females (approx.)
It does not take place during pregnancy.
It includes a period of bleeding from the vagina which may
last for about 4 days.
During this time an egg starts to mature in one of the
ovaries. About 10-12 days after the bleeding ends, the
egg is released from the ovary.
Alternate ovaries release an egg each month.
Egg is then moved down the fluid filled oviduct by
movement of cilia in the oviduct walls.
At the same time as the egg matures in the ovary, the
uterine wall and its tissues thicken with blood.
It does this to prepare to receive a newly formed embryo
in case fertilisation takes place.
The egg may survive for up to 2 days in the oviduct and
fertilisation can take place during this short window.
If egg isn’t fertilised, no further development of the egg
takes place.
After 12 days after the egg dies, the uterine wall breaks
down and blood passes out of the vagina along with tissue
fluid, and other waste substances.
The length of the time of the period of bleeding differs
between people, and so does the amount of blood
released.
Some may feel ill before their period starts, some may
experience low to extreme cramps and abdominal pain
during their period. Some are unaffected too.
The menstrual cycle starts around puberty (10 -13) and
continues every month until the beginning of menopause
(which starts about the age of 45)
During menopause, periods become irregular and
eventually stop.
Menopause may end when a woman is in her early 50s,
and her body stops producing eggs each month.
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Only a few thousands enter the oviduct, and even more

die so that only a few hundred reach their destination.
Sperm may survive for two or three days here before they
die.
During this time if the sperm meets an egg, fertilisation
may occur.

Movement of the egg

The egg is much larger than a sperm cell because it

contains its own food store.
This is to provide energy and materials for the early
development of the embryo upon fertilisation.
Unlike the sperm, the egg has no means of propulsion.
It is moved by the action of cilia in the walls of the oviduct.
13.5. Sexual intercourse They wave to and fro to push the egg cell along.

Copulation
13.6. Fertilisation
Before sexual intercourse can take place, the penis must
When the sperm cells meet an egg in the oviduct, they
become erect.
crowd around it.
This happens by the action of a muscle at the base of the
The head of only one sperm cell penetrates the cell
penis.
membrane of the egg.
The blood collects in the spongy tissue and makes it
The sperm cell’s head breaks off from the tail and moves
expand and harden.
through the egg cell’s cytoplasm to the nucleus.
Prior to intercourse the vagina may also widen to each the
When the head reaches the nucleus fertilisation takes
passage of the penis into it
place
The lining of the vagina may secrete fluid that acts as a
Nucleus of the sperm and nucleus of the egg fuse
lubricant and further helps the penis to enter the vagina.
Fertilised egg is called a zygote.
When the penis is inside the vagina both partners may
Changes to the cell membrane around the zygote prevent
make thrusting movements to stimulate the sensitive
other sperm heads from entering and fusing with the
areas of the penis and clitoris
nucleus.
This may give each partner a feeling of pleasure called an
The nuclei of the sperm and egg contain genetic code
orgasm.
(instructions) for the development of the baby.
When the male has an orgasm, it is accompanied by a
If the zygote becomes implanted into the uterine wall, it
contraction of the muscles in the epididymis and sperm
can develop into a baby.
ducts which propels the semen through the penis into the
The period of time from fertilisation (conception) to the
vagina.
birth of the baby is known as pregnancy.
The action of releasing semen is called ejaculation.
Volume of semen ejected is usually 3-5cm^3.

Path of the sperm

Semen ejaculated into the top of the vagina contains over

400 million sperm.
Sperm cells do not contain a food store to provide them
with energy for movement.
They get nourishment from the seminal fluid which
provides each sperm with energy to lash its tail like a whip
- this movement drives the sperm forwards.
Sperm travel through the cervix and up the mucus lining 13.7. Development of the baby
of the uterus wall and into the oviducts
It takes about 4-6 hours to make their journey. Implantation
Millions dies on the way due to the toxic environment of
the uterus, which is unsuitable for sperm to live in. Some After fertilisation the zygote divides into two cells, then 4,
may die as they are not fast enough, or not strong enough then 8 and so on
to travel all the way up to the oviduct. The zygote does not increase in size in the first seven
days, so cells become smaller each division.

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By the 7th day, the cells have formed a hollow ball and Amnion and its fluid
have reached the uterus.
The ball sinks into the thick lining of the uterus, which has During the development of the foetus a bag forms around
a large amount of blood passing through it’s tissues. it called the amniotic sac.
This process is called implantation, and now the zygote This contains watery fluid.
will develop into an embryo. The fluid acts like a cushion around the foetus and
protects it form pressures outside the uterus that might
Placenta squash it.
The fluid also allows the foetus to float freely so that the
The cells on the surface of the hollow ball of cells of the growing limbs have space to develop and are not pressed
zygote will form the placenta. against the wall of the uterus; where the growth would be
This takes in food and oxygen from the mother’s blood so restricted.
that cells can grow and divide.
Waste products such as CO2 from cell’s activities pass Embryo and foetus
across the placenta to the mother’s blood, so she can
remove them through her own lungs or kidney. Although most people refer to a baby growing in the
During pregnancy the placenta grows into a disc with a uterus, embryo and foetus is most used in the early stage.
diameter of about 20 cm. Most cells in the hollow ball form the embryo.
It forms microscopic finger like projections called villi that
penetrate into the uterus wall and make a very large Time period Foetus size Development
surface area for the exchange of material between the 2 weeks >2 cm Flat disc of tissue
baby and the mother. Simple body shape with stumps
The placenta is attached to the developing baby by the 4 weeks > 2cm
where the limbs would grow
umbilical cord.
All organ systems have been
Blood runs through vessels in the cord between the 8 weeks 2.5 cm
formed
placenta and the baby’s tissues.
The baby’s blood and the mother’s blood always remain Sex of the foetus can be revealed
14 weeks
separate.
by an ultrasound scan
The mother’s blood is at a much higher pressure than the Makes movements that the
16 weeks 10 cm
baby’s, so it would damage the baby’s blood vessels if it mother can feel
passed directly. 20 weeks 12.5 cm Legs grow quickly
Also, the two blood groups may not be the same - if they Turns upside down with head
mixed up, clotting would occur which would block the towards cervix \n Alveoli in it’s
blood vessels and lead to further damage. 28 weeks
lungs begin to grow, and continue
Placenta makes hormones that stop the ovaries from to grow after birth
producing more egg, which in turn stops the uterus wall
Has a mass of about 3kg, ready to
from breaking down as it would do in a normal menstrual 38 weeks 50 cm
be born
cycle.
Antibodies pass from the mothers blood through the
In medicine the gestational period is referred to as 40
placenta to her baby to give protection from diseases.
weeks rather than 38, because the time is calculated from
the first day of the last period.

13.8. Birth
Stage 1

Muscles in the uterus wall begin to contract, pushing

against the pelvic bones and causing it to widen.
Time between each contraction may be up to 30 minutes
at first.

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During 12 to 14 hours in this stage the time between
contractions shorten to 2-3 mins.
At some point the contractions cause the amnion to break
and the fluid to pass through the vagina.
This is called “breaking of the waters”
At the end of this stage the cervix has widened enough to
allow the passage of the head of the foetus.
Stage 2
The mother contracts her abdominal muscles with the
contraction of the uterus to push the foetus down the birth
canal.
This may last a few minutes and is completed when the
baby has been birthed.
Umbilical cord is cut and clamped to prevent loss of blood.
If there are twins the contractions stop for about 10
minutes after the first baby has been born and then start
again.
The first two stages are called labour.
Stage 3
Lasts for about 20 minutes after the 2nd.
During this time the placenta comes away from the wall of
the uterus and passes down the vagina.
When it has left the mother, the placenta is called the
afterbirth.
13.9. Twins
About 1 in hundred pregnancies produce twins.
The twins may be identical or non-identical.
Identical twins form from the same fertilised egg which
splits into two during cell division to form two nearly
identical embryos.
Non identical twins form from two eggs which were
released into the oviduct at the same time. Each egg is
fertilised by a different sperm.
Identical twins share the same genetic material, non-
identical twins don’t.
13.10. Early life
Breast feeding
The baby starts to suck as soon as its born.
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During pregnancy some of the hormones produced by the
mother cause the mammary glands (mil-secreting) in her
breasts to develop.
The milk that the mother provides for her baby contains
all the nutrients the baby needs.
It also contains antibodies to protect the baby from the
disease.
Some mothers cannot provide enough milk for their
babies and use special powdered milk made up into liquid
instead.
This is delivered in a sterile bottle with a teat.
Milestones and development
The end of the umbilical cord attached to the baby withers
away and falls off leaving the navel.
The baby continues to grow rapidly, and the organ system
become more coordinated.
At the end of the first month the baby can lift its head up
for a few seconds.
In the following months the baby can lift its head more
steadily, kick and push itself up on their hands.
It will listen and look for sources of sounds by moving its
eyes and turning its head.
By 6 months the baby’s first set of teeth start to push
through its gums.
The baby’s diet is gradually changed to solid foods.
When this happens, usually before 12 months the baby is
said to be weaned.
All parts of the body continue to grow but at about 4 years
of age the head has reached almost its full size.
The sex organs do not develop fully until puberty.
14. Diet, Drugs and Disease
14.1. Diet
Development in the womb
In places where poverty prevents people from getting
access to healthy balanced diets, lack of full range of
nutrients can reduce sperm production. in males, and
make the menstrual cycle irregular in females.
If conception does occur, the poor diet of the mother
slows down the growth of the foetus.
The babies born under these conditions are smaller than
normal, and are less resistant to diseases.
Mothers should avoid soft cheeses as it contain
microorganisms like listeria which can be fatal to the
foetus.
Caffeine in substances like chocolate, coffee and tea must
be consumed in smaller amounts as it can slow down the
growth of the developing foetus.
Marasmus
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Lack of a healthy diet causes bodies to develop and grow
slower and weaker than normal.
Marasmus is a form of protein energy malnutrition.
Occurs commonly in young kids living in famine/poverty.
This condition results from a lack of protein and
carbohydrate in the diet.
To keep the body alive, all energy stores in the body are
used up.
Body fat disappears and the muscles start wasting away.
Condition is fatal if not treated in early stages.
Kwashiorkor
Form of protein malnutrition.
Condition that develops in kids over eighteen months.
Occurs when mother feeds her baby breast milk, but
when she has a second child the first child is given starchy
food such as yam instead of milk. These foods have little
protein.
Causes poor development of muscles.
Swelling of the stomach is seen as their diet consists of
more carbohydrates.
Obesity
Condition that develops in children/adults who have a very
high energy diet (eg. sweets, chocolate, pizza, foods with
high carbohydrate and fat content)
Energy is stored in the body as fat, and causes increase in
body mass and slowing down of movement.
As the person uses less energy than before but keeps
eating the high energy diet, more body fat is produced.
This puts extra strain on the bones and joints.
Also affects working of the heart as there is too much
cholesterol in the blood (refer notes under Circulatory
System - Healthy Heart)
Can lead to type 2 diabetes, affects the way the body
controls amount of digested sugar in the blood.
Normally the body produces insulin which helps the body
take up extra sugar out of the blood and store it in the
liver. In type 2 diabetes, the body no longer responds to
insulin and blood with high sugar content flows around the
body.
This can eventually cause blindness, and damage to the
nerves and blood vessels in the feet, which can only be
treated by amputation.
Can also cause kidney damage (fatal)
Behaviour
People who lack food may feel tired and have little energy
to move around.
People suffering from obesity/malnutrition may have low
self-confidence, depressive feelings, and poor sleep
routines.
Hyperactivity in young kids can be caused by taking in
foods with chemical additives that cause this.
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14.2. Diet and treatment
Malnutrition and starvation
Aid workers from NGOs give malnourished children in
areas of famine powdered milk mixed water.
First, they are given F75 (a form of powdered milk) which
prepares their body to start digesting food again.
After a few days, they are fed F100 which contains more
proteins and energy to help the body build up.
Plumpynut is made more peanut paste, powdered milk,
minerals, oil, sugar and vitamins. It is given as
replacement to F100.
Unimix is a flour made from maize and soya beans. To
this powdered milk, minerals, oil, sugar and vitamins are
added. This is mixed with water to make a porridge and
added to their diet.
Children are fed on this diet for up to a month until they
can move onto other foods.
Treating obesity
Treatment plans with certified professionals help the
person shift to a balanced diet.
Another part is to build up an exercise routine so more
energy is used up and the body is strengthened.
In obese adults, the aim is to reduce body mass.
In kids, the aim is to help the bodies grow in the right
proportions so that over a few years the body mass and
appearance adjust to normal.
14.3. Drugs
Development in the womb
Alcohol reduces number of sperm produced in males.
Smoking makes the ovaries less efficient.
Non medicinal drugs can make the menstrual cycle
irregular, or even stop in people with uteruses. They can
also slow down sperm production and cause sperms to
develop abnormally (eg. two tailed sperm)
Drug Effect on foetus
- drinking even small amounts can
cause nerve damage \n - large
amounts can cause the head to be
Alcohol
smaller, abnormal development of
eyes, nose and lips \n - foetal
alcohol syndrome (FAS)
- slows down growth \n - organs are
Tobacco smaller than normal \n - lungs work
less efficiently
- slows down growth \n - less
resistant to diseases \n - baby’s
Non-medicinal drugs
body can become dependant on the
drug the mother was taking
CAIE CHECKPOINT SCIENCE

Sniffing solvents becomes more tolerant to the drug, so larger amounts

are required for the person to feel it’s effects.
Children take up sniffing solvents as those used in glues, The drug-taker’s brain becomes so used to the drug that
as they are easier and cheaper to get than drugs. the person becomes dependant on it.
Solvents cause loss of appetite, resulting in loss of body If they suddenly stop taking the drug, they may suffer
mass. severe withdrawal symptoms.
Can cause headaches, sickness, coughing and harm to
the brain that results in memory loss. Non-medicinal
How it is used Effects
Also harms the lungs, affects how the nerves control drug
breathing and damage the structure of the liver, kidneys Cannabis - hallucinations,
Smoked
and bone marrow. (marijuana) mental illness
After sniffing the solvent, a person may lose control of - overconfidence and
themselves and may suffocate on the plastic bag from Sniffed (called carelessness \n -
which they inhaled the solvent. Cocaine and
snorting), smoked or sickness,
May also become unconscious and if they are sick, their crack
injected sleeplessness, mental
vomit may block their windpipe causing death by illness
suffocation.
- can slow down body
reactions to the point
Alcohol
of death \n - needle
Heroin Smoked or injected
Alcohol affects the nervous system and slows down the users may catch
speed at which nerve cells carry signals. hepatitis and AIDS if
Small amounts make the person feel more relaxed, but
needles are shared
makes the nerves work slightly slower. - speeds up body
Makes the drinker react more slowly. Swallowed in tablet reactions \n -
Ecstasy
Louder voice, increased aggression, recklessness, slurred form produces confusion,
speech, difficulty in thinking clearly. can be fatal
Too much alcohol can cause uncoordinated movement, or - increases activity at
inability to walk. They may fall asleep and become Swallowed in tablet first, then produces
unconscious. form or sniffed feelings of sadness
In extreme cases, they may be sick while unconscious and Amphetamines
(Snorted) in powder (lasts up to 2 days) \n
can choke on their own vomit, causing death by form - heart and brain
suffocation. damage
Alcohol is a poison, and the liver collects alcohol from the - hallucinations, which
blood and breaks it down to make it harmless.
Swallowed in tablet / can be terrifying and
Too much alcohol in the blood can cause intoxication, and
LSD liquid form / small to which the brain
the liver cannot handle this level. Medical intervention is
piece of paper ‘flashback’
needed to remove excess alcohol from the body. weeks/months later
Alcohol addiction over the years causes inflammation of
the liver, and development of a disease called hepatitis.
Part of the liver may turn into scar tissue and leads to 14.4. Drugs and treatment
cirrhosis of the liver. Reduces the liver’s ability to deal with
toxins and may be fatal. Addiction and prevention

Drugs and behaviour
People may take non-medicinal drugs because of peer
pressure, and trying to fit in.
They may think it is exciting to use substances that are
illegal.
Older people may take them to cope with their feelings of
loneliness, sadness.
Non-medicinal drugs affect the nervous system, and can
cause memory loss, mental illness, hallucinations in the
long term.
If a person continues to take drugs over a long period of
time (eg. throughout their teenage years) their body
Smokers can receive advice and support from health
services.
Nicotine gum, or nicotine skin patches can be used so that
they still receive smaller amounts of the drug while not
smoking.
This reduces the effect of the withdrawal symptoms and
helps them break their dependency on cigarettes.
Alcoholics can take medicine, join support groups, and
stay in rehabilitation centres- where there is medical
supervision and course of activities to improve health.
People addicted to non-medicinal drugs may also attend
rehabilitation centres but can also get into therapy and
help from health services to help with their transition.

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baby.
14.5. Disease
A female with AIDS may pass on the virus during
pregnancy or at birth, and this will damage the immune
Overview
system of the baby.
Sexually Transmitted Diseases (STDs) are transmitted
Development in young people
through sexual intercourse.
Eg: chlamydia, gonorrhoea, syphilis
Diseases can slow down or stop growth. As the person
Malaria is caused by a microorganism from the
recovers, growth can begin again.
Protoctista kingdom.
Tuberculosis has an active stage when the lungs are
Malaria is spread by female Anopheles mosquitos.
attacked and the person begins to cough frequently,
Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS) is caused
develop fevers and lose body mass.
by a virus called Human Immunodeficiency virus (HIV)
The bacteria then becomes inactive, and the person
which damages the immune system, and makes it nearly
recovers. However the person still carries the disease and
impossible for the person to protect themselves from
it may start again and enter the blood, spreading to other
diseases.
organs. This can be fatal unless treatment is provided.
It is spread by sexual intercourse, sharing unsterilized
Virus causing AIDS can be passed to infant through
needles, unmonitored blood transfusions, and
breastfeeding.
breastfeeding.
Malaria can damage the nervous system of a growing
Tuberculosis is a disease caused by a microorganism
child, and if untreated it can be fatal.
from the bacteria group.
Spread by droplets produced by coughing, sneezing and Behaviour and health
spitting.
Infects the lungs, can spread to brain, kidneys and bones. AIDS patients may suffer from nervous system disorders
which make them think slowly, have trouble with memory,
Development in the womb concentration, and lose some coordination.
They may also suffer from disease of the bones, in which
Pelvic Inflammatory Disease (PID) is the most common
they lose minerals and become weaker. The danger of
disease preventing conception in females.
them breaking increases.
It can be caused by a wide range of infections and affects
They may also suffer from kidney disease, heart disease
the ovaries, fallopian tubes, and the uterus.
affecting circulation, and may have increased risk of
When the fallopian tubes are infected, they become
developing cancer.
inflamed and cause infertility.
Microorganisms that cause Malaria invade the liver and
Main cause of PID is STDs.
red blood cells. As number of microorganisms increase,
Infertility can also have other causes like diabetes and
the person may face chills and fever every few days.
kidney disease.
In one fatal type of malaria, it can damage the brain,
When males are affected with an STD, activity of the
kidneys and lungs.
sperm is reduced so that they are less able to swim and
STDs affects the reproductive health of a person.
find the egg.
Chlamydia can also infect the eyes causing blindness.
When the person recovers, the sperm goes back to
Syphilis can cause sores and rashes on the skin.
normal. But if the person has contracted the diseases
multiple times, tubes carrying the sperm may be scarred
due to the infection, and block the path of the sperm. 14.6. Disease and treatment
Tuberculosis can affect both reproductive systems,
blocking the path of sperm in males and causing Prevention- immunisation by vaccines, and mother’s milk.
infections in the oviduct and uterus in females. Cure- antibiotics, medicinal drugs, etc.
\
If the mother has malaria, it can kill the foetus as it grows, Note: read about Alexander Fleming to know more about
or slow down its development causing the baby to be antibiotics.
abnormally small.
Tuberculosis during pregnancy may also cause foetal
death.
15. Photosynthesis
German measles (Rubella) is a disease which is
transmitted by droplets which have been coughed or 15.1. Starch in leaves
sneezed into the air.
It can damage the nervous system of the foetus, produce Starch is a store of energy.
deafness, blindness, also can damage the heart. It is a carbohydrate and forms colourless grains in the
If a female has an STD during pregnancy, it can cause cytoplasm of leaf cells.
blindness, deafness, swollen liver and skin sores in her

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Testing for starch Soda Lime- substance that absorbs Carbon dioxide and
takes it out of the air.
Plant cells are found to contain colourless grains of starch Sodium hydrogencarbonate solution- liquid that releases
under the microscope. This is quit difficult to see, so dilute Carbon dioxide into the air.
solution of iodine is added. This makes the starch turn
blue-black. 1. Set up two identical de-starched plants and cover
\ them with transparent plastic bags, sealing them
around the pot using elastic bands.
1. Place a leaf in boiling water for few minutes. This 2. Before sealing them, place a small dish of soda lime
removes the cell wall, and allows the starch-identifying inside pot A and a dish of sodium hydrogencarbonate
agent iodine to enter the cells. inside B.
2. Now put the leaf in a test-tube of ethanol, and hold it 3. Leave both plants in daylight for a few hours.
above a warm water bath. Ethanol is volatile, and 4. Test a leaf from plant A and a leaf from B for starch.
cannot be directly heated. It removes the green- 5. Conclusion - leaf from plant with soda lime (absorbs
pigment chlorophyll and allows us to see the colour CO2) didn’t contain starch, this suggests that CO2 is
change easily. necessary for starch production.
3. Use tweezers to place the leaf on a petri-dish.
4. Add few drops of iodine solution. Investigating oxygen production in
5. The leaf turns blue-black in the presence of starch.
plants
De-starching a plant
Water plants can be used to investigate the gases
In an experiment where you have to check if starch has produced as they escape from the leaf surface in bubbles
been made by the plant, you have to start out with a plant that are easily seen and collected.
that does not contain starch.
\ 1. Set up two samples of pondweed as shown in the
figure.
1. A green plant with leaves containing starch must be 2. Place one sample in a sunny spot, and the other in the
left in darkness for 2-3 days. Cutting off access to light dark.
prevents photosynthesis, and glucose (simpler form of 3. After a week, examine the gas collected in the two test
starch) isn’t produced. tubes.
2. Test the leaves to make sure they’re starch-free. 4. The plant under sunlight would have produced gas,
3. This is a de-starched plant. and the plant in the dark would have not.
5. Test the gas using a glowing splint. The splint should
Light and starch production re-ignite, showing that the gas contained more oxygen
than normal air.
1. Take a de-starched plant and cover one leaf with \
aluminium foil, and another leaf in transparent plastic.
2. Plant is left for 4 hours in a sunny place.
15.3. Mineral Salts
3. Covers are removed, leaves are tested for presence
of starch.
Mineral
4. Leaf covered in aluminium foil shows zero starch Function in Plant Deficiency
Salt
production, this shows that light is necessary for
photosynthesis. Development of leaves-
required for making Leaves turn yellow,
Chlorophyll and starch production Nitrogen chlorophyl and proteins plant shows poor
that form structure of growth
1. A variegated plant is required for this - plant with the plant
green and white leaves. Development of roots,
2. Plant is de-starched and placed in light for 4 hours. helps make food by Plant shows poor
Phosphorus
3. When the leaf is removed and tested for starch, green photosynthesis and growth
parts of the leaf (that contains chlorophyll) turn blue- respiration
black in iodine, but the white parts don’t. Development of flowers Leaves turn yellow and
4. This shows that chlorophyll is needed for starch Potassium
and fruits show abnormal growth
production.

15.2. Effect of CO2 on starch production 15.4. Conditions for photosynthesis

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Insect Pollinated Flower Definition

Large and colourful part of the
Petals
flower, attracts insects
Male part of the flower present
Corolla
inside corolla
Male part of the flower present
Stamens
inside corolla
Bottom part of the stamen that
Filament
forms the ‘stalk’
Top part of the stamen which
Anther
produces pollen
Female part of the flower present
Carpel
inside the ring of stamens
Top part of the carpel, pollen
Stigma
receiving surface
Bottom part of the carpel,
Ovary
contains ovules
Middle part of the carpel,
Style
connects stigma and ovary
Small and tough leaf-like
Sepal structure. Protects the flower
when it’s a bud
16. Reproduction in Calyx Ring formed by sepals

Flowering Plants Nectaries

Produces sweet liquid, at the base
of the petals.

16.1. Insect pollinated flowers

16.2. Wind Pollinated Flowers
Parts of the flower
Part of
Wind Pollinated Insect Pollinated
Plant
Flower Small flowers Larger flowers
Petals Dull or green Colourful
Nectar Absent Present
Present, unique to each
Scent Absent
species
Long, hangs outside in Short, present inside the
Filaments
the wind flower

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Part of 1. Releasing pollen from the anthers before the stigma is

Wind Pollinated Insect Pollinated
Plant ready to receive it
2. Stigmas are ready to receive pollen from other plants
Small, light - easily Large, spiky and sticky to
Pollen of the same species before it’s own anthers are ready
carried by wind stick to bodies of insects
to release the pollen.

Bees and flowers

Scent from nectar-producing flowers travel through the

16.3. Pollination
Pollen grains
In plants the male gametes are produced in the anthers
where each one is called a pollen grain.
The female gamete called the egg cell is in the ovule.
When the pollen grains are fully formed, the anther spits
open to release them.
Self-pollination occurs when the pollen is transferred from
an anther to a stigma of the same flower or another
flower on the same plant.
Cross-pollination occurs when the pollen goes from an
anther to a stigma of a flower on another plant of the
same species.
Most plants have flowers with both male and female
reproductive organs.
They can avoid self-pollination in two ways:
air, stimulating the receptor cells of the bee.
As the bee flies closer, it uses its eyes to find the flower-
which are sensitive to ultraviolet light. This makes some of
the pale markings on the flower appear more distinctly to
them, helping the bee identify the flower.
The markings running down the petal of the flower are
known as honey guides and direct the bee to the nectar.
After landing on the flower, the bee probes the nectary
with it’s mouth.
While getting to the nectar, it brushes past the anthers,
causing pollen to collect on the hairs of its back.
After collecting nectar, the bee flies onto the next flower
to feed again. Some of the pollen on its back passes onto
the stigma of the second flower.
Stiff hairs on the bee’s legs collect the pollen from the
bee’s back and stored on these hairs on the back legs
called ‘pollen baskets’.
Nectar is changed to honey with the help of enzymes and
other substances.
Bees regurgitate the honey and passes it on to other bees
working in the hive. Pollen is removed from the baskets
and stored as well.
The bee indicates the source of the nectar to the other
bees in the hive by performing a dance on the
honeycomb- by moving in circles, moving its abdomen,
moving up and down.
From this, the other bees can tell the distance, direction
and amount of nectar available, and can search for it.
16.4. Fertilisation
Pollen grain breaks open and form a pollen tube after it
reaches the surface of a stigma.
Male gamete cell in the pollen grain moves down the
tube, all the way into the ovary.
Ovary contains ovules (female gamete).
When the tip of the pollen tube reaches an ovule, the male
gamete enters the ovule, and fuses with the female
gamete.

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CAIE CHECKPOINT SCIENCE
This is called fertilisation, producing a cell called zygote.
After fertilisation
The zygote divides many times to produce a group of
cells, forming a tiny plant.
Structures that later become the root and shoot are
developed, and a food store is created.
The outer part of the ovule forms a tough coat. When all
the changes are complete, the ovule has become a seed.
Meanwhile, the petals and stamen fall way. Stigma and
style wither and the ovary changes into a fruit.
Types of seed dispersal
16.5. Seed Dispersal
Need for seed dispersal
Plants produce many fruits. If all of them fell to the ground
surrounding the plant, growing into new plants.
There would be hundreds of plants growing too close to
each other, competing heavily for minerals, soil, water
and light- causing many to die
Overcrowding is prevented by fruit and see dispersal.
Seeds may land in unsuitable surrounding, where they fail
to grow.
But since plants produce large number of seeds, it
increases the chances of few reaching optimum
environments to grow.
17. Adapting to a Habitat
17.1. Adaptations to the seasons
European woodlands
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Brazil nut trees in the amazon, and oak trees in the north
have fruits that just fall to the ground.
Squirrels collect the acorns and agouti open the tough
coating of the Brazil nut fruit, carrying the seeds away to
store.
The animals return to the food stores to feed on them, but
eventually forget about them.
These ‘lost’ seeds may germinate, growing into big trees.
Goose grass have fruits with hooks on them, allowing
them to stick to the fur of passing mammals.
The fruits are carried several kilometres before they are
rubbed off/fall to the ground.
The flesh of succulent fruits is brightly coloured and are
eaten by many mammals and birds along with the small
seeds.
The seed coats are resistant to the digestion process, and
the seeds remain intact in the animals’ faeces.
Larger seeds from stone fruits are thrown away by the
animal after they’ve eaten the softer parts.
Fruits with a small mass develop long hairs which
increase air resistance of the fruit, allowing it to be blown
away.
Dandelions have fruits that form a tuft of hair which act as
a parachute, slowing down the sinking speed as the wind
blows it along.
Fruits with a larger mass that are dispersed by the wind
have a part that is shaped into an aerodynamic wing.
The large surface area of the wing catches the wind as
the fruit falls from the branches, letting it be carried away
from the tree in the air currents.
Some plants such as the lupin and gorse produce fruits
called pods that dry and twist.
The tension in the twisting pod is great enough to split the
pod open, shooting the seeds out.
CAIE CHECKPOINT SCIENCE
Deciduous trees adapt to the cold, by losing their leaves.
They have large flat leaves, which lose a great deal of
water.
In winter, the ground is frozen, so the water cannot pass
into the roots.
If the trees kept their leaves, they would lose water but
would not be able to replace it - they would dry out and
die.
Most insects spend winter in a stage of their life where
they do not need to move or search for food.
These are the egg and pupa stages.
Animals such as hedgehogs and bats which feed on
insects hibernate.
\ Tropical rainforest
As the ground warms up, woodland plants grow from
bulbs and produce leaves and flowers.
Plants use sunlight shining through the bear branches to
make food, and early-hatching insects to pollinate their
flowers.
Hibernating animals wake up and search for food.
In summer the leaves of the trees of the trees form a
shady canopy over the woodland floor.
\ chance of surviving cause it receives enough light.
In autumn the weather becomes cooler again.
Trees produce fruits such as nuts and berries, eaten by
many mammals and birds.
Leaves of the deciduous trees lose their chlorophyll.
Brown and yellow pigments in the leaves give them their
colour. The trees release waste products into their leaves
and in time the leaves fall.
Animals that hibernate eat a lot to build up fat- energy
stores for the winter.
African grassland
Plains are covered by long grass, which is eaten by huge
number of herbivores.
Zebras eat the tough tops to the grass stalks, which
contain the wind-pollinated flowers.
Wildebeest (gnu) feed on the more succulent leaves lower
down the plant, while the young shoot and seeds are
eaten by gazelles.
During the wet season, animals migrate to drier parts of
the plains in the south.
Beginning of the dry season, they move to the west where
there is little rainfall, and the grass is still thick.
In the middle of dry season, the move to where the soil is
fertile, and plants are still edible.
17.2. Plant adaptations
Mangrove swamp
Occur along the coasts of many countries in tropical
climates.
Mud in which plants grow is moved by the rising and
falling of the tides.
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Mangrove trees have adapted to the tides by growing out
many roots from their trunks.
Roots spread out over a wide area and dip down into the
mud to hold the tree in place.
Have seeds that are adapted to survive in a habitat of
moving mud.
The formed fruit remains attached to the tree.
Seed from the fruit germinates using moisture in the
humid air and the seedling grows 25cm before it leaves
the tree.
As the seedling falls, it remains vertical so that it the root
can hold the plant in place when it hits the mud.
Thick forests, canopy of branches and leaves that shades
the ground below.
Seeds that fall to the ground struggle to germinate,
seedlings produced can’t find enough light, and may die.
Seeds of the Strangler Fig are capable are growing in the
compost that develops in the forks of tree branches.
This means the seed is nearer the canopy, it has a greater
Seedling initially uses water in the compost in the fork, but
it needs more.
The root grows down the side of the tree to find the soil on
the ground.
Once the root has reached, it can take up more water and
nutrients and the rest of the plant can grow upward
toward the canopy.
Plant continues to send down more roots, they form a
basket-like support around the tree.
Water and minerals provided by the extra roots allow the
plant to grow so large that its leaves overshadow the tree
on which it’s growing.
Over time, the roots develop such a rigid hold onto the
tree trunk that the tissues beneath the bark, which
transport food and water inside the tree - are crushed and
the tree dies.
The strangler fig continues to thrive and takes over the
space originally occupied by the tree.
Keystone species
Is a species in a habitat that helps the survival of a large
number of other species that are adapted some way to
benefit from its presence, often through feeding.
Strangler Fig is an example, as its fruit provides for
hornbills, monkeys, parrots, pigeons and many insects.
The fruit is often produced when other plants are not
producing any fruit, so it helps to provide a constant
supply to many herbivores.
If the strangler fig was removed, a great many species
would be extinct.
When trees are removed for timber, care must be taken
to consider plants like the strangler fig and preserve
them.
CAIE CHECKPOINT SCIENCE
This can be particularly difficult when the strangler figs
attack the trees that loggers want to cut down.
17.3. Animal adaptations
Fast-flowing rivers
Tiny remains of plants and animals are washed down into
streams and rivers, forming a food supply for any animals
adapted to live there.
The main problem is the current, which can carry the
animals away.
Many invertebrates have solved the problem by
developing ways to hold onto the riverbed, presenting as
small as a surface possible to the water rushing at them.
Stonefly and mayfly nymphs have legs adapted to grip
rocks.
They have flat bodies and hold themselves close to the
rocks, so the water flows over them.
Leeches have suckers to hold onto bedrock.
Freshwater limpets have a foot that acts as a sucker, and
a streamlined shell that helps water to flow smoothly over
it.
Tree tops
Rainforest canopy is the habitat of many species of
monkey.
Monkeys have small, lightweight bodies that allow them to
climb out to slender branches to collect food.
They have opposable thumbs and a big toe, which allow
them to grip the branches firmly.
Eyes face forward, so that their visions overlap. Allows
monkeys to judge distances accurately so that they land
safely when leaping through trees.
Tails help them keep balance as they run and jump.
Prehensile tails act as a 5th limb, monkeys in South
America can use it to grip onto objects or hang from
branches.
17.4. Extreme adaptations
Pebble plant
Grow in the deserts of Southern Africa.
Protect themselves from browsing animals by
camouflaging themselves to look like stones.
A pebble plant has only two leaves, and these are small
and close to the ground- difficult for animals to reach.
Leaves make an almost spherical shape, allows the plant
to have a large volume for storing water, yet presents
only the smallest possible surface area to the heat of the
Sun’s rays.
Pit Viper
Has a pit in front of each eye, about 4mm wide and 6mm
deep.
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Pits packed with receptors sensitive to heat, can detect
changes of 0.002’C
This means that an object 0.1’C cooler or warmer than the
surroundings can be detected by the snake.
These heat-sensitive organs help it find food in dark
places.
Mammals and birds regulate their body temperature so
that it stays constant, and usually above that of the
animal’s surroundings.
This makes birds and mammals suitable prey for pit
vipers.
Areas detected by pits on each side of the head overlap,
just like the field of vision of a monkey.
Helps the snake to judge the distance of its prey, so that it
knows when to strike with fangs and poison.
Tumbleweed
Plants that grow tall can disperse their seeds into the
wind.
Seeds may be blown a long distance before they reach
the ground.
Woody plants on some grasslands cannot grow tall,
because the wind would blow them over.
Tumbleweed solves this problem by breaking off its shoot
full of seeds- the dead shoot can be blown over the
grassland by the winds, and drop its seeds as it goes.
Flying fish
Found in tropical seas
Feed on plankton close to the surface, where they are
prey of the dolphin fish.
Dolphin fish behave like a dolphin in some ways- jump out
of the water.
When a dolphin fish start an attack, flying fish swim faster
and faster.
It moves upwards in the water, and when it is travelling at
about 60km/h it breaks through the seas’ surface and
glides through the air on it’s long wide-front fins.
Lower part of the tail is also long, and as the fish rises into
the air it waves its tail fin 50 times per second.
So, the lower fin repeatedly pushes against the water and
gives the fish extra thrust to make its flight.
Once out of the water, it can travel for up to 200m in the
air, and escape from dolphin fish.
18. Ecosystems
18.1. Vocabulary of Ecology
Term Definition
Place where a plant, animal or
Habitat
microorganism lives
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Term Definition Term Definition

All the plants, animals and Diagram of how a number of food
Community microorganisms that live in a chains in a habitat are linked
Food web
habitat together to shows how food and
Surroundings of a living thing. energy pass through
Complete description includes all
Environment
the living things, rocks, soil, and 18.2. Food chains and webs
weather conditions
Non-living factors of the Energy in food chains
environment which may affect the
Abiotic factors
survival of a living thing- weather, When eating a producer, you cannot take in all the energy
rocks, soil that the plant trapped to make food.
Living factors of the environment While the plant was growing, it used some of the energy
which may affect the survival of a to stay alive and to build new materials so that its cells
Biotic factors could divide and grow.
living thing- amount of food,
number of predators, etc Animals use energy for life processes such as breathing,
Community of living things and the digesting food and moving their bodies. Some energy is
Ecosystem lost as heat to the surroundings, due to the chemical
abiotic factors found in a place
reactions taking place inside the organs.
Describes number and variety of
Biodiversity This means that as energy passes along a food chain,
species in an ecosystem
some energy is lost from the food chain at every link.
Large region of the Earth generally
covered by the same community of Food webs
Biome
plants and animals and all parts
having the same weather Why do some animals appear in more than one food
Herbivore Animal that eats only plants chain?
If the trees in a habitat had a disease that made their
Carnivore Animal that eats only animals
leaves fall off, caterpillars who relied on those leaves
Animal that eats both plants and
Omnivore would starve and die.
animals
They won’t be available as food for robins. Thus, robins
Animals that feeds on prey or must eat more woodlice, and beetles to survive.
Predator
another animals Other animals that also rely on beetles will run out of
Animal that is eaten by or falls prey food.
Prey
to a predator This domino effect can wipe out entire ecosystems. Thus,
Organism that produces food at each animal relies on more than one source of energy.
Producer the beginning of a food chain
(usually a plant)
Animal that eats plants, other
Consumer
animals or both
Primary Consumer Animal that eats the producer
Animal that eats the primary
Secondary Consumer
consumer
Animals that eats the secondary
Tertiary Consumer
consumer
Top carnivore Animal at the end of the food chain
Diagram of the way some
organisms in a habitat are linked to
each other through feeding. Begins
Food chain with a producer, followed by
consumers, and arrows point
towards the direction of energy 18.3. Ecological pyramids
transfer. \n \n grass → deer → lion
Ecologists study diets of animals in a habitat to work out
food chains and ecological pyramids.

Pyramid of numbers

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Number of each species in the food chain in a habitat is
estimated.
Number of plants maybe estimated using a quadrat..
Number of small animals maybe estimated using traps,
nets, and beating branches.
Larger animals are found by counting.
Pyramid is divided into layers, with each tier for each
species in the food chain.
Size of the tier represents the number of species in the
habitat.
Not all pyramids of numbers are widest at the base.
Pyramid of biomass
Amount of matter in a body is found by drying it to remove
all water, and then using scales to find the mass.
This measure is useful as it tells us how much matter is
present in each species along the food chain.
18.4. Decomposers
Organisms that break down dead matter, and gain energy
from doing so.
When they have finished feeding, bodies of plants and
animals reduce into simpler substances from which they
were made. Example- carbohydrates in plants are broken
down into carbon dioxide and water as the decomposers
respire.
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Other substances are released from the plant’s body as
minerals and return to the soil.
Decomposers are essentially recyclers; recycle the
substance from which living things are made so that they
can be used again.
18.5. Conservation
Hunting has reduced many mammal species to being
endangered ones- meaning they have been killed more
quickly than they can reproduce.
If the death rate > birth rate, the species is expected to
head towards extinction.
This can be prevented by increasing the birth rate and
reducing the death rate.
Zoos can help increase the world population of some
endangered animals-
Ensuring all adult animals are healthy enough to breed.
Providing extra care for in the rearing of the young.
Also reduce the death rate by preventing the animals
from predators
Reserves help animals to live in natural conditions but are
protected from hunting by man.
Helps more animals reach maturity to start breeding-
increases birth rate.
19. Human Influences on the
Environment
19.1. Earth’s atmosphere
Studies show that the Solar System formed from a huge
cloud of gas and dust in space.
Earth is one of the planets formed from this cloud.
For the first billion years, volcanoes erupted on the earth’s
surface.
The gases escaping from inside the Earth via the volcanic
eruptions formed an atmosphere composed of water
vapour, carbon dioxide and nitrogen.
Plants developed 3 billion years ago.
They produced oxygen as a waste product of
photosynthesis.
As the plants flourished in land, and sea- the amount of
O2 in the air increased.
It reacted with ammonia to produce nitrogen.
Bacteria developed by using energy from the breakdown
of nitrates in the soil, nitrates were produced by this.
15 to 40 kilometres above the Earth, ultraviolet rays from
the sun reacted with oxygen to produce ozone (formed
from 3 oxygen atoms).
Ozone prevents ultraviolet radiation (which is harmful to
life) from reaching the Earth’s surface.
If the ozone layer hadn’t developed, life may not have
evolved over the entirety of the planet, as is today.
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Recent human activities have led to increasing carbon
dioxide, sulphur dioxide, chlorofluorocarbons percentages
in the atmosphere, which destroy large portions of the
ozone.
19.2. Air pollution
Large amounts of fuel such as coal and oil are burnt in
power stations to produce electricity.
However, burning them produces carbon dioxide, carbon
monoxide, sulfer dioxide, oxides of nitrogen and soot
particles that produce smoke.
When polluting substances are released into the
atmosphere, they are called emissions.
Carbon dioxide
Is a greenhouse gas.
Allows heat energy from the sun to pass through to the
Earth, but prevents much of the heat energy radiation
from earth from passing out into space.
Heat energy remains in the atmosphere and warms it up,
keeping the planet habitable.
Human activity has caused the level of CO2 in the
atmosphere to rise.
Extra carbon dioxide traps more heat in the atmosphere.
Rise in temperature will cause ice caps to melt in the
north and south poles, excess water will flow into
expanding ocean waters.
Both lead to a rise in sea levels, and a change in climate
for all parts of Earth
This is known as global warming.
Acid Rain
Sulfur dioxide is produced by the combustion of sulfur in a
fuel, when it’s burnt.
Sulfur dioxide reacts with water vapour and oxygen in the
air to form sulfuric acid.
This may fall to the ground as rain or snow.
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Oxides of nitrogen are converted to nitric acid in the
atmosphere, this also may fall to the ground as rain/snow.
When acid rain reaches the ground it drains into the soil,
dissolving some of the minerals and carrying them away-
known as leaching.
Minerals are needed for the plant to grow healthily,
without them they may have stunted growth, poor health.
Acid rain drains into lakes and rivers, lowering the pH of
the water.
Organisms are sensitive to the pH of water and cannot
survive if it is too acidic. These organisms die, and the
animals that feed on them die as well, due to starvation.
Acid rain leaches aluminium ions out of the soil.
If they reach a high concentration in the water, gills of the
fish are affected, causing them to suffocate.
Soot and Smog
Soot particles from the smoke settle on buildings and
plants.
Cuts down amount of light reaching the leaf cells, slowing
down photosynthesis.
In foggy weather, smoke from the coal combined with
water droplets in the fog to form smog.
Water droplets absorbed the soot particles and chemicals
in the smoke, making a dense cloud at ground level, very
difficult to see through.
When people inhaled air with smog, the linings of their
respiratory system became damaged.
Sunlight shining through the smog caused photochemical
reactions to occur in it, producing many chemicals
including peroxyacetyl nitrate (PAN) and ozone.
Both are harmful to plants, and ozone can produce
asthma attacks.
19.3. Water pollution
Fresh water
Most harmful pollutants in water are PCBs
( polychlorinated biphenyls) and heavy metals such as
cadmium, chromium, nickel and lead.
In large concentrations they can damage many of the
organs in the body, can cause cancer.
PCBs are used to make plastic and along with mercury
compounds are taken by organisms in the beginning of
the food chain.
They are passed up in the food chain as each organism is
eaten by another.
The apex predator has large amounts of toxic chemicals,
which can cause permanent damage or death. This is
known as bio-accumulation.
\
Unmonitored use of fertilizers allows them to leach from
the soil into rivers and lakes, leading to the overgrowth of
water plants including algae. This is called algal bloom.
When these plants die, large number of decomposing
bacteria take oxygen from the water.
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Reduction in oxygen levels kills many animals. The whole During harvesting, plants are taken out of the soil, and the
process is known as eutrophication. minerals they have taken from the soil go with them to the
Phosphates in detergents also create the same effect. market. Therefore, fewer minerals are left in the soil for
the next crop.
Sea water Fertilizers are added to the soil to replace the minerals.
They are added in quantities that will make sure the
Pollutants of fresh water are washed into the sea as rivers plants grow as healthy as possible, and produce a large
reach the coast. yield.
They cause damage to the plants and animals that live in Amount of fertilizer that should be added must be
the sea, making them unfit to be collected for human carefully calculated.
food. If too little is added, yield is small. If too much is added,
Large amounts of oil are transported by tankers in ships. plants will not use all the minerals and they maybe
Oil released from the ship, or oil that spills out forms a leached into streams/rivers and cause eutrophication and
film on the water surface, preventing oxygen from pollution.
entering the water.
Also reduces the amount of light that could pass through Factor Inorganic Organic
the upper waters of the sea to reach the phytoplankton Manufactured
(tiny floating plants) affecting the food web. Animal and human
chemical compounds
When tankers get wrecked, large amounts of oil spill out
Composition waste (e.g. manure,
(e.g. ammonium
in the water, and are washed up onto the shore. sewer sludge)
nitrate)
Causes catastrophic damage to the habitat, may take
Dissolves in soil water Minerals are released
years to recover.
instantly, can be taken more slowly, as
Release
up by the roots decomposers in the soil
19.4. Indicators of pollution immediately break it down
Light weight; can be Heavier; must be
Some living things are sensitive to pollution, and can be spread by aeroplanes spread before the crop
used as biological indicators. Application
and helicopters flying is grown, into the soil
Lichens are sensitive to air pollution:
over the field directly
Level of Pollution Type of Lichen
Very high No lichen
Soil structure
High Crusty Good soil has particles of rock bound together with humus
Moderate Leafy (decomposed plants and animals) to form lumps called
Clean air Bushy crumbs.
Crumbs don’t interlock but settle on each other loosely,
Some freshwater invertebrates can be used to estimate with air spaces between them.
the amount of pollution in streams: Air provides a source of oxygen for the roots and
organisms growing in the soil.
Level of Water pollution Invertebrate Air spaces also allow roots to grow easily and settle
Very high No through the soil.
Humus acts a s sponge, and holds some of the water
High Rat tailed maggots
passed through the soil.
Moderate Bloodworms Plant roots draw on the water stored in the humus.
Moderate to Low Freshwater shrimp In time, humus rots away and in natural habitats, it is
Clean water Stonefly nymph replaced by the decaying bodies of other organisms.
Manure adds humus to the soil, and helps bind the rock
particles together.
19.5. Intensive Farming If the soil only receives inorganic fertilizers, humus is
gradually lost, and the soil crumbs break down.
As the human population grows exponentially, methods
Rocky fragments that remain form dust, which can easily
are needed to increase food production
be blown away by the wind.
Intensive farming is done to maximise crop output by
using fertilisers and pesticides
19.7. Pests and pesticides
19.6. Fertilizers
Fertilizers are used to make the crop yield as high as
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Crop plants maybe affected by other organisms who
compete with them for resources, or feed on them.
These organisms are known as pests.
Chemicals known as pesticides have been developed to
kill them.
Herbicides
Seeds are planted so that the plants grow a fixed distance
apart from each other.
This gap allows each plant to receive all the sunlight,
water and minerals it needs to grow healthily, producing a
large yield.
A weed is a plant growing in the wrong place. They grow
in the spaces between the desired crop plants, and
compete for light, water and minerals.
This means that crop plants may receive lesser light as
the weeds shade them and absorb most of the water and
minerals.
Weeds can also be infested with microorganisms that can
cause disease in the crop plant (e.g. cereals maybe
attacked by fungi that live on grass plants growing as
weeds in the crop)
Weeds are killed by herbicides.
Non-selective herbicides kill any plant. Can be used to
clear areas of all plant life, so that crops can be grown in
soil later.
Selective herbicides kill only certain plants, the weeds
alone. Can be used while the crop is growing, to eradicate
just the targeted weeds.
Herbicides may be sprayed onto crops from the air.
Some of the herbicide may drift away from the field and
into surrounding natural habitat, killing the plants there.
If insecticides drift away from the fields after spraying,
they can kill insects in their natural habitats.
19.8. Biological Pest Control
It is the use of one animal species to control the numbers
of a pest.
In 300 CE, the Chinese filled sheep bladder with fat and
placed them next to ant nests. When the bladder was
teeming with ants, they were collected and placed in
orange trees. Bamboo poles were placed so that ants
could move freely from one tree to the next. These ants
didn’t eat the orange, but rather another pest that
attacked the fruit.
In Australia, the prickly pear was introduced as a
ornamental plant, but quickly started growing in the wild,
turning into a weed. A moth that has a larva that feeds on
prickly pear was released, and in time their numbers were
reduced.
19.9. Conditions for Growth
They are factors that affect rate of photosynthesis- light,
temperature, carbon dioxide (ref Chapter 1).
Apart from fertilizers to increase yield, and pesticides to
protect the plant, there are other factors that affect
growth.
These factors can be controlled in a greenhouse.
Artificial lighting that can be turned on and off, oxygen
and carbon dioxide meters and pumps, pH level indicators
and more are used to monitor and maintain these factors
respect to the plant grown.

Fungicides
20. Classification of Living
Chemical that kills fungi
Fungal spores may be in the soil of a crop field, floating in
Things
the air, or on the seeds before they are sown.
Seeds maybe coated with fungicides to protect them 20.1. Microorganisms
when they germinate.
They are also sprayed on crop plants to give a protective Group Features Example
coat against fungal spores in the air.
Have spores and
Fungi Kingdom feeding threads called Yeast, mushroom
Insecticides
hyphae
When a large number of plants of the same kind are Unicellular (one cell
Monera Bacteria, blue-green
grown together (ref. monoculture farming) they can be a body), Prokaryote (no
Kingdom algae
huge feeding area for insects. nucleus)
Large populations of insects can build up on the plants, Unicellular (one cell
Protoctista
causing irreparable damage. body), Eukaryote (has Amoeba, ciliates
Kingdom
A swarm of locusts can eat entire fields of plants. nucleus)
Insecticides are used to kill these insect pests. No cell structure
Narrow-spectrum insecticides kill only certain insects, and (simply genetic
leave others unharmed. Viruses Influenza virus, HIV
material within a
Boad-spectrum insecticides kill a wide range of insects, protein coat)
not only those that feed on crop, but also predatory
insects that may prey on them.

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Plant kingdom
Group Features Examples
No roots, stems or Green-slime,
Algae
leaves seaweeds
Liverworts and No true toots, Sphagnum moss,
mosses contains spores umbrella liverwort
Roots, stems, fronds
Ferns Fiddle head ferns
and spores
Roots, woody stem, Numbered key
Conifers Fir, pine
cones, seeds
Roots, stem, leaves,
Daisy, mango, mint,
Flowering plants fower, seeds, some
oak, dandelion
wood/non-woody

Animal kingdom
Invertebrates are animals without a backbone
Vertebrates are animals with a backbone

Invertebrates

Group Features Examples

Soft body, tentacles at Box jellyfish, sea
Jellyfish
one end anemone, coral
Flatworms Very thin, flat body Flukes, tapeworms
Annelid Cylindrical bodies,
Earthworm, leech
worms segmented
Nematode Small cylindrical
Pinworm, hookworm
20.3. Cells and reproduction
worms bodies, not segmented
Insects, spiders, Cells have a cell membrane, cytoplasm and a nucleus.
Arthropds Jointed legs crustaceans (shrimps Examining living cells under a microscope led to the
and crabs), centipedes discovery that certain changes took place in the nucleus
which were linked to reproduction.
Snails, slugs, mussels,
Molluscs Soft body with a shell Just before a cell divides, long strands of material appear
scallops
in the nucleus, called chromosomes..
Spiny skin, arms
Before cell divisions, each chromosome makes a copy of
Echinoderms (starfish) or globe- Sea cucumber
itself, and it lies as two threads
shaped (sea urchins) During cell division, the pair of threads separate, each
entering a new nuclei
Vertebrates Once each cell forms, every thread becomes a
chromosome.
Group Features Examples This means that nuclei of the new cells have the same
Fish Scales, fins Barracuda, shark number of chromosomes as the original.
Smooth or warty skin, Chromosomes in the nuclei of the new cells then seem to
Frogs, toads, disappear into the nuclear material but become visible
Amphibians can live in both water and
salamanders under the microscope once more when the cells are
land
about to divide.
Reptiles Dry, scaly skin Snakes, turtles, lizards
Birds Feathers, beaks Hummingbird, eagle
Mammals Fur, give milk to young Mouse, lion, elephant

20.2. Identification keys

Spider key

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be packed with so many chromosomes that they would

die.
This clearly doesn’t happen as there is a special type of
cell division that takes place in the reproductive organs
which produces gametes with half the number of
chromosomes in somatic cells.
In this cell division, the chromosomes do not make copies
of themselves but the pairs separate and move into the
newly forming cells- gametes.
So, gametes have 23 chromosomes instead of 23 pairs
Chromosomes and genes (46 chromosomes).

Chromosomes are arranged in pairs in the nucleus.

Humans have 46 chromosomes in their cell nuclei, in 23
pairs. Fruit flies have 8 chromosomes in 4 pairs.
Chromosomes are considered as threads of chemical
messages. Each message is called a gene.
Genes provide all the information of how the cell grows,
develops, and behaves + how the body grows and
develops too.
Each pair of chromosome has pairs of genes that carry
information for a particular characteristic such as
eye/hair colour.
20.4. Genes and variation
During the formation of gametes, parts of the
chromosome swap portions, leading to a mixing-up of the
genes so an exact copy of the parent’s genetic code is not
passed on.
When a zygote is formed after fertilization the nucleus
contains all the genes needed to make the new organism.
The new individual develops a slightly different
combination of features from the parents, leading to
variation in the species.

How do genes work together?

As cells divide and form the embryo and foetus, all the
genes in their nuclei are not used or switched on at once.
When it is time for an organ to develop, the genes that
Chromosomes and gametes control its development switch on and the cells that are
produced make the organ.
Species Male gamete Female gamete Other genes also present on the chromosomes but
Animal Sperm cell Egg cell / Ovum controlling the development of the other organs do not
Plant Pollen grain Egg cell (in the ovule) switch on in these cells.
Example: In the production of the windpipe and trachea
the genes of some cells will switch on to make ciliated
During fertilization the nuclei of the male and female
epithelial cells.
gametes join together, and a zygote is formed. This then
grows into an individual organism.
If gametes were produced the same way as somatic
(ordinary) cells they would have the same number of
chromosomes as body cells. This would be an issue as the
zygote would have twice as many chromosomes from the
parent.
If zygotes from this generation reproduced, the new
zygotes would have 4 times as many chromosomes as the
parent. After a few more generations the zygotes would

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flowers).
Animals were originally for domestication, then for food
production or for transportation.
A selective breeding program involves selecting
organisms with the desired features and breeding them
together.
The variation in offspring is examined and those with the
desired features are selected for further breeding.

1. Wild form of wheat makes few grains at the top of its

stalk. Individuals that produce the most grains are
selected for breeding together.
2. When their offspring are produced, they are
examined, and the highest grain producer are
selected again to breed together.
3. By following this program for years together, wheat
plants producing large number of grains have been
developed.

20.6. Mutations

Mutations are changes in an individual’s genetic code that

alters their physical/chemical characteristics.
If mutations survive and reproduce, it could pass on the
new feature to its offspring, and so on until a new variety
is established.

Clones

A clone is an organism that is an exact copy of its parent.

They occur naturally when some organisms reproduce.
Amoeba, a Protoctista, produces a clone simply by
dividing in two.
Hydra, a small animal related to sea anemones, grows a
bud which detaches itself and becomes a copy of its
parent.
Some plants can also form clones like the spider plant,
which grows small plants on side shoots. The small plants
can become detached and live on their own.
Taking a cutting from a plant and growing the cutting in
compost is a simple way to make a new plant.
A technique for cloning animals has been developed using
nuclei and cells.
The nucleus is removed from an egg cell and replaced by
the nucleus of a normal body cell from the animal they
wish to clone.
The egg is allowed to develop normally, and an exact copy
of the animal is produced.
Dolly the sheep was the first successfully reared clone at
the end of the 20th century.
Since then, animals such as horses, goats, cattle and
20.5. Selection water buffalo have been cloned too.

Selective breeding
20.7. Genetically Modified Crops
People have been breeding animals and plants for special
purposes for thousands of years. In the past selective breeding was the only way to improve
Most plants were originally bred to produce more food, crops and farm animals to provide more food.
but they are now bred for decorative purposes (e.g.

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In the early 1990s the first GMO was produced, a tomato

20.8. Natural selection
with a certain gene that made the fruit soften- turned off.
The idea was that the tomato could be stored for longer.
Just as humans select individuals for further breeding,
The quality of the crop wasn’t as good as expected, but
selection in a habitat takes place naturally.
work continues to make tomato crops that are disease
Those individuals of a species which have the most
resistant.
suitable features adapted to survive will continue to live
Genes from other organisms such as wild relatives or and breed- passing on their desirable features.
bacteria are used now to develop GMOs.
Individuals which have features that don’t suit them for
It aims to help crops grow better, produce a higher yield
survival will perish, so that they don’t pass on their
or help lower the production costs (e.g. some tomato
features to the next generation.
plants were modified to produce thick tomato puree more
This form of selection is known as the survival of the
cheaply) fittest, is used to explain the theory of evolution, where
GMOs are new organisms. Scientists disagree on their one species change in time until another species is
use because they can enter a natural habitat and breed
produced.
with the native organisms, to produce a more unusual
organism- which may have a negative impact on the
ecosystem.

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Science

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