What Should Be Cited?

Below is the introduction from an empirical article. The problem is that the authors did not properly cite
their literature review. Mark where you think the authors should have cited their sources and be
prepared to discuss why.

Weather is a pervasive background environmental variable that has direct bearing on a wide variety
of human affairs; it shapes agricultural economy, can make or break outdoor recreation, and is a
perennial topic in superficial conversation. Given its centrality to human life, social scientists have
tried to understand weather’s impact on human behavior. Bad weather has been found to be
associated with negative behaviors ranging from poor student conduct to suicide. Good weather has
been found to be associated with positive behaviors such as enhanced mood and a greater degree of
helpfulness.

Cunningham, in one of his studies, examined the association between a variety of weather variables
and restaurant tipping. The study was performed at a moderately expensive suburban Chicago
restaurant during afternoon meals in the spring of 1978 over a three month period, during which
weather conditions such as temperature, amount of sunshine, barometric pressure, relative
humidity, and wind velocity varied considerably. He found that amount of sunshine emerged as the
most important correlate of tipping—more sunshine was associated with larger tip percents.
Importantly, the restaurant was climate-controlled and had windows on two sides, such that
customers were shielded from all weather conditions except sunshine. Cunningham attributed the
sunshine tipping relationship to sunshine’s enhancing effects on mood.

Rind replicated and extended Cunningham’s examination of weather and tipping. His studies took
place in a casino hotel in Atlantic City, in which a server delivered meals to rooms during the morning
hours. Importantly, the rooms shielded patrons from sensory knowledge of weather conditions.
Because of this, most patrons asked the server how the weather was when he came in. In the first
study, which took place over a two month period in the fall of 1993, the server answered patrons’
questions about the weather if they asked and told them about the weather if they did not.
Specifically, he told patrons, in accordance with actual sky conditions, that it was rainy, cloudy, partly
sunny, or sunny. Tip percents systematically increased across these four conditions. In a second
study, which took place during the early spring of 1994, Rind conducted an experiment in which the
same server told patrons either that it was cold and rainy, cold and sunny, warm and rainy, or warm
and sunny. These weather reports were based on random assignment rather than actual weather
conditions. Rind found that temperature had no effect but that sky conditions did—sunny skies
produced larger tip percents than rainy skies. Consistent with Cunningham, Rind attributed these
results to a mood effect. Anecdotally, the server reported that patrons’ expressions would often
sour upon hearing that sky conditions were poor.

Rind extended Cunningham’s research not only by demonstrating that more favorable sky conditions
can cause increased tips, as opposed to merely being correlated with them, but also by showing that
beliefs about sky conditions, as opposed to direct sensory experience of them, can affect tipping.
This latter finding is consistent with other research, which has shown that subjects’ beliefs about
weather-related phenomena can affect various responses. Dubitsky, Weber, and Rotton put subjects
into a heated room; some were led to believe it was a “heat stress chamber” while others were led
to believe it was a sauna. Subjects in the former condition exhibited a more negative mood and
greater hostility. Knasko, Gilbert, and Sabini exposed subjects to odorless water vapor. Subjects led
to believe the vapor had an unpleasant smell reported a more negative mood and more physical
symptoms than subjects led to believe it had a pleasant smell.

The current study was undertaken in an attempt to replicate and extend the Rind study. A server in a
restaurant wrote a positive, negative, or no weather forecast on the back of customers’ checks
before delivering them. Conditions were assigned randomly rather than being based on actual
forecasts. Previous research has shown that messages written or drawn on the back of customers’
checks can influence tipping percents. Based on this latter research, as well as on the research
showing that beliefs about current weather-related conditions can affect tipping, we hypothesized
that induced beliefs about future weather conditions written on customers’ checks
would affect tipping.