Power plant cycles explained

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Power Plants: Ch 2 Power Plant Cycles
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Conventional Power Plants Mechanical Engineering Dep.
4th Stage University of Anbar, 2017-2018
Chapter Two: Power Plant Cycles

1. Introduction
A thermal power plant works on the basic principles that heat liberated by burning
fuel is converted into mechanical work using a suitable working fluid. The
mechanical work is converted into electric energy with the help of generators. A
working fluid goes through a repetitive cyclic change and this cyclic change
involving heat and work is known as the “thermodynamic cycle”
Steam is the most common working fluid used in vapour power plant cycles
because of its may describe characteristics such as:
̶ Low cost
̶ Availability
̶ High enthalpy of vaporisation
The steam power plant is commonly referred to as a coal plant, nuclear plant or
natural gas plant depending on the type of fuel used to apply heat to the system.
2. Power Plants Cycle Classification

It generally divided into the following groups:
I. Vapour Power Cycle
Carnot cycle, Rankine cycle, Regenerative cycle, Reheat cycle, Binary vapour
cycle and combined gas vapour cycles.
II. Gas Power Cycles
Brayton cycle, Brayton cycle with regeneration, Brayton cycle with intercooler,
reheating, regeneration.
11
3. Performance Parameters
1. Thermal Efficiency (𝜼)
It is the parameter that estimates the extent to which the energy input to the device
can be converted to network output from it
𝑵𝒆𝒕 𝒘𝒐𝒓𝒌 𝒊𝒏 𝒄𝒚𝒄𝒍𝒆

𝜼=
𝑯𝒆𝒂𝒕 𝒂𝒅𝒅𝒆𝒅 𝒕𝒐 𝒄𝒚𝒄𝒍𝒆
2. Work Ratio
It refers to the ratio of net work to positive work.
𝑾𝑵𝒆𝒕
𝑾𝒐𝒓𝒌 𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐 =
𝑾𝑻𝒖𝒓𝒃𝒊𝒏𝒆
3. Specific Steam Consumption (SSC)
It indicates the steam requirement per unit power output and it is given in kg/kW.h
𝟑𝟔𝟎𝟎
𝑺𝑺𝑪 =
𝑾𝒏𝒆𝒕
Note: The kilowatt-hour (symbolised kW⋅h as per SI) is a composite unit of

energy equivalent to one kilowatt (1 kW) of power sustained for one hour.
𝑘𝐽
1 𝑘𝑊ℎ = [ ] 3600 𝑠 = 3600𝑘𝐽 = 3.6𝑀𝐽
𝑠
12
4. Carnot Vapour Power Cycle

Carnot cycle is the most thermal efficient cycle operating between two specified
temperature limits. It is a prospective ideal cycle for vapour power plants.
This cycle consists of 1. Two constant pressure operations (P1=P2, P3=P4)
2. Two frictionless adiabatic operations (T1=T2, T3=T4)
The arrangement proposed for using the Carnot vapour power cycle is as follows:
1-2 = Reversible isothermal heat addition in the boiler to convert saturated liquid
to saturated steam.
2-3 = Reversible adiabatic expansion (isentropic, ∆S=0) in the steam turbine to

convert saturated steam to wet steam
3-4 = Reversible isothermal heat rejection in the condenser to convert & cool wet
steam for reducing dryness fraction (X)
4-1 = Reversible adiabatic compression or pumping (isentropic, ∆S=0) in the feed

water pump to convert the wet steam to a saturated liquid.
13
14
Assuming steady-state flow processes in the cycle and neglecting change in the
kinetic & potential energy:
𝑻𝟏 = 𝑻𝟐 , 𝑻𝟑 = 𝑻𝟒
𝑷𝟏 = 𝑷𝟐 , 𝑷𝟑 = 𝑷𝟒
Thermal Efficiency (𝜼)
𝑵𝒆𝒕 𝒘𝒐𝒓𝒌 𝒊𝒏 𝒄𝒚𝒄𝒍𝒆

𝜼𝑪𝒂𝒓𝒏𝒐𝒕 =
𝑯𝒆𝒂𝒕 𝒂𝒅𝒅𝒆𝒅 𝒕𝒐 𝒄𝒚𝒄𝒍𝒆
𝑵𝒆𝒕 𝑾𝒐𝒓𝒌 = 𝑻𝒖𝒓𝒃𝒊𝒏𝒆 𝒘𝒐𝒓𝒌 − 𝑷𝒖𝒎𝒑𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒘𝒐𝒓𝒌
= (𝒉𝟐 − 𝒉𝟑 ) − (𝒉𝒇𝟏 − 𝒉𝟒 )
𝑯𝒆𝒂𝒕 𝒂𝒅𝒅𝒆𝒅 (𝑸𝒂𝒅𝒅 , 𝑸𝒊𝒏 , 𝑸𝟏−𝟐 ) = (𝒉𝟐 − 𝒉𝒇𝟏 )
𝑯𝒆𝒂𝒕 𝒓𝒆𝒋𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒆𝒅 (𝑸𝒓𝒆𝒋 , 𝑸𝒐𝒖𝒕 , 𝑸𝟑−𝟒 ) = (𝒉𝟑 − 𝒉𝟒 )
𝑸𝒐𝒖𝒕 𝒉𝟑 − 𝒉𝟒
∴ 𝜼𝑪𝒂𝒓𝒏𝒐𝒕 = 𝟏 − =𝟏−
𝑸𝒊𝒏 𝒉𝟐 − 𝒉𝒇𝟏
In addition, heat added & heat rejected may be given as a function of temperature
& entropy as follows:
𝑯𝒆𝒂𝒕 𝒂𝒅𝒅𝒆𝒅 (𝑸𝒂𝒅𝒅 , 𝑸𝒊𝒏 , 𝑸𝟏−𝟐 ) = 𝑻𝟏 (𝑺𝟐 − 𝑺𝒇𝟏 )
𝑯𝒆𝒂𝒕 𝒓𝒆𝒋𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒆𝒅 (𝑸𝒓𝒆𝒋 , 𝑸𝒐𝒖𝒕 , 𝑸𝟑−𝟒 ) = 𝑻𝟑 (𝑺𝟑 − 𝑺𝟒 )
𝑺𝒇𝟏 = 𝑺𝟒 , 𝑺𝟐 = 𝑺𝟑
Then
𝑻𝟑 𝑻𝟒 𝑻𝒎𝒊𝒏
∴ 𝜼𝑪𝒂𝒓𝒏𝒐𝒕 = 𝟏 − =𝟏− =𝟏−
𝑻𝟏 𝑻𝟐 𝑻𝒎𝒂𝒙
15
Ex. In a steam power plant, the steam supply is at 15 bar & dry saturated. The
condenser pressure is 0.4 bar. Find the Carnot efficiency.
Sol.
16
4.1 Limitation of Carnot cycle

Although the Carnot cycle is simple and has the highest thermal efficiency for
given values of Tmax & Tmin, it is extremely difficult to operate in practice yet and
it is not a realistic model for vapour power cycles because of the following
reasons:
1. It is difficult to compress a wet vapour isentropically to the saturated state as

required by the process 4-1.
2. It is hard to control the quality of the condensate coming out of the condenser
so that the state (4) is hard to obtain.
3. It is difficult for a pump to handle a wet mixture (liquid + vapour) which
undergoes a simultaneous change in phase as its pressure increase.
4. The efficiency of the Carnot cycle is greatly affected by the maximum
temperature (T1) at which the heat is transferred to the working fluid. Since the
critical temperature for steam is 374oC, therefore if the cycle is to be operated
in the wet region. It means that the maximum temperature is limited for Carnot
cycle operation.
17
5. Rankine Cycle
Many of the impracticalities associated with the Carnot cycle can be eliminated
by superheating the steam in the boiler & condensing completely in the condenser.
Rankine cycle has the following thermodynamic processes:
1-2 = Reversible adiabatic (isentropic, ∆S=0) expansion in the turbine
2-3 = Constant pressure heat rejection in the condenser.
3-4 = Reversible adiabatic (isentropic, ∆S=0) compression in the pump.
4-1 = Constant pressure heat addition in the boiler.
18
By applying steady flow energy equation to the component of Rankine cycle

boiler, turbine, condenser and pump:
𝒅𝑬𝒄𝒗 𝑽𝟐𝒊𝒏 𝑽𝟐𝒐𝒖𝒕

= 𝑸 − 𝑾 + 𝒎𝒊𝒏 (𝒉𝒊𝒏 + + 𝒈. 𝒛𝒊𝒏 ) − 𝒎𝒐𝒖𝒕 (𝒉𝒐𝒖𝒕 + + 𝒈. 𝒛𝒐𝒖𝒕 )
𝒅𝒕 𝟐 𝟐
1. For Boiler
Assumptions:
𝒅𝑬𝒄𝒗
Steady state: =𝟎
𝒅𝒕
𝑽𝟐𝒊𝒏 𝑽𝟐𝒐𝒖𝒕
No change in the velocity: = =𝟎
𝟐 𝟐
No change in the elevation: 𝒈. 𝒛𝒊𝒏 = 𝒈. 𝒛𝒐𝒖𝒕 = 𝟎

No work added or obtained: 𝑾 = 𝟎
Mass conservation: 𝒎𝒊𝒏 = 𝒎𝒐𝒖𝒕
𝟎 = 𝑸 + 𝒎𝒊𝒏 𝒉𝒊𝒏 − 𝒎𝒐𝒖𝒕 𝒉𝒐𝒖𝒕
𝑸𝒃𝒐𝒊𝒍𝒆𝒓 = 𝒉𝒐𝒖𝒕 − 𝒉𝒊𝒏
[𝑸𝒂𝒅𝒅 = 𝑸𝒃𝒐𝒊𝒍𝒆𝒓 = 𝒉𝟏 − 𝒉𝒇𝟒 ]
19
2. For Turbine
Assumptions:
𝒅𝑬𝒄𝒗
Steady state: =𝟎
𝒅𝒕
𝟐 𝟐

No heat added or obtained: 𝑸 = 𝟎
𝟎 = −𝑾 + 𝒉𝒊𝒏 − 𝒉𝒐𝒖𝒕
𝑾𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒃𝒊𝒏𝒆 = 𝒉𝒊𝒏 − 𝒉𝒐𝒖𝒕
[𝑾𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒃𝒊𝒏𝒆 = 𝒉𝟏 − 𝒉𝟐 ]
3. For Condenser
Assumptions:
𝒅𝑬𝒄𝒗
Steady state: =𝟎
𝒅𝒕
𝟐 𝟐

No work added or obtained: 𝑾 = 𝟎
𝟎 = −𝑸 + 𝒎𝒊𝒏 𝒉𝒊𝒏 − 𝒎𝒐𝒖𝒕 𝒉𝒐𝒖𝒕 , the signal (– ) is accounted for heat rejection
𝑸𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒆𝒓 = 𝒉𝒐𝒖𝒕 − 𝒉𝒊𝒏
[𝑸𝒓𝒆𝒋 = 𝑸𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅 = 𝒉𝟐 − 𝒉𝒇𝟑 ]
20
4. For Feed Pump

Assumptions:
𝒅𝑬𝒄𝒗
Steady state: =𝟎
𝒅𝒕
𝟐 𝟐

No heat added or obtained: 𝑸 = 𝟎
𝟎 = +𝑾 + 𝒉𝒊𝒏 − 𝒉𝒐𝒖𝒕
The signal (–) was changed to (+) because the pump work is input into the plant
system.
𝑾𝒑𝒖𝒎𝒑 = 𝒉𝒐𝒖𝒕 − 𝒉𝒊𝒏
[𝑾𝒑𝒖𝒎𝒑 = 𝒉𝒇𝟒 − 𝒉𝒇𝟑 = 𝒗(𝑷𝒃𝒐𝒊𝒍𝒆𝒓 − 𝑷𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅 )]
The thermal efficiency of the Rankine cycle is given by:
𝑾𝒏𝒆𝒕 𝑾𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒃𝒊𝒏𝒆 − 𝑾𝒑𝒖𝒎𝒑 (𝒉𝟏 − 𝒉𝟐 ) − (𝒉𝒇𝟒 − 𝒉𝒇𝟑 ) (𝒉𝟏 − 𝒉𝟐 )

𝜼𝑹𝒂𝒏𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒆 = = = =
𝑸𝒊𝒏 𝑸𝒊𝒏 (𝒉𝟏 − 𝒉𝒇𝟒 ) (𝒉𝟏 − 𝒉𝒇𝟒 )
The value of (𝒉𝒇𝟒 − 𝒉𝒇𝟑 ) is small comparing with turbine work, thus it is usually
neglected.
21
Ex. In a steam power plant, the steam supply is at 15 bar & dry saturated. The
condenser pressure is 0.4 bar. Find the Rankine thermal efficiency.
Sol.
22
Ex. Consider a steam power plant operating on a simple ideal Rankine cycle. The
steam enters the turbine at 3 MPa & 350oC and is condensed in the condenser at
75 MPa. Determine the thermal efficiency.
Sol.
23
6. Comparison between Carnot Cycles & Rankine Cycle

1. Between the same temperatures limits working, the Rankine cycle provides
a higher specific work output than the Carnot cycle. Consequently, the
Rankine cycle requires a smaller steam flow rate resulting in a smaller size
plant for a given output.
2. Since in Rankine cycle is only part of the added heat isothermally at
constant higher temperature T1, its efficiency is lower than that of the
Carnot cycle.
7. How to Increase Rankine Cycle Efficiency

Steam power plants are used for the production of most of the electric power in
the world. Therefore, a small increase in the thermal efficiency can be mean a
large saving of fuel requirement.
The Rankine cycle can be improved by:
1. Lowering the condenser pressure
The hashed area in this figure represents the

increase in net work (Wnet). The heat input
(Qadd) also increases (4-4ꞌ) but this increase
is very small.
The disadvantage in this case: it increases

the moisture content of the steam at the
final stage of the turbine. The large
quantities of moisture are highly
undesirable because it erodes the turbine
blades.
24
2. Superheating the steam to high temperature
Both the net work and heat input

increase because of superheating. The
overall effect is an increase efficiency.
Also superheating ensure longer
turbine blades life.
The highest steam temperature allowed

is about 624oC. Any increase in this
value depends on the present materials
of a power plant or finding new ones
that can withstand higher steam temperature.
3. Increasing the boiler pressure
The effect of increasing the boiler pressure increases the average temperature at
which heat is added to the steam. Thus, the thermal efficiency enhances.
The disadvantage for a fixed turbine

inlet temperature, the cycle shifts to the
left and the moisture content of the steam
at the turbine exit increases. This side
effect can be modified by reheating the
system.
25
8. Rankine Cycle with Superheating

The dry saturated steam from the boiler drum is passed through the second bank
of smaller bore tubes within the boiler, as shown in the figure below. It relates to
point number 2 (superheating the steam to high temperature)
26
Ex. In a steam power plant, steam enters the turbine at conditions of 42 bar &
500oC and exits at 0.035 bar. Estimate the thermal efficiency of this plant.
Sol. By the thermodynamic laws & tables
27
Directly from h-S chart & tables
28
9. Reheat Rankine Cycle

It relates to point number 3 (increasing the boiler pressure). We noted that by
increasing the boiler pressure, the thermal efficiency will increase with an
increasing moisture content of steam to unacceptable levels. To solve this
problem, the steam should be expanded in the turbine in two stages and reheat in
between. Reheating is a practical solution to the excessive moisture content
problem in turbines and it is commonly used in modern steam power plant.
The reheat Rankine cycle has the following thermodynamic processes:
1-2 = High-pressure turbine stage, steam is expanded adiabatically (isentropic,

∆S=0) in the first turbine to an intermediate pressure.
2-3 = an intermediate pressure, steam is sent back to the boiler where it is reheated
at constant pressure.
3-4 = Low-pressure turbine stage, steam is expanded adiabatically (isentropic,

∆S=0) in the second turbine to the condenser pressure.
4-5 = Condenser pressure, steam is cooled down to saturated liquid (rejected heat
in the condenser).
5-6 = Pump, water is pumped from condenser pressure to boiler pressure.
6-1 = Boiler pressure, water is heated & it turns to superheated steam (added heat
in the boiler).
29
30
Thermodynamics analysis of reheat cycle as shown in T-S & h-S diagram

representation are carried out as follows:
𝑾𝑯.𝑷.𝑻 = 𝒉𝟏 − 𝒉𝟐
𝑾𝑳.𝑷.𝑻 = 𝒉𝟑 − 𝒉𝟒
𝑾𝒑𝒖𝒎𝒑 = 𝒉𝒇𝟔 − 𝒉𝒇𝟓
𝑾𝒏𝒆𝒕 = (𝑾𝑯.𝑷.𝑻 − 𝑾𝑳.𝑷.𝑻 ) + 𝑾𝒑𝒖𝒎𝒑
= (𝒉𝟏 − 𝒉𝟐 ) + (𝒉𝟑 − 𝒉𝟒 ) − (𝒉𝒇𝟔 − 𝒉𝒇𝟓 )
𝑸𝒂𝒅𝒅 = 𝑸𝑩𝒐𝒊𝒍𝒆𝒓 + 𝑸𝑹𝒆𝒉𝒆𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒈
= (𝒉𝟏 − 𝒉𝒇𝟔 ) + (𝒉𝟑 − 𝒉𝟐 )
𝑾𝒏𝒆𝒕 (𝒉𝟏 − 𝒉𝟐 ) + (𝒉𝟑 − 𝒉𝟒 ) − (𝒉𝒇𝟔 − 𝒉𝒇𝟓 )

𝜼𝑹𝒆𝒉𝒆𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒈 = =
𝑸𝒊𝒏 (𝒉𝟏 − 𝒉𝒇𝟔 ) + (𝒉𝟑 − 𝒉𝟐 )
The output power of the plant (kW) is:
𝑷𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒖𝒕 = 𝒎̇𝒔 𝑾𝒏𝒆𝒕 , where 𝒎̇𝒔 = mass flow rate of the steam (kg/s)
31
The Main Advantages & Disadvantages of Reheat Rankine Cycle
The main advantages of reheat Rankine cycle:
1. Increase the output of the turbine.

2. Enhancement in the thermal efficiency of the turbine.
3. Final dryness fraction of steam us improved.
4. The nozzle & blade efficiency enhance.
5. Corrosion & erosion problem are avoided.
The main disadvantages of reheat Rankine cycle:
1. Requires more maintenance.

2. An increase in thermal efficiency is not equivalent in comparison to the
expenditure incurred in reheating.
32
Ex. In a steam power plant, steam enters HPT at 150 bar & 550oC and leaves as a
saturated vapour. The condenser pressure is 0.1 bar. Assume that the reheating
occurs up to the original temperature. Estimate (1) the work done, (2) the added
heat, (3) the output power when the mass flow rate of the steam is 50 kg /s, and
(4) the thermal efficiency of the cycle. (5) Now, if the isentropic efficiency of the
two turbines is 85%. Find the new thermal efficiency.
Sol.
From Mollier Chart:
33
34
35
36
10. Efficiencies in Steam Power Plant

1. Boiler Efficiency
It is the heat supplied to the steam in the boiler expressed as a percentage of the
chemical energy of the fuel, which is available in the combustion.
𝒎̇𝒔 (𝒉𝟏 − 𝒉𝑭𝑾 )

𝜼𝑩𝒐𝒊𝒍𝒆𝒓 =
𝒎̇𝒇 . 𝑪𝑽
where,
𝒉𝟏 : Enthalpy of steam entering the turbine (kJ/kg)

𝒉𝑭𝑾 : Enthalpy of feed water (kJ/kg)
𝒎̇𝒔 : Mass flow rate of the steam (kg/s)
𝒎̇𝒇 : Mass flow rate of the fuel (kg/s)
𝑪𝑽: Calorific value of the fuel (kJ/kg)
2. Mechanical & Electrical (generator) Efficiency
In steam plants, the work done by a turbine is transferred to the generator to

generate electricity by a shaft. Due to the friction factor in the shaft & iron losses
in the generator, there are going to be two efficiencies: mechanical efficiency &
electricity efficiency.
Thus, the output power of a plant in this case called “Terminal Power”
𝑻𝒆𝒓𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝑷𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 = 𝒎̇𝒔 . 𝑾𝑫. 𝜼𝒎 . 𝜼𝒈
37
3. Cycle Efficiency
Cycle efficiency that is explained well previously takes into account equipment
of the cycle: turbine, condenser pump and boiler.
𝑾𝑫
𝜼𝒄𝒚𝒄𝒍𝒆 =
𝑸𝒂𝒅𝒅
4. Plant Efficiency
Plant efficiency includes cycle equipment, mechanical efficiency, electricity

efficiency and boiler efficiency.
𝜼𝑷𝒍𝒂𝒏𝒕 = 𝜼𝒃𝒐𝒊𝒍𝒆𝒓 + 𝜼𝒄𝒚𝒄𝒍𝒆 + 𝜼𝒎 + 𝜼𝒈
5. Specific Steam Consumption
When the mechanical efficiency & the electricity efficiency are considered into
account, the SSC (kg fuel/kW.h) will be as follows:
𝟑𝟔𝟎𝟎
𝑺𝑺𝑪 =
𝑾𝒏𝒆𝒕 . 𝜼𝒎 . 𝜼𝒈
38
Ex. A steam power plant has the following data: steam condition at turbine 6MPa,
450oC, the turbine efficiency = 83%, the mechanical efficiency = 92%, the
generator efficiency = 96%, the steam mass flow rate = 40kg/s, the fuel mass flow
rate = 4kg/s and the calorific value of the fuel = 37000 kJ/kg. Neglect the pump
work. Find
1. Work done 4. Cycle efficiency

2. Added heat 5. Plant efficiency
3. Boiler efficiency 6. Terminal power
39
40
11. Regenerative Rankine Cycle

A careful examination of the T-S diagram
of the ideal Rankine cycle redrawn in the
figure reveals that heat addition is
transferred to the working fluid during
process 4-4ꞌ at a relatively low
temperature. This reduces the average
added heat temperature & thus cycle
efficiency decreases.
The Rankine efficiency cycle can be

enhanced by bleeding off some of the
steam at an intermediate pressure during
the expansion and mixing this steam with
feed water that has been pumped to the
same pressure.
The purpose of this is to increase the mean temperature in which heat is added,
thus heat added in the boiler is reduced thus efficiency is increased.
The Main Advantages of Regenerative Rankine Cycle:
1. The heating process in the boiler tends to be reversible.

2. Minimising the thermal stresses set up in the boiler. This is because the
temperature range in the boiler reduced.
3. Improving thermal efficiency.
4. Reducing heat rate.
5. Requirement small condenser.
The Main Disadvantages of Regenerative Rankine Cycle:
1. The plant becomes more complicated.

2. Maintenance is more required.
3. For a given power plant, a large capacity boiler is required.
4. The heater is costly.
41
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Power Plants: Ch 2 Power Plant Cycles

Chapter · May 2021

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Chapter Two: Power Plant Cycles

2. Power Plants Cycle Classification

I. Vapour Power Cycle

II. Gas Power Cycles

𝑵𝒆𝒕 𝒘𝒐𝒓𝒌 𝒊𝒏 𝒄𝒚𝒄𝒍𝒆

It refers to the ratio of net work to positive work.

3. Specific Steam Consumption (SSC)

Note: The kilowatt-hour (symbolised kW⋅h as per SI) is a composite unit of

4. Carnot Vapour Power Cycle

This cycle consists of 1. Two constant pressure operations (P1=P2, P3=P4)

2. Two frictionless adiabatic operations (T1=T2, T3=T4)

2-3 = Reversible adiabatic expansion (isentropic, ∆S=0) in the steam turbine to

4-1 = Reversible adiabatic compression or pumping (isentropic, ∆S=0) in the feed

Thermal Efficiency (𝜼)

𝑵𝒆𝒕 𝒘𝒐𝒓𝒌 𝒊𝒏 𝒄𝒚𝒄𝒍𝒆

𝑵𝒆𝒕 𝑾𝒐𝒓𝒌 = 𝑻𝒖𝒓𝒃𝒊𝒏𝒆 𝒘𝒐𝒓𝒌 − 𝑷𝒖𝒎𝒑𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒘𝒐𝒓𝒌

𝑯𝒆𝒂𝒕 𝒂𝒅𝒅𝒆𝒅 (𝑸𝒂𝒅𝒅 , 𝑸𝒊𝒏 , 𝑸𝟏−𝟐 ) = (𝒉𝟐 − 𝒉𝒇𝟏 )

𝑯𝒆𝒂𝒕 𝒓𝒆𝒋𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒆𝒅 (𝑸𝒓𝒆𝒋 , 𝑸𝒐𝒖𝒕 , 𝑸𝟑−𝟒 ) = (𝒉𝟑 − 𝒉𝟒 )

𝑯𝒆𝒂𝒕 𝒂𝒅𝒅𝒆𝒅 (𝑸𝒂𝒅𝒅 , 𝑸𝒊𝒏 , 𝑸𝟏−𝟐 ) = 𝑻𝟏 (𝑺𝟐 − 𝑺𝒇𝟏 )

𝑯𝒆𝒂𝒕 𝒓𝒆𝒋𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒆𝒅 (𝑸𝒓𝒆𝒋 , 𝑸𝒐𝒖𝒕 , 𝑸𝟑−𝟒 ) = 𝑻𝟑 (𝑺𝟑 − 𝑺𝟒 )

4.1 Limitation of Carnot cycle

1. It is difficult to compress a wet vapour isentropically to the saturated state as

Rankine cycle has the following thermodynamic processes:

1-2 = Reversible adiabatic (isentropic, ∆S=0) expansion in the turbine

2-3 = Constant pressure heat rejection in the condenser.

3-4 = Reversible adiabatic (isentropic, ∆S=0) compression in the pump.

4-1 = Constant pressure heat addition in the boiler.

By applying steady flow energy equation to the component of Rankine cycle

𝒅𝑬𝒄𝒗 𝑽𝟐𝒊𝒏 𝑽𝟐𝒐𝒖𝒕

No change in the elevation: 𝒈. 𝒛𝒊𝒏 = 𝒈. 𝒛𝒐𝒖𝒕 = 𝟎

[𝑸𝒂𝒅𝒅 = 𝑸𝒃𝒐𝒊𝒍𝒆𝒓 = 𝒉𝟏 − 𝒉𝒇𝟒 ]

No change in the elevation: 𝒈. 𝒛𝒊𝒏 = 𝒈. 𝒛𝒐𝒖𝒕 = 𝟎

No change in the elevation: 𝒈. 𝒛𝒊𝒏 = 𝒈. 𝒛𝒐𝒖𝒕 = 𝟎

[𝑸𝒓𝒆𝒋 = 𝑸𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅 = 𝒉𝟐 − 𝒉𝒇𝟑 ]

4. For Feed Pump

No change in the elevation: 𝒈. 𝒛𝒊𝒏 = 𝒈. 𝒛𝒐𝒖𝒕 = 𝟎

[𝑾𝒑𝒖𝒎𝒑 = 𝒉𝒇𝟒 − 𝒉𝒇𝟑 = 𝒗(𝑷𝒃𝒐𝒊𝒍𝒆𝒓 − 𝑷𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅 )]

The thermal efficiency of the Rankine cycle is given by:

𝑾𝒏𝒆𝒕 𝑾𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒃𝒊𝒏𝒆 − 𝑾𝒑𝒖𝒎𝒑 (𝒉𝟏 − 𝒉𝟐 ) − (𝒉𝒇𝟒 − 𝒉𝒇𝟑 ) (𝒉𝟏 − 𝒉𝟐 )

6. Comparison between Carnot Cycles & Rankine Cycle

7. How to Increase Rankine Cycle Efficiency

The Rankine cycle can be improved by:

1. Lowering the condenser pressure

The hashed area in this figure represents the

The disadvantage in this case: it increases

2. Superheating the steam to high temperature

Both the net work and heat input

The highest steam temperature allowed

3. Increasing the boiler pressure

The disadvantage for a fixed turbine

8. Rankine Cycle with Superheating

Sol. By the thermodynamic laws & tables

Directly from h-S chart & tables

9. Reheat Rankine Cycle

The reheat Rankine cycle has the following thermodynamic processes:

1-2 = High-pressure turbine stage, steam is expanded adiabatically (isentropic,

3-4 = Low-pressure turbine stage, steam is expanded adiabatically (isentropic,