Results in Physics 12 (2019) 846–852

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Results in Physics
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/rinp

The Doppler effect and similar triangles T

⁎
Shukri Klinaku, Valbone Berisha
University of Prishtina, Sheshi Nëna Terezë, Prishtina 10000, Kosovo

A R T I C LE I N FO A B S T R A C T

Keywords: The Euclidean version of Doppler effect will be explained using the properties of similar triangles. These
Similar triangles properties will serve to explain the relationship between frequencies of propagated wavefronts, number of
Doppler effect wavefronts and the time of emitting and receiving of these wavefronts. This explanation of Doppler effect re-
Relative velocity presents not only a new method of obtaining equations which deal with Doppler effect, but using this geometric
construction we will have an easier and deep understanding of some problems related to this effect, such as the
general formulas of the Doppler effect and time Doppler effect, which are replaced by the new proposed for-
mulas.

Introduction
In 1842 Christian Doppler supposed that the color of binary stars
can be explained depending on the relative velocity between light and
its source [1]. This explanation is known today as the Doppler effect
(DE) and is applied to other waves. This paper will deal with un-
specified waves (mechanical waves). Doppler considered only cases
when the direction of the source motion (direction of velocity v ) and the
direction in which a resting observer receives the signal (with velocity
c) are the same. This type of DE is known as longitudinal Doppler effect
(LDE), where observed frequency f ′ and emitted frequency f are con-
nected with well-known formula:
c paper “A comparison of the electromagnetic and acoustic Doppler effects
f′ = f . using geometrical diagrams” [9] (the Eqs. (12) and (16) are derived with
c−v (1)
Latter physics introduced an equation which contents the trigono-
metric function cosϑ to express the DE for a resting observer which
receives signal under angle ϑ between the direction of the source mo-
tion and direction of observer’s sight:
c in an easy way, even the derivation of DE formula for any angle ϑ .
f′ = f .
c + vcosϑ (2)
f ′ = fC2.
(2a)
We put plus before vcosϑ , because the sign in this case is regulated
by the angle ϑ (Fig. 2b). This insertion of the cosine of the angle (cosϑ )
is arbitrary, because is based on wrong application of superposition
principle to DE. More specifically, the contribution of velocity compo-
nent vsinϑ is arbitrally neglected. Therefore in physics textbooks and
papers we very often find only the derivation of LDE (1) [2–7], but
never the derivation of Eq. (2). That is because there is no analytical
derivation of this formula. In page 510 of Serway&Jewett’s textbook [3]
we can read: “The Doppler equation presented in the text is valid when the
motion between the observer and the source occurs on a straight line so that
the source and observer are moving either directly toward or directly away
from each other. If this restriction is relaxed, one must use the more general
Doppler equation” and follows the Eq. (2), but without derivation. If we
derive the Eq. (2) from relativistic Doppler effect (RDE), that doesn’t
mean that we have analytical derivation, because RDE formula [8] is
referred to electromagnetic waves in vacuum, by applying special
theory of relativity and not Galileo-Newtonian Physics. There are also
derivations of Eq. (2) with approximations, as we can see in Bokor’s
approximations). While the derivation of Eq. (2) in the paper “An
analysis of the classical Doppler effect” [10] is incorrect, at least because
of the misusage of the vector calculation (see Eqs. (20)–(23) of cited
paper).
In this paper, using a geometric construction we will explain the DE
Moreover, we will see below that the properties of similar triangles can
serve for explaining the quantities of the DE, and this method helps a
deep understanding of some quantities of DE – and particularly a deep
understanding of time and relative velocity in the DE. We think that this
method brings a very helpful tool for better understanding of the DE
and a beautiful correlation between natural phenomena and mathe-
matics (geometry) to the physics education.
In Section “Explanation of the Doppler effect using similar triangles”
we will see the correlation between the similar triangles and DE, while

⁎
Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: klinaku@uni-pr.edu (S. Klinaku), valbona.berisha@uni-pr.edu (V. Berisha).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rinp.2018.12.024
Received 7 July 2018; Received in revised form 25 November 2018; Accepted 6 December 2018
Available online 11 December 2018
2211-3797/ © 2018 Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/BY-NC-ND/4.0/).
S. Klinaku, V. Berisha
Fig. 1. Two similar triangles (a); three similar triangles (b).
in Section “Derivation of the general Doppler effect formula” we will
see the derivation of general DE formula which derives from this cor-
relation. Finally, in Section “The comparison between old and new
Doppler effect formula for an arbitrary angle”, we show numerical
application and comparison of the usual to the new proposed general
DE formula.
Explanation of the Doppler effect using similar triangles
As we know, two triangles, ΔA0 B0 C0 and ΔA1 B1 C1, are similar if
corresponding angles have the same value; this implies that they are
similar if the lengths of corresponding sides are proportional. There are
several theorems which define the necessary and sufficient conditions
for two triangles to be similar. In this work we will use the so-called SAS
theorem about two similar triangles: if two pairs of corresponding sides
of two triangles are proportional and their included angles are con-
gruent, then the triangles are similar [11,12].
According to this theorem, triangles ΔA0 B0 C0 and ΔA1 B0 C1 (Fig. 1a)
are similar if:
A0¯B0 A ¯B
= 1 0
¯
B0 C0 B0¯C1
because the angle (ϑ) between the sides is the same. In Fig. 1b we can
see that each of the sides parallel to A0¯C0 creates another similar tri-
angle. From the properties of similar triangles for ΔA0 B0 C0 and ΔA1 B0 C1
we can draw a corollary according to which there is a positive number r
such that [12]:
A0¯B0 = rA1¯B0 ⎫
B0¯C0 = rB0¯C1 .
⎬ observer at C0 (and all other observers) records the same wave-
A0¯C0 = rA1¯C1 ⎭
Fig. 2a shows circles drawn with their centers along the side A0¯B0
and their radii parallel to side A0¯C0 . Since the circles’ centers are along
the side A0¯B0 , it is expected that the arcs in the
direction of displacement of these centers will be more frequent,
while in the opposite direction the frequency will be reduced. This
brings to mind the wavefronts of the Doppler effect (DE). On the basis
of the two previous figures, we will construct the DE in Fig. 2b. Let’s
suppose that magnitudes of velocities c (velocity of wavefronts) and v
(velocity of source) are constant. Indeed, side A0¯B0 in Fig. 1a represents
the path of wave source vt in the DE (Fig. 2b), which has arrived at
point B0 within time t . When the wave source was at point A0, it issued
a wavefront which has arrived at point C0 with velocity c within time t ,
so the side A0¯C0 in the DE represents the path of this wavefront ct with
radius A0¯C0 , for the frame of reference with origin at A0. The side B0¯C0
represents the product between the relative velocity ucv and t , thus ucv t .
The relative velocity ucv is the relative velocity between the wavefront
with velocity c and the source with velocity v [13]. Angle ϑ represents
the angle between the direction of the motion of the source (the di-
rection of velocity ν) and the direction in which an observer receives
the signal (wavefront). Using these elements of equivalence between
similar triangles (Fig. 1) and the DE (Fig. 2b), equation system (4)
Results in Physics 12 (2019) 846–852
becomes:
A0¯B0 = vt ⎫
B0¯C0 = ucv t
⎬
A0¯C0 = ct ⎭ (5)
As we can see, the equation systems (4) and (5) are of the same form
and identifying r and t allows a geometrical interpretation of the “dy-
namic” conception of Fig. 2b with the “static” conception of similar
triangles in Fig. 1 (which is supported by Fig. 2a). However, in equation
system (4) ratio (r ) and magnitudes A1¯B0 , B0¯C1 and A1¯C1 have only
mathematical meaning, while in equation system (5) they take on a
physical meaning with physical dimensions: ratio is time (t ) and mag-
nitudes v , ucv and c are magnitudes of velocities, which multiplied by
time t give the magnitudes of respective sides. Ratio t in this case can be
written as the product of a natural number n and a certain time interval
T:
(6)
t = nT
where T in the DE represents the emitting period (time between two
successive emitted wavefronts), and n is the number of wavefronts
emitted within time t . According to Eq. (6) the equation system (5) for
Fig. 2b becomes:
A0¯B0 = v6T ⎫
B0¯C0 = ucv 6T
⎬
A0¯C0 = c 6T ⎭ (7)
These equations are valid for a wavefront with its center at A0, while
for a wavefront with its center at A1 equation system (7) becomes:
A1¯B0 = v5T ⎫
B0¯C1 = ucv 5T
⎬
A1¯C1 = c5T ⎭ (8)
(3) Derivation of the general Doppler effect formula
To understand the essence of the DE, the second equation of equa-
tion system (5) must be treated more specifically. But first some general
considerations about DE. In Fig. 3a there is no DE. In this case, we have
a resting wave source. The velocity of wavefronts (c) is constant in all
directions (i. e. for the observer at C0 and all other observers). Suppose
that the source emits with the period T and within a time t emits n
waveftonts (t = nT ), with the wavelength λ and the frequency f. The
(4)
length λ and the same frequency f which the source emits. The time
interval of emitting of n wavefronts is the same as the time interval of
receiving of these wavefronts, (as time intervals t = t ), but these two
time intervals are not simultaneous. If we want to have the DE, then, as
condition, at least we must have the motion of the source or the ob-
server through the spreading wavefronts. This paper deals only with the
case in which the source moves and the observer is resting (Figs. 2b and
3b). What happens now? The DE will be observed within the same time
interval t, i.e., so long as the source emits n wavefronts with period T
(t = nT ). The velocity of source has no impact to the wavefronts ve-
locity. Thus, even in the DE the velocity of wavefronts is constant in all
directions. What is different for these observers is the period of signal
receiving (T ′), the received wavelength of signals λ′ and, of course, their
frequency ( f ′); therefore, if the time interval within which the observer
receives these n signals is required (t ′), then that time interval is dif-
ferent from (t), so in the DE the emitting time interval of the n wave-
fronts and the time interval of their receiving, are not only not si-
multaneous, but they are also different (t ≠ t ′). The DE expresses the
values of parameters T′, t′, λ′ and f ′ comparing them relative to their
homologs from state without the DE: T, t, λ and f. It is valid for a short
time (for a small n) as well as for a long time (for a big n). To make sure
that n is large, it is assumed that the observer is very far from the
847
S. Klinaku, V. Berisha
Fig. 2. Similar triangles shown together with the circles whose radii are parallel to specified triangle sides (a); the Doppler effect and similar triangles (b).
source, and this fact does not change the observed parameters [3].
However, the source does not move only in relation to the resting ob-
server; it also moves in relation to the wave (in relation to the moving
wavefronts). Therefore, another very important quantity in the DE is
revealed: the relative velocity ucv which represents the relative velocity
between wavefronts (with velocity c) and source (with velocity v ). As
can be seen in Fig. 3b, in any direction n = const , but T′, t′, λ′ and f ′
depend on the direction, hence from the angle ϑ. It is clear that each
direction has a special value of wavelength, while the distance to the
observer is n-fold the wavelength value of that direction. Thus if we say
that the parameters T′, t′, λ′ and f ′ depend on the direction of observer’s
sight, that is the same as if we say that these parameters are dependent
on relative velocity ucv , because this velocity is directly dependent on
the angle between vectors c and v . This fact does not affect the con-
stancy of vectors c and v as individual entities.
Now, the right side of the second equation of equation system (5)
Fig. 3. The situation when the source and the observer are resting (a); The Doppler effect observed from some positions (b).
848
Results in Physics 12 (2019) 846–852
can be written as:
ucv t = ct ′ (9)
Hence equation system (5) can be written as follows:
A0¯B0 = vt ⎫
B0¯C0 = ucv t = ct ′
⎬
A0¯C0 = ct ⎭ (10)
where time t was the time within which the source emitted n wave-
fronts, time t’ is the time within which an observer at C0 receives those
n wavefronts. If the source is not moving the wavelength is λ = cT . If
source moves (Figs. 2b and 3b) then for the observer at C0 the wave-
length (λ′) and receiving period (T ′) will be shortened (λ′ = cT ′),
therefore these two time intervals – emitting (t ) and receiving (t′) –
cannot be equal (t ≠t′). Similar to Eq. (6), for time t′ we have:
S. Klinaku, V. Berisha Results in Physics 12 (2019) 846–852

Fig. 4. Comparison between Eqs. (2) and (19) for ϑ = 0°.

t ′ = nT ′ (11) this velocity (ucv ). And for given c and v , ucv depends on angle between
where T′ represents the receiving period of wavefronts from an observer them. Eqs. (18) and (19) represent the time Doppler effect and fre-
at C0. And from (6) and (11) for Eq. (9) we can write: quency Doppler effect for an arbitrary angle. Let’s see the three special
values of the Eq. (19):
ucv T = cT ′ (12)
c
⎧ f c + v , for ϑ = 0°
From Eq. (9) we have the relationship between t and t′ that re- ⎪
presents a kind of DE expressed through the times [14]: ⎪ f 1 , for ϑ = 90°
f′ = v2
ucv ⎨ 1 − c2
t′ = t . ⎪ c
c (13) ⎪ f c − v , for ϑ = 180°.
⎩ (20)
This kind of DE formula is an unusual formula in physics. The usual
As we can see in equation system (20), from the general Doppler
formula for the DE is the frequency relationship – the frequency of the
effect formula (19), for ϑ = 0° and ϑ = 180° we obtain the longitudinal
source f and the frequency recorded by the observer f ′ – which is
Doppler effect, while for ϑ = 90° we obtain the transverse Doppler ef-
derived from Eq. (12), taking the reciprocal values of the periods as the
fect. Another frequent way of expressing the DE is through wave-
corresponding frequencies:
lengths. We obtain the wavelength Doppler effect if we express the sides
f′ f A0¯C0 and B0¯C0 through the wavelength, where we have A0¯C0 = nλ
=
c ucv (14) and B0¯C0 = nλ′.
The relative difference between the new and the old formula, is
Eqs. (13) and (14) will take their usual form finding the relative
independent by the emitted frequency f :
velocity (ucv ). This velocity was found by C. Doppler in 1842, but only
for a special (longitudinal) case: ′ − f2′
f19 C19 − C2 c + vcos ϑ
Δfr′ = = = ⎜⎛ − 1⎟⎞.
ucv = c ± v. (15) f2′ C2 ⎝ c 2 − v 2sin2 ϑ + vcos ϑ
⎠ (21)
And by substituting this in Eq. (14) the longitudinal DE is obtained The DE has several different cases related to the velocities of source
[1]: and observer, and here we have considered only one of them – the case
c that the source is moving, relative to the resting observer and resting
f′ = f . medium of the mechanical waves.
c±v (16)
In case that v < c , the relative velocity ucv for any angle ϑ (Fig. 2) is The comparison between old and new Doppler effect formula for
found, by using the law of cosines [15–19]:
an arbitrary angle
ucv = c 2 − v 2sin2 ϑ + vcos ϑ. (17)
In follow we will do the numerical and graphical comparison be-
Eq. (17) represents the general velocity addition formula in relative tween Eqs. (2) and (19). This comparison is done for six values of angle
motion. The time Doppler effect (13) and frequency Doppler effect (14) ϑ (0°, 60°, 89°, 90°, 91° and 180°), and for c = 340 m/s , and
using Eq. (17) become: v = 330 m/s . The results are represented in Figs. 4–9. Analysis of re-
c 2 − v 2sin2 ϑ + vcos ϑ sults is in full compliance with expectations of this paper. The conclu-
t′ = t sions that can be drawn are as follows. First, the differences of values
c (18)
obtained from Eqs. (2) and (19) are very small, but measurable and
c scientifically important (particularly for astrophysics). Differences are
f′ = f .
c 2 − v 2sin2 ϑ + vcos ϑ (19) very notable in tables of numerical values, but less in graphs. The graph
in which the difference can be seen better is for ϑ=90° (Fig. 7), because
f ′ = fC19. (19a)
in this case the difference is the biggest. Second, the difference is zero
As we can see the relative velocity (Eq. (17)) is very important in the for longitudinal cases (Figs. 4 and 9). Third, the difference grows up
DE, because all observed quantities (T′, t′, λ′ and f′) are dependent on approaching the 90° from the both sides (Figs. 5, 6 and 8). General

849
S. Klinaku, V. Berisha
Fig. 5. Comparison between Eqs.(2) and (19) for ϑ = 60°.
Fig. 6. Comparison between Eqs. (2) and (19) for ϑ = 89°.
conclusion of this analysis is that Eq. (19) represents correct formula for
Doppler effect for an arbitrary angle, and all these data are experi-
mentally measurable. Of course, for velocity of source very smaller than
c, the difference between the results obtained from these two equations
would be very small.
Conclusion
We have shown that the Doppler effect can be explained using the
properties of similar triangles. If we draw a circle which center is at the
vertex A0 of a triangle and which radius is one of the triangle sides that
emerge from vertex A0 (let say the side A0¯C0 ); and if we draw the
circles with their centers along the other side of the triangle which
emerges from the same vertex (let say the side A0¯B0 ) and with the radii
which stay parallel to the A0¯C0 and are stretched to the opposite side
relative to vertex A0; then the radii of these circles make similar tri-
angles, while the circles bring to mind the wavefronts of the Doppler
effect (DE) (Fig. 2). So, the relationship between the sides of similar
triangles is fully applicable to the relationship between the paths tra-
velled by wavefronts and their source on the one hand and their
850
Results in Physics 12 (2019) 846–852
velocities on the other hand.
Explanation of the DE through similar triangles helps a more easy
and deep understanding of some quantities of DE – and particularly a
deep understanding of time and relative velocity (ucv ) in the DE. Eq.
(13) shows the direct relationship between times (time of emitting and
time of receiving) and velocities (velocity of waves and relative velo-
city). In this occasion we have defined the time Doppler effect (18). Eqs.
(13) and (14) show the great role of relative velocity (ucv ) in existing
and understanding of DE, because if there is no relative velocity, then
there is no DE too. Using this method we have also derived the general
equation of the Doppler effect for an arbitrary angle between the di-
rection of the source velocity and direction in which a resting observer
receives the signal (19). This equation has three advantages compared
to equation (2): the general Eq. (19) of the DE has an analytical basis,
whereas Eq. (2) is obtained arbitrarily; from Eq. (19) we can draw the
special cases (20) but we cannot do this from Eq. (2); and third, but the
most important, Eq. (19) gives correct results, while Eq. (2) is only
approximate. The real weight of the Eq. (19) is estimated when we
recall the wide use of the DE in physics.
S. Klinaku, V. Berisha Results in Physics 12 (2019) 846–852

Fig. 7. Comparison between Eqs. (2) and (19) for ϑ = 90°.

Fig. 8. Comparison between Eqs. (2) and (19) for ϑ = 91°.

Fig. 9. Comparison between Eqs. (2) and (19) for ϑ = 180°.

851
S. Klinaku, V. Berisha
References
[1] Doppler C. Über das farbige Licht der Doppelsterne und einiger anderer Gestirne des
Himmels, Gesellsch. der Wissensch. zu Prag, Der naturwissenschaftlichen
Sectionssitzung 1842.
[2] Halliday D, Resnick R, Walker J. Fundamentals of physics. John Wiley & Sons, Inc.;
2013. p. 460.
[3] Serway R, Jewett Jr. J. Physics. Brooks/Cole; 2010. p. 497.
[4] Shankar R. Fundamentals of physics. Yale University Press; 2014. p. 320.
[5] Nowikow I, Heimbecker B. Physics. Irwin Publishing; 2001. p. 403.
[6] Winans JG. Doppler effect equation. Am. J. Phys. 1954;22(1):37.
[7] Donges A. A simple derivation of acoustic Doppler shift formulas. Eur. J. Phys.
1998;19:467.
[8] Landau LD, Lifshitz EM. The classical theory of fields. Butterworth-Heinemann;
1987. p. 126.
[9] Bokor N. A comparison of the electromagnetic and acoustic Doppler effects using
852
Results in Physics 12 (2019) 846–852
geometrical Diagrams. Phys. Educ. 2009;44(4):368.
[10] Neipp C, Hernandez A, Rodes JJ, Marquez A. An analysis of classical Doppler effect.
Eur. J. Phys. 2003;24:497.
[11] Sibley TQ. The geometric viewpoint. Addison Wesley; 1998. p. 35.
[12] Venema GA. Foundations of geometry. Pearson; 2012. p. 112.
[13] Sonnleitner M, Trautmann N, Barnett SM. Will a decaying atom fill a friction force.
PRL 2017;118. 053601-4.
[14] Klinaku S. Time doppler effect. Phys. Essays 2016;29:1.
[15] Klinaku S. The Doppler effect and the three most famous experiments for special
relativity. Results Phys. 2016;6:235–7.
[16] Klinaku S. New Doppler effect formula. Phys. Essays 2016;29:4.
[17] Spees AH. Acoustic Doppler effect and phase invariance. Am J. Phys. 1956;24(7):7.
[18] Devasia S. Nonlinear models for relativity effects in electromagnetism. Z.
Naturforsch. 2009;64a:327.
[19] Klinaku S. The general Galilean transformation. Phys. Essays 2017;30:3.