Case Studies in Construction Materials 13 (2020) e00401

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Case Studies in Construction Materials

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/cscm

Case study

Model tests of bending and torsional deformations of

thin-walled profiles stiffened with elements made in 3D
printing technology
 *, I. Major, M. Major, J. Kalinowski
M. Kosin
Faculty of Civil Engineering, Czestochowa University of Technology, Akademicka 3, 42-201 Czestochowa, Poland

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Article history: The paper presents the benefits of using 3D printing technology as an effective way to
Received 18 February 2020 increase the rigidity of thin-walled bars subjected to non-free torsion. The first part of the
Received in revised form 4 June 2020 article concerns bending and torsion testing of C thin-walled unstiffened and longitudinally
Accepted 19 June 2020
stiffened profiles. The proprietary solution made with 3D printing technology was used as
the longitudinal stiffening. The impact of a stiffener used on bending – torsional
Keywords: displacements in selected profile sections was assessed. The results of experimental
3D printing
research and numerical analysis made with the finite element method were compared.
Thin-walled profiles
Analyses of bending – torsion
Based on numerical simulations and experimental tests carried out, it can be stated that the
FEM stiffener that was used increases the flexural and torsional stiffness of thin-walled profiles.
In the second part of the work, in order to present the legitimacy of the discussed topic, the
impact of the disassembly of the outer plating in the storey of a single-story structure of a
single-family building made of light steel framework technology on its stability is shown.
For this purpose, three various calculation were assumed for the adopted object, whose
models were subjected to numerical analysis by the finite element method. The analysis
took into account possible charges to occur in accordance with the regulations in force in
Poland. Due to the analysis of the building model without stiffening plating on the ground
floor, it was confirmed that the displacement limits specified in the standards were
exceeded. The study showed that the self-wedging assembly insert developed in 3D
printing technology developed by the authors is an effective way to increase the rigidity of
non-free torsion of C-type steel thin-walled profiles and is used in renovation and repair
works when there is a need to stiffen a building block following the removal of wall
sheathing.
© 2020 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC
BY license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

1. Introduction

The development of civilization determines the search for new materials and new technologies applicable, among others,
in construction. This is also the case with 3D printing technology were, at first, the expensive and complicated process
became present in everyday life, which resulted in, among others, numerous references [1–4]. Undoubtedly, the introduction
of new technologies to a specific area of life is associated with the question about the effectiveness of this solution. For this

* Corresponding author.
 ).
E-mail address: mkosin@bud.pcz.pl (M. Kosin

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cscm.2020.e00401
2214-5095/© 2020 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
4.0/).
2  et al. / Case Studies in Construction Materials 13 (2020) e00401
M. Kosin

purpose, the authors of the article, using the discussed technology, conducted a numerical and experimental analysis of the
non-free torsion of thin-walled rods.
A characteristic of thin-walled elements is that one of the dimensions determining the cross-section (thickness) is
incomparably small compared to the others. The basic difference between the thin wall bar theory and the solid bar theory is
to omit the simplifying assumptions of Bernoulli's flat cross-section hypotheses and de Saint Venant's principle [5]. S.
Timoshenko was the precursor in the field of thin-walled rods, while W. Vlasov [6] ordered the theory. For dimensioning
thin-walled elements, the method proposed by W. Vlasov and the theory of supercritical load-bearing by G. Winter [6,7] are
used, which is reflected in the standards [1,8].
The main purpose of the article is to present the results of experimental and numerical analyses of thin-walled bars
subjected to non-free torsion. The authors, wanting to justify the topic, presented a case study of a single-family building
made in the light steel skeleton technology. The article demonstrates the impact of disassembly of external wall sheathing
and the use of bowstrings on the stability of a building body. The further part presents the results of experimental and
numerical tests of thin-walled profiles with the proprietary solution made with 3D printing technology used as the
longitudinal stiffening. The type of solution used was aimed at increasing the flexural and torsional stiffness of the profile in
the place of mounting the vertical bowstrings that are necessary to ensure the spatial stability of the building body. The
impact of a stiffener used on bending – torsional displacements in selected profile sections was assessed.

2. Description of the author’s solution for stiffening of thin-walled profiles

In practice, many methods are known for the stiffening thin-walled profiles with lacings, diaphragms, or lattices [6,9,10].
These methods can be problematic when it comes to their implementation in existing facilities, as it is in the case assumed by
the authors. Therefore, an alternative solution has been created for this type of stiffener enabling efficient installation in the
field. The proposed method of stiffening allows for an increase to the bending – torsional stiffness of the profile in the place of
ties mounting. The stiffener is made of three elements that, when inserted into a thin-walled profile, wedging together after
twisting, form a whole (Fig. 1).
The invention was filed with the Patent Office in Poland with the number P.423102 [11] and obtained patent protection on
11.02.2020 published on 30.04.2020.
Research is a prototype study. In the future, research is planned using other types of filament. Test elements of the
assembly insert were made with 3D printing technology using ABS filament, whose basic technical parameters are
summarized in Table 1.

3. Research program

3.1. Experimental research

Thin-walled C140 profiles made of steel were used for experimental research. The material from which the profiles were
made is a galvanized steel sheet with a yield strength of fyb =235 MPa and tensile strength of fu =360 MPa. Nominal and real
dimensions for the analysed profiles are presented in Table 2.
Fig. 2 shows a general view of the test stands together with the location of the dial gauges.
Steel thin-walled profiles on the test bench supported in a fork. The tests included measuring vertical displacements of
two series of profiles. Each series is described as follows: Model I (without stiffening (Fig. 3a)) and Model II (with stiffening
(Fig. 3b)).

Fig. 1. A proprietary solution for stiffening C-shaped steel thin-walled profiles: a) the view of three elements forming a stiffener, b) the view of stiffening in a
thin-walled profile.
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M. Kosin 3

Table 1
Technical parameters of the ABS filament used in the tests.

Physical properties Density Tensile strength Young module Poisson’s ratio

[kg/m3] [MPa] [MPa]
Value 1050 44 2000 0.38

Table 2
Nominal and real dimensions for the analysed C140 profiles.

Fig. 2. General view of the test stand - arrangement of measuring sensors on the tested thin-walled C140 profile.

Five profiles respectively were tested in the described models. The stiffeners of the tested elements used were
fastened with an M8 threaded rod twisted on both sides (Fig. 3b). The loading of the profiles was carried out with the
help of weights suspended on U-shaped shelves according to diagrams shown in Fig. 3. The research program envisaged
performing one load cycle for each model, including loads of 54.94 N, 103.99 N, and 202.09 N. The total length of the
tested profiles was 2500 mm, and the distance between supports was 2350 mm. The deflections were measured with
dial indicators (Predom-Termet sensor, measuring range 0 10 mm with accuracy 0.01 mm) in three-bar cross-sections
marked I, II and III, respectively. The measuring cross-sections were located at 1/3 of the length between the supports.
In each cross-section, two measuring sensors were placed on both sides at a distance of 5 mm from the web edge
(Fig. 3).
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M. Kosin

Fig. 3. Load diagrams of the tested profiles with the placement of dial indicators: a) Model I without stiffener, b) Model II with stiffener.

3.2. Numerical research

Numerical simulation was performed using Ansys 18.1 Academic Research software, based on the finite element method.
The scope of the numerical analysis assumed modelling of a thin-walled profile using the Shell181 shell model. Whereas,
stiffening elements and screws were used with the Solid187 solid model. View of the numerical model is shown in Fig. 4
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M. Kosin 5

Fig. 4. View of the numerical model: a) a developed stiffening insert, b) a combination of an insert and a C-profile.

whereas the geometrical model of a beam with stiffening is shown in Fig. 5. The required geometrical characteristics of the
C140 profile for numerical tests were adopted in accordance with Table 2. The calculations were carried out assuming the
linear properties of the material in the elastic state. One of the main parameters of the program leading to a properly
conducted FEM analysis was the proper setting of the finite element mesh, the so-called examining the convergence of the
numerical method with experimental research. The finite element mesh was generated in the Multizone mode based on
cubic elements, which guarantees the formation of a smaller number of nodes and elements, and greater accuracy of results
compared to four-walled meshes [12,13]. Depending on the considered model, the generated finite element mesh differed in
the number of nodes and elements.
The maximum size of each element forming the calculation model was 2 mm. The discretization of the thin-walled profile
was carried out using the Quadrilateral mesh type consisting of 145,716 nodes and 144,544 elements. For solid models, the
mesh model was based on Hexahedral elements. In the case of the mounting insert, 703,670 nodes and 162,644 elements
were obtained, and screw models were described by 18,291 nodes and 3668 elements.
Two types of contacts were used to model contacts between elements. Bonded contact, which means that a pair of
contacts cannot separate and move, and Frictional contact that allows contacts to separate and move together (Table 3)
[9,13]. Frictional contact assumed a friction coefficient of 0.2, which corresponds to the coefficient of sliding friction between
steel and ABS.
During the numerical calculations, it was noticed that a slight change in boundary conditions leads to different solutions,
and the results obtained differ significantly from each other. During the analysis, the effect of changing boundary conditions
on the obtained displacement values was checked by taking away the degrees of freedom of cross-sections in different
directions, and the obtained results were compared with the experiment.

Fig. 5. Geometrical model of a beam with stiffening - boundary conditions and load.
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M. Kosin

Table 3
Types of contacts adopted in the analysis.

Combined items Contact type

Profile - assembly insert Frictional
Profile - screw Bonded
Frictional
Screw - assembly insert Bonded

4. Numerical and experimental results

The results summarized in Table 4 show good compliance with the results of numerical analysis with experimental
research. In the considered models these differences do not exceed 5%. The presented results of the experiment were
determined for each model as mean values from five profiles.
The nature of the work element of the thin-walled steel beam modelled in the ANSYS program is shown in Fig. 6 for a load
of Q = 54.94 N. For the other two values of the applied force loads Q = 103.99 N and Q = 202.09 N there are no significant
differences in the distribution of vertical displacements and the values from the numerical tests are presented in Table 4.
The results of the experimental and numerical tests made it possible to assess the impact of longitudinal stiffeners on
vertical displacements (Fig. 7) and torsion angle (Fig. 8). The proposed method of longitudinal stiffening in the considered
model strongly affects vertical displacements and torsion angle along the length of the rod.
Table 4 presents the percentage differences in the results of vertical displacements obtained between a profile without
stiffening and a profile with stiffening. Both of the results obtained from experimental tests and numerical calculations show
the impact of stiffening on the reduction of vertical displacements. Comparing the effect of stiffening on vertical
displacements in selected measuring cross-sections, there is no clear agreement in the distribution of results. This is caused,
among others, by deviations in the shape of the profile. However, there are places where this compliance is noticeable. For
example, such a place for most results of experimental research and numerical analysis is reading at measurement point I_1.
The exception for this place is the result obtained in the numerical analysis at 202.09 N load where the effect of stiffening is
the smallest.
Fig. 7 compares the relationship of vertical displacement of a profile between a model without stiffeners (Model I) and a
model with stiffeners (Model II). The presented charts include the results of experimental tests and numerical calculations
made in the ANSYS program. The charts were created from the readings on the sensors placed in the section of profile I
(Fig. 7a), in section II (Fig. 7b) and section III (Fig. 7c). In both considered models, the impact of the stiffener used to reduce
vertical displacements is visible. During the tests, the profile returned to its original state after unloading to zero, which
indicated the elastic behaviour of the tested elements.
The results of the calculated torsion angles are shown in Fig. 8. Torsion angles were calculated based on known vertical
displacements at the extreme cross-section points obtained from the measuring sensors. By comparing the charts presented

Table 4
Percentage comparison D [%] of vertical displacements of experimental tests and numerical analysis for the model without stiffeners (Model I) and the
model with stiffeners (Model II).

Load Measuring The results of the Comparison The results of the Comparison
[N] sensor practical experiment D[%] numerical experiment D[%]
Model I Model II Model I Model II
[mm] [mm]

54.94 I_1 1.57 1.40 10.83 1.55 1.44 7.10

I_2 1.33 1.29 3.15 1.38 1.33 3.68
II_3 1.69 1.51 10.77 1.65 1.56 5.45
II_4 1.71 1.60 6.43 1.65 1.56 5.45
III_5 1.39 1.24 10.53 1.34 1.29 3.73
III_6 1.57 1.51 4.07 1.51 1.4 7.28
103.99 I_1 3.02 2.83 6.30 3.06 2.92 4.58
I_2 2.65 2.54 4.15 2.7 2.58 4.26
II_3 3.23 3.05 5.69 3.19 3.10 2.82
II_4 3.29 3.15 4.08 3.19 3.10 2.82
III_5 2.68 2.55 4.85 2.61 2.50 4.21
III_6 3.07 2.91 5.08 2.98 2.84 4.63
202.09 I_1 6.09 5.68 6.70 6.15 5.93 3.58
I_2 5.44 5.30 2.65 5.53 5.23 5.42
II_3 6.49 6.12 5.79 6.33 6.20 2.05
II_4 6.64 6.40 3.53 6.33 6.20 2.05
III_5 5.28 5.18 1.89 5.35 5.06 5.42
III_6 6.20 5.94 4.29 5.98 5.77 3.51
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M. Kosin 7

Fig. 6. Map of vertical displacements for a non-stiffened profile loaded with force Q = 54.94 N - top view.

in Fig. 8, the torsional stiffness for the model with stiffeners (Model II) and at the maximum load, in this case, equal to
202.09 N, is much better. Also, for other loads, the model with stiffeners is more favourable where the differences in the
torsion angle in relation to the model without stiffeners are from 5 to 28 %.

5. Discussion justifying the topic

The scope of the research presented in the work was to demonstrate on the example of a C-profile cold-formed C140,
commonly used in lightweight steel skeleton technology, that the use of a stiffening insert made in 3D printing technology
improves the bending and torsional rigidity of the profile. The necessity to use steel cables connecting bracing light skeletal
structures may result from the consequences of exceptional loads, whose impact may damage the load-bearing structure of
the building body. Investors, users of this type of facilities and insurance companies are interested in restoring all necessary
structural parameters of the building for proper operation in a way that will be effective at the stage of works and will allow
restoring the original bearing structure of the building quickly and safely. Due to the increasingly widespread use of this type
of construction in Poland, the EU, the USA, and Canada, the need to intervene in the damaged load-bearing structure of the
building as a result of exceptional loads is also increasingly common. It is important for safety reasons to properly carry out
renovation and repair works. The author's development of the assembly insert, stiffening the cross-section of steel cold-
formed C-profiles, is an effective and convenient construction solution. The developed solution resulted from the research of
the team, which noticed that due to the need to use stiffeners of the exposed skeleton of the building body using steel cable at
the stage of renovation and repair work errors appear due to improper bracing. This significantly limits the pace of
renovation works and affects their efficiency. This resulted in the need to develop a solution that can be made in 3D printing
technology in the amount necessary to carry out renovation and repair work. The resulting local profile stiffening works in
practice at the stage of construction works, and after their completion, the installed stiffening inserts can remain in the wall
without affecting the method of fixing the plating elements and without reducing the insulation parameters of the building
partition. An important aspect of this work is also to indicate to the reader that with the current availability of 3D printing,
you can very effectively make elements that can be used in the right way to repair a damaged lightweight steel frame
structure, without the need for mass production. Such a solution can also be used if it is necessary to disassemble the entire
sheathing of the first floor (as in the numerical example - chapter 6) when it is necessary to remove the effects of flooding the
building. Removal and replacement of the whole plating take place when the flooding of the building is also accompanied by
water contamination.

6. Numerical analysis of building stability

In order to demonstrate the loss of stability of the solid of a two-story residential building, a numerical analysis was
performed in Autodesk Robot Structural 2015 to show what horizontal displacements occur when the first floor plating is
disassembled and how this negative effect can be eliminated by using concentrations. This allows the reader to notice the
correlation between the solution of the proprietary assembly insert made in 3D printing technology, local stiffening of the
profile and improvement of its bending-torsional stiffness concerning the exemplary realized frame structure of a single-
family house made in the technology of light steel skeleton numerically modeled and loaded in accordance with standard
requirements.
The behaviour of the steel frame structure of a two-story residential building was analysed in terms of determining the
stability of the building body at the time when it is necessary to remove the stiffening sheathing of the walls of the first floor
and replace its effect by using steel wall ties. For this purpose, a calculation model of the building was adopted in the Sunday
System technology [14]. The resulting two-story building measuring 9.3 m by 12.3 m with a height of 8.62 m and a roof pitch
of 43 was designed in accordance with applicable regulations [8,15–17] (Fig. 9). The skeleton of the wall structure and roof
8  et al. / Case Studies in Construction Materials 13 (2020) e00401
M. Kosin

Fig. 7. Dependencies of vertical displacements on the load of profiles without stiffeners (Model I) and profiles with stiffeners (Model II), the reading of
displacements on a) sensors I_1 and I_2, b) sensors II_1 and II_2, c) sensors III_1 and III_2.

truss was based on 1.5 mm thick C140 sections spaced every 60 cm. Instead, the floor beams created integrated C140 profiles,
thus giving the I-shape. Analysing the work of the structure, the possible loads that occurred were summarized [8,15–17].
The calculation model was built in Autodesk Robot Structural 2015. To simplify the model, all supports were adopted as
restraints. The supporting structure consisted of rod elements, which were given appropriate cross-sections and releases,
thus creating articulated joints. Sheathing of the building structure was modelled as panels, giving them the appropriate
parameters of OSB. The following calculation situations were assumed in the study:
  et al. / Case Studies in Construction Materials 13 (2020) e00401
M. Kosin 9

Fig. 8. Relations of the torsion angle of the profile between the model without stiffeners (Model I) and the model with stiffeners (Model II): a) torsion angle
in section I, b) torsion angle in section III.

- Building I – building construction with complete wall covering (Fig. 9a),

- Building II – building structure without stiffening plating on the ground floor (Fig. 9b),
- Building III – building structure without stiffening plating on the ground floor with vertical bracing (Fig. 9c).

The results of the analysis clearly show that disassembly of the plating from the ground floor (Building II) affected the
stability of the building body and exceeded the horizontal displacement limits determined [8,15] by 25 times in relation to
the structure with full plating (Building I). However, the applied trusses in the form of vertical bracing (Building III) reduced
horizontal displacements by approximately 97 % compared to Building II. Also, the torsion angles show greater
displacements for the model without stiffeners on the ground floor of the building.
The loads were determined in accordance with the standards in force in Poland. The calculated dead weight of the
structure is 1.19 kN/m2 roof, 0.77 kN/m2 attic, 2.55 kN/m2 ceiling, 1.35 kN/m2 external walls, and 0.71 kN/m2 internal walls.
Calculations of the structure's weight were made according to PN-EN 1991-1-1 Eurocode 1 [18]. The useful load equal to
2 kN/m2 was assumed according to chapter 6 of PN-EN 1991-1-1 Eurocode 1 [18]. The roof snow load is 0.38 kN/m2. To
determine the snow load, PN-EN 1991-1-3 Eurocode 1 [16] was used. The maximum wind load of the wall surface exposed to
pressure is 0.59 kN/m2, and the surface exposed to suction 0.77 kN/m2. For the roof slope, the maximum wind load of the
surface exposed to pressure is 0.55 kN/m2, and the surface exposed to suction 0.53 kN/m2. The wind load standard PN-EN
1991-1-4 Eurocode 1 [17] was adopted. Combinations of calculated loads were created in accordance with PN-EN 1990:2004,
Eurokod 0 [15].
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M. Kosin

Fig. 9. Calculation models of a single-family house with displacement results: a) building with sheathing, b) building without stiffening sheathing on the
ground floor, c) building without stiffening sheathing on the ground floor with vertical bracing.

7. Conclusions

Based on the numerical simulations and experimental tests carried out, the following conclusions can be drawn:

- the use of the proprietary local solution for stiffening thin-walled steel profiles increases the bending and torsional rigidity
of the entire profile;
- the self-wedging assembly insert developed by the authors, made in 3D printing technology with the use of ABS filament,
is an effective way to increase the rigidity of non-free torsion of C-type steel thin-walled profiles;
- experimental and numerical tests carried out for a steel thin-walled C profile showed correlations between numerical
calculations and those read from experimental tests;
- the numerical model of the frame structure of a two-story building without stiffening plating analysed in the ground floor
part, analysed in the paper, exceeded the horizontal values of horizontal displacements specified in the standards [8,15].

8. Summary

Thin-walled structural elements with an open cross-section are characterized by relatively low torsional rigidity. This
makes them sensitive to torsional loads as well as a spatial form of loss of stability. Unfortunately, this affects the ultimate
and serviceability limit states. As the main reason for exceeding the serviceability limit state for the analysed building
models (Fig. 9) was the removal of the stiffening plating on the ground floor (Fig. 9 Building II), which significantly reduced
the rigidity of the structure. When the lattice was installed, the rigidity of the structure significantly increased (Fig. 9
Building III). One way to improve the non-free torsion of thin-walled C profiles is to use of stiffeners. In the considered article,
an insert made in 3D printing technology was proposed as a method of stiffening (Fig. 1). The research has shown that the use
of this type of stiffening significantly eliminates the adverse effect of torsion and has a prospective application in the
increasingly common steel lightweight frame constructions.
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M. Kosin 11

Declaration of Competing Interest

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have
appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.

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