Chapter One: Media

1.1. Definition
The term media are difficult to capture and define. Because media is a catch-all term that
includes transnational corporations, communication technologies, policy and regulatory
frameworks, the practices of journalists, gossip columns, the nightly television news, blockbuster
movies, advertisements, business magazines, music radio, the local newspaper and the Internet.
The media are businesses and yet they are also ascribed a special function in the democratic
health of a society; the media are the news media and function as journalism, but they are also
the entertainment media and provide escape from the pressures of everyday life. Media‘ is the
plural form of ‗medium‘. Broadly understood, a medium is ‗an intermediate agency that
enables communication to take place‘. The media are a specific institution in society, informed
by particular interests, practices, norms and values.

The phrase ‗the media‘ ascribes a singularity to a diverse range of forms of communication.
Newspapers, magazines, radio, television, film and online media generate such an avalanche of
information that selecting and navigating through media output has become a valuable skill. Our
first inclination in seeking to understand the significance of the media is to break them up into
different categories. Before doing that we should note the generalized character of the media.
Our everyday lives involve a fluidity of movement between different media forms and content:
we read a newspaper for the latest news, we listen to the latest hits on the radio, we flick through
a magazine while waiting for an appointment, we access websites during the work day, we watch
a quiz show before catching the evening television news and afterwards settle down to watch a
video. Any discussion of contemporary political communication must consider these contexts of
reception. The meanings of politics are partly determined by the everyday situations in which
political issues and debates are interpreted. The communicative forms of the media have blurred
divisions between the public and the private, between factual and fictional forms of
representation, and have broadened and complicated the field of politics.
1.2. Evolutions, Types and Theories of Media
Theories and types of mass media grow and vary with evolution of mass media which can be
divided into three categories; indigenous media, traditional media, and Digital Media.

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 1.2.1. Indigenous media
Indigenous media otherwise known as folk media is the means and system of communication of
the ancient local people. This refers to conventional means of mass communication as practiced
by various global communities and cultures from ancient times. Some of these communication
means were ―the use of gongs, drum beats, town criers, puppet shows, dance, singing and masks
which actually influenced the Greek and the Roman civilizations. Other forms are through
artifacts, art works, and paintings e.t.c. These several means are used to communicate and send
information across to the local people.

According to Wilson (1999), these kinds of media are the local means of communication that
sustain the information needs of the people. The indigenous media is unique, original, and it is
based on the traditions and culture of the people. This is a clear indication that before the pre-
media era of primitive writing, people who existed had several means through which they
communicated. This type of ―media‖ of the indigenous peoples promotes their culture, and
influences their social and political agenda. In this process of communication, they retain social,
cultural, economic and political characteristics that are distinct from those of the dominant
societies in which they live.

In the indigenous setting where the indigenous media operates, the magic bullet or hypodermic
needle theory is seen to be relevant and effective. This theory suggests that the mass media
(indigenous media) influences the local people directly and uniformly by feeding (shooting or
injecting) them with information that is aimed at generating a particular response. Both images (a
bullet and a needle) used to express this theory suggest a powerful and direct flow of information
from the sender to the receiver. The media content is like a bullet, penetrating the consciousness
of everyone in the entire audience and shaping both belief and behavior.

The magic bullet theory graphically suggests that the sender sends the message (fires the bullet)
through the media (gun) to the receiver. With similarly emotive imagery the hypodermic needle
model suggests that media messages are injected straight into a passive audience who are
immediately affected and influenced by the message. In the indigenous setting, the people or
masses are powerless to resist the impact of the message.

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Furthermore, this theory is applicable and relevant to the indigenous media, it is clear that the
people end up thinking what they are told due to the direct and immediate effect of the message.
Another relevant theory for the indigenous media is the dependency theory where the people
depend solely on the media for information. It is therefore very important for a communication
student or practitioner to be aware of the factors involved in the indigenous media, how it
operates and the impact it has on its consumers or audience. For example, if a communication
practitioner wants to send across a particular message to local or indigenous people, He or She
will be aware of the right media to use to enable the achievement of the desired result.
1.2.2. Traditional/conventional media
Traditional media involves the print broadcast and outdoor/transit media content that is
transmitted or distributed to an audience.
a. Print Media
Amongst the conventional/traditional forms and types of Mass media, the print media comprises
of those platforms that facilitate communication mainly through written communication such as
newspapers, books, journals, etc. In earlier times when cinema and TV hadn‘t emerged, print
media forms were utilized to publish the latest news and happenings as well as for entertainment
purposes. Even in the digital age, print media hasn‘t lost its prominence as we still cherish the
morning newspaper with a cup of tea as well as find leisure in reading our favorite novels in the
paperback format rather than through a screen. The most crucial change brought to print media is
that it has advanced towards online platforms as well since many newspapers have established a
strong online presence to keep people updated about the latest happenings across the globe
bringing them at the touch of our screens!
b. Broadcast Media
Broadcast Media mainly refers to the electronic broadcast platforms that are amongst the pivotal
types of mass media. Whether through radio, films or TV shows, this form of mass media carries
out the distribution of news, information and entertainment through audio and visuals by
implementing electronic broadcasting platforms. Below we have detailed the major three kinds
of broadcast media, i.e. Radio, Film and Television.

Radio is one of the oldest types of Mass media. It is a medium through which electromagnetic
signals are delivered over long distances. Being a traditional form of Mass Media, radio was
earlier used to make news announcements, telecast important events and then it also started

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broadcasting music as well as entertaining conversational programs. With the digital age, online
radio channels have emerged which made it more accessible than FMs that worked on certain
frequencies and network connections.

Film and Television are the major sources of entertainment to more than 90% of the world‘s total
population. It is one of the most popular types of Mass media which include both audio-visual
aspects of communication. Moving pictures and sounds along with interactive storytelling works
in confluence with each other to provide content that is engaging and entertaining. Moreover, the
TV and Film industry is filled with massive career opportunities whether you are a creative
writer or an imaginative visualizer. For those wanting to make a career in this branch of
broadcast media, there are a multitude of courses available from Digital Filmmaking to Film
Editing as well as Multimedia and Animation and Cinematography courses!
c. Outdoor/Transit Media
One of the underrated yet potential types of Mass media, Outdoor media corresponds to the
dissemination of information as well as advertising through our outer environments such as
billboards, posters, boarding‘s, banners, etc. This form is utilized to advertise products or
services as well as spread social information and awareness to the general public. Quite similar
to the outdoor media, Transit Media is more inclined towards advertising through posters,
banners, signs and notices in means of transportations such as Buses, Metro, Rail, amongst
others.
This kind of media evolved from the use of newspapers as the means of conveying information
to the masses. Later the invention and establishment of electronic media (radio and television)
were introduced. These forms of media enable messages to move from a sender to a receiver.
The cultivation theory is relevant and applicable in terms of traditional media. This theory was
proposed by George Gerbner in 1976. Cultivation research is in the 'effects' tradition. The
cultivation theorists argue that television has a long-term in a small, gradual, indirect but
cumulative and significant effect on its audience.

The cultivation theory looks at the mass media as an agent for socialization and critically
examines the implications and effects associated with the use of mass media, thus; whether
television viewers end up believing the television version of reality the more they watch it.
Cultivation theory in its most basic form, suggests that television (a component of traditional

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media) is responsible for shaping, or cultivating viewers conceptions of social reality. It
propagates the fact that the mass media serves as the window of the world. The more people are
exposed to information through the mass media, it shapes their perception of social reality for
individuals and their culture. Gerbner argues that the mass media cultivate attitudes and values
which are already present in a culture. The traditional media sustain and promote these values
amongst members of a culture. He has argued that television tends to cultivate ―middle-of-the-
road political perspectives.‖

Cultivation theorists also differentiate between the levels of use of the traditional media. For
example, they indicate that there are two groups of television viewers: the heavy viewers and the
light viewers. The focus is on heavy viewers. People who watch a lot of television are likely to
be more influenced by the ways in which the world is framed by television programs than are
individuals who watch less, especially regarding topics of which the viewer has little first-hand
experience. Light viewers may have more sources of information than heavy viewers. This
simply implies that, the level of exposure to the traditional media will determine the level of
effect or influence on the audience.

A communication practitioner can use this piece of information about the traditional media and
its operations in several ways. If you intend to promote a particular idea through a traditional
media, the cultivation theory suggests that there should be repetition. In other words, the more
you expose your audience to that piece of information, they likely to be influenced in a small,
gradual, indirect but cumulative and significant way.
1.2.3. Digital media
Digital Media is one of the recent and popular types of Mass media and has become an
influential form of media in the present time. It combines all the attributes of interactive
communication as the internet provides quick and easily accessible information in a variety of
formats. It encompasses wide-ranging mediums such as emails, podcasts, blogs, websites,
videos, and social media, amongst others. Be it the digital applications in your smartphone or
your favorite video game to play online, digital media has encompassed a larger part of our daily
activities. A career in digital marketing and social media marketing is amongst the most trending
ones in the present times as every organization is consistently striving to create a strong online
presence and thus better facilitation of communication with their target audience!

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 a. New Media
New media is a broad term in media studies that emerged in the latter part of the 20th century.
This refers to on-demand access to content anytime, anywhere, on any digital device, as well as
interactive user feedback, creative participation and community formation in the mass media and
around the media content. Another significant feature of new media is the creation, publishing,
distribution and consumption of media content. In recent times, there is an advantage of a high
technological mass media which has a wide range of information dissemination. Mobile phones,
computers, CD-ROMs, DVDs, and the internet among other digital devices are all part of the era
of new media. The internet especially has over the few years had a great impact in the mass
media communication scene. Its invention has expanded the scope of mass media. The use of the
internet has created a lot of space for interaction and easy connectivity to the world, thereby
making the world a small place in terms of communication. A device such as the mobile phone
makes communication faster and easier. Today, a mobile device can also be used to access the
internet for all kinds of information. Some time back especially in the era of traditional media,
accessing information was not that easy as it is now. New media is a very important revolution of
mass media. This has provided easy means of communication to students and practitioners in the
field. As we are involved with people in our everyday life, it is very vital to be aware of the kind
of media we access and use, and the influence it has on us.

Uses and gratifications theory is a very relevant theory in this era of new media. Uses and
gratifications theory is an approach for understanding why and how people actively seek out
specific media to satisfy specific needs. This theory asserts that people are active media users
who are motivated to select media to gratify specific needs. This theory seeks to explain the uses
of the media for individuals, groups, and society in general. Everybody uses the new media for
one or more reasons. People may use the internet as a source of entertainment, for news updates,
for social interaction among others. New media is inevitable in terms of the application of the
uses and gratification theory. This can be seen in the three major objectives with respect to the
development of the uses and gratifications theory. The first major objective of this theory is to
explain; how individuals use mass media to satisfy their needs. Secondly, to discover underlying
motives for individuals‟ media use; and also to identify the positive and the negative
consequences of individual media use. At the core of uses and gratifications theory lays the
assumption that audience members actively seek out the mass media to satisfy individual needs.

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 b. Social media
This type of media can be basically seen as advancement beyond the other types of media in
terms of usage. Its main component is the internet. ―As we enter a new millennium, there is
considerable evidence within popular culture of an increasing public preoccupation with the role
of mass media in social life, especially when the impacts of such media appear particularly
intense.‖ Social media plays a significant role and has great effect of people who use it. A 2010
study by the University of Maryland suggested that social media services may be addictive.
Social media is often seen as a two way conversation. It is a powerful means of sending
messages and provides a platform for feedback and interaction.

This interactive platform is provided through social networking sites like Facebook, twitter,
Skype, blogs and emails. The social cognitive theory is relevant in terms of social media. This
theory explains how people acquire and ―maintain certain behavioral patterns, while also
providing the basis for intervention strategies.‖ Evaluating behavioral change depends on certain
factors such as environment, people and behavior. Our everyday interactions with people affect
and perhaps influence us. On social media, people interact with each other and are exposed to all
kinds of information with can, may or will affect them. Social media creates the environment for
social interaction.

There are social and physical environments. Social environment include family members, friends
and colleagues. Environment and situation provide the framework for understanding behavior.
The situation refers to the cognitive or mental representations of the environment that may affect
a person‘s behavior. The situation can be a person‘s perception and activity.‖ The three factors
environment, people and behavior are constantly influencing each other. Behavior is not simply
the result of the environment and the person, just as the environment is not simply the result of
the person and behavior. The environment provides models for behavior. Interaction between
people on social media may lead to observational learning. ―Observational learning occurs when
a person watches the actions of another person and the reinforcements that the person receives.‖
The concept of behavior can be viewed in many ways. Connecting people, recommending
resources, identifying expertise and distributing content are all benefits to those who participate
in and use the social sites.

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Chapter Two: Political Communication
2.1. Definition of Communication
The definition of the term communication is very fluid and different scholars define in different
ways. For instance, some define communication as the process or instruments of imparting or
exchanging of information by speaking, writing, or using some other medium. Others define as
the means of sending or receiving information, such as phone lines or computers.
Communication is simply the act of transferring information from one place, person or group to
another. Oxford English Dictionary defines communication as successful conveying or sharing
of ideas and feelings which is relatively comprehensive.

As this definition makes clear, communication is more than simply the transmission of
information. The term requires an element of success in transmitting or imparting a message,
whether information, ideas, or emotions. A communication therefore has three parts: the sender,
the message, and the recipient. The sender ‗encodes‘ the message, usually in a mixture of
words and non-verbal communication. It is transmitted in some way (for example, in speech or
writing), and the recipient ‗decodes‘ it. Of course, there may be more than one recipient, and the
complexity of communication means that each one may receive a slightly different message.
Two people may read very different things into the choice of words and/or body language. It is
also possible that neither of them will have quite the same understanding as the sender. In face-
to-face communication, the roles of the sender and recipient are not distinct. The two roles will
pass back and forwards between two people talking. Both parties communicate with each other,
even if in very subtle ways such as through eye-contact (or lack of) and general body language.
In written communication, however, the sender and recipient are more distinct.

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2.2. Categories of Communication based on ways of communication
There are wide ranges of ways in which we communicate and more than one may be occurring at
any given time. The different categories of communication include:
 Spoken or Verbal Communication, which includes face-to-face, telephone, radio or
television and other media.
 Non-Verbal Communication, covering body language, gestures, how we dress or act,
where we stand, and even our scent/perfume. There are many subtle ways that we communicate
(perhaps even unintentionally) with others. For example, the tone of voice can give clues to
mood or emotional state, whilst hand signals or gestures can add to a spoken message.
 Written Communication: which includes letters, e-mails, social media, books,
magazines, the Internet and other media? Until recent times, a relatively small number of
writers and publishers were very powerful when it came to communicating the written word.
Today, we can all write and publish our ideas online, which have led to an explosion of
information and communication possibilities.
 Visualizations: graphs and charts, maps, logos and other visualizations can all
communicate messages.
2.3. Types of communication based on nature of actors
There are four types of communications; intrapersonal, inter-personal, group and mass
communications. Communication at its most basic level is intrapersonal communication, which
is really communication within the self. This is how we think and how we assign meaning to all
the messages and events that surround our lives. It ranges from the simple act of smiling in
response to the smell of a favorite food coming from the kitchen to the complex reaction to an
unexpected proposal of marriage. Feedback, or the response from the receiver of the message, is
constant because we are always reflecting on what we have done and how we will react.
Intrapersonal communication is the most prevalent form of communication and is, therefore, at
the base of the pyramid. When a young boy is thinking over in his own mind which game he‘s
going to stream on Twitch next Monday, he is engaging in intrapersonal communication.

The next level on the pyramid is interpersonal communication, or one-on-one communication:

the intentional or accidental transmission of information through verbal or nonverbal message
systems to another human being.‖ Interpersonal communications can be a conversation with a
friend or a hug that tells your mother you love her. Like communication with the self,
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interpersonal communication is continual when others are around because we constantly send out
messages, even if those messages consist of nothing more than body language indicating that we
want to be left alone. Interpersonal communication provides many opportunities for
feedback. Your friend nods, raises an eyebrow, touches you on the arm, or simply answers
your question. Not all interpersonal communication is done face-to-face, however. A telephone
conversation, an SMS text message, an email, or even a greeting card can be interpersonal
communication, though at a somewhat greater emotional distance than in a face-to-face
conversation.

Group communication is near the top of the pyramid and has reached a level of unequal
communication in which one person is communicating with an audience of two or more
people. Group communication often has a leader and is more public than interpersonal
communication. In a small group—for example, a family at the dinner table or a coach with a
basketball team—each individual has an opportunity to respond to the leader and is likely
to do so. In a large group—such as a 350-students lecture section of a university class—each
individual still has an opportunity to respond but is unlikely to do so. With the amplifiers and
multiple video screens, there is a high level of communication technology but limited
possibilities for audience members to provide direct feedback to the performers. However, there
is still interaction between the rapper and his audience.

Mass communication is the pinnacle of the communication pyramid; it is a society-wide

communication process in which an individual or institution uses technology to send messages to
a large, mixed audience, most of whose members are not known to the sender. Nationally
broadcast speeches by politicians, stories about crime in the newspapers, and popular new novels
are all forms of mass communication. These communications are fundamentally different
from the forms described previously because the sender is separated in space and possibly in
time, from the receiver. Also, the audience is not really known to the communicator. When a
communicator appears on television or writes an article for a newspaper, he or she doesn‘t
exactly know who will be listening or reading. What is more, the audience consists of many
types of people. It might contain a young man in prison, an old woman in a nursing home, or a
child eating Cheerios for breakfast.

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The message is communicated to all these people and to thousands or millions of others.
Traditionally, mass communication has allowed only limited opportunities for feedback
because the channels of communication are largely one way, but with the rise of interactive
communication networks, the opportunities for feedback are growing rapidly. Thus,
communication at all levels and between all actors requires mutual understanding between
senders and receivers. However, there are many barriers to successful communication and these
may occur at any stage in the communication process. Barriers may lead to your message
becoming distorted and you therefore risk wasting both time and/or money by causing confusion
and misunderstanding. Effective communication involves overcoming these barriers and
conveying a clear and concise message. The common barriers are the following;
2.4. Common Barriers to Effective Communication
A skilled communicator must be aware of these barriers and try to reduce their impact by
continually checking understanding and by offering appropriate feedback.
a. Language Barriers: Language and linguistic ability may act as a barrier to communication
which includes language differences, the difficulty in understanding unfamiliar accents and the
use of over-complicated, unfamiliar and/or technical terms. However, even when communicating
in the same language, the terminology used in a message may act as a barrier if it is not fully
understood by the receiver(s). For example, a message that includes a lot of specialist jargon and
abbreviations will not be understood by a receiver who is not familiar with the terminology used.
Regional colloquialisms and expressions may be misinterpreted or even considered offensive.
b. Cultural differences. The norms of social interaction vary greatly in different cultures, as do
the way in which emotions are expressed. For example, the concept of personal space varies
between cultures and between different social settings.
c. Psychological Barriers: The psychological state of the communicators will influence how the
message is sent, received and perceived. For example, if someone is stressed they may be
preoccupied by personal concerns and not as receptive to the message as if they were not
stressed. Anger is another example of a psychological barrier to communication. When we are
angry it is easy to say things that we may later regret, and also to misinterpret what others are
saying. More generally people with low self-esteem may be less assertive and therefore may not
feel comfortable communicating - they may feel shy or embarrassed about saying how they
really feel, or read unintended negative sub-texts in messages they hear.

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d. Emotional barriers and taboos. Some people may find it difficult to express their
emotions and some topics may be completely 'off-limits' or taboo. Taboo or difficult topics may
include, but are not limited to, politics, religion, disabilities (mental and physical), sexuality and
sex, racism and any opinion that may be seen as unpopular.
e. Physiological Barriers: Physiological barriers to communication may result from the
receiver‘s physical state. For example, a receiver with reduced hearing may not fully grasp the
content of a spoken conversation especially if there is significant background noise. Physical
disabilities such as hearing problems or speech difficulties
f. Physical Barriers: An example of a physical barrier to communication is geographic
distance between the sender and receiver(s). Communication is generally easier over shorter
distances as more communication channels are available and less technology is required. The
ideal communication is face-to-face. Although modern technology often helps to reduce the
impact of physical barriers, the advantages and disadvantages of each communication channel
should be understood so that an appropriate channel can be used to overcome the physical
barriers, physical barriers to non-verbal communication. Not being able to see the non-verbal
cues, gestures, posture and general body language can make communication less effective.
Phone calls, text messages and other communication methods that rely on technology are often
less effective than face-to-face communication.
g. Systematic Barriers: Systematic barriers to communication may exist in structures and
organizations where there are inefficient or inappropriate information systems and
communication channels, or where there is a lack of understanding of the roles and
responsibilities for communication. In such organizations, people may be unclear of their role in
the communication process and therefore not know what is expected of them.
h. Attitudinal Barriers: Attitudinal barriers are behaviors or perceptions that prevent
people from communicating effectively. Attitudinal barriers to communication may result from
personality conflicts, poor management, resistance to change or a lack of motivation. To be an
effective receiver of messages you should attempt to overcome your own attitudinal barriers to
help ensure more effective communication. Expectations and prejudices which may lead to false
assumptions or stereotyping because people often hear what they expect to hear rather than what
is actually said and jump to incorrect conclusions; lack of attention, interest, distractions, or
irrelevance to the receiver as well as differences in perception and viewpoint.

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2.5. Political Communication

Any book about political communication should begin by acknowledging that the term has
proved to be notoriously difficult to define with any precision, simply because both components
of the phrase are themselves open to a variety of definitions, more or less broad. Denton and
Woodward, for example, provide one definition of political communication as pure discussion
about the allocation of public resources (revenues), official authority (who is given the power to
make legal, legislative and executive decision), and official sanctions (what the state rewards or
punishes). This definition includes verbal and written political rhetoric, but not symbolic
communication acts which are of growing significance for an understanding of the political
process as a whole.

The American writer Doris Graber advances a more all-encompassing definition of what she
terms ‗political language‘, suggesting that it comprises not only rhetoric but paralinguistic signs
such as body language, and political acts such as boycotts and protests (1981). Denton and
Woodward characterize political communication in terms of the intentions of its senders to
influence the political environment. As they put it: the crucial factor that makes communication
‗political‘ is not the source of a message, but its content and purpose while Brian McNair (2011)
define political communication as purposeful communication about politics. This incorporates:
a. All forms of communication undertaken by politicians and other political actors for the
purpose of achieving specific objectives.
b. Communication addressed to these actors by non-politicians such as voters and
newspaper columnists.
c. Communication about these actors and their activities, as contained in news reports,
editorials, and other forms of media discussion of politics.
In short, all political discourse is included in this definition. Political communication is,
therefore, encompasses a verbal discourses, written statements, and visual means of signification
such as dress, make-up, hairstyle, and logo design, i.e. all those elements of communication
which might be said to constitute a political ‗image‘ or identity.

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 Reportage Political Organizations
Editorials  Parties
Commentaries  Public Organizations
Analysis  Pressure groups
 Terrorist organizations
 Government
Media

Appeals
Advertisement
Programmes
Public relations

Reportage
Editorials
Commentaries
Analysis
Opinion polls
Letters
Blogs
Citizens’ journalism Citizen

Actors and elements of political communications

Chapter Three: Media Politics

3.1. Definition of Media Politics
Media politics is a system of politics in which individual politicians seek to gain office, and to
conduct politics while in office, through communication that reaches citizens through the mass
media. Thus defining, media politics stands in contrast to the older system of ―party politics,‖ in
which, by conventional definition, politicians seek to win elections and to govern as members of
party teams. Although party politics is by no means defunct, it now shares the political stage with
media politics, an emerging system whose properties are only beginning to be understood. Thus,
media politics is a system of politics, to compare it to such other systems as legislative politics,

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bureaucratic politics, judicial politics, and, as already suggested, party politics. Within each of
these domains, one can identify key roles, diverse interests, routine rules of behavior, and stable
patterns of interaction that, taken altogether, define a distinctive form of political struggle.

In media politics, there will be three principal actors — politicians, journalists, and whom is
animated by a distinctive motive (the public/public). For politicians, the goal of media politics is
to use mass communication to mobilize the public support they need to win elections and to get
their programs enacted while in office. For journalists, the goal of media politics is to produce
stories that attract big audiences and that emphasize the "Independent and Significant Voice of
Journalists.‖ For citizens/public, the goal is to monitor politics and hold politicians accountable
on the basis of minimal effort. These goals are a source of constant tension among the three
actors. Politicians would like journalists to act as a neutral conveyor belt for their statements and
press releases. Yet journalists do not want to be anybody‘s handmaiden; they wish, rather, to
make a distinctive journalistic contribution to the news, which they can better accomplish by
means of scoops, investigations, and news analyses – all of which politicians detest. In media
politics, journalists value ―journalistic voice‖ at least as much as big audiences, and they care
nothing at all about helping politicians to get their story out to the public. If journalists always
reported the news just the way politicians wanted them to, or gave audiences only the political
news they really wanted, journalism would be a much less lucrative and satisfying profession for
its practitioners than it presently is. In fact, it would scarcely be a profession at all.

The public wants, as indicated, to monitor politics and hold politicians accountable with minimal
effort. And because there is a surfeit of politicians and journalists vying for public attention in a
competitive market, the public tends to get the kind of political communication it wants but not
entirely. The politicians' inherent interest in controlling the content of political news, in
combination with journalists' inherent interest in making an independent contribution to the
news, create a far-reaching set of tensions and distortions. The argument of the monograph,
simply put, is that the form and content of media politics are largely determined by the disparate
interests of politicians, journalists, and citizens as each group jostles to get what it wants out of
politics and the political communication that makes politics possible.

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3.2. Mediatization
3.2.1. Definition of Mediatization
Mediatization is a concept to encompass the changes brought by media into every aspect of our
lives. As the world progresses and as the Internet took the world by storms, it is inevitable that
the media is increasingly adapted into societal, political and economical institution. The
omnipresence of traditional media such as television, radio and newspapers is further extended
into many new forms such as television on smartphones, online version of newspapers and
streaming radio. Put on top of that, the existence of social media - Facebook, Twitter, Youtube
and Myspace, continued changing the media landscape in a vibrant manner.

The question that begs to be answered now is: How does the absorption of media into every
aspect of our daily lives changes the society and the culture we live in? Thus, it is not enough for
scholars to focus only on the three main approaches of media studies, namely textual analysis,
production economic-politics and audiences‘ studies. A more holistic approach is needed to
understand societal and cultural changes brought by media. Why so and why now? It is evident
that media is not only changing individual communication, but it changes other social institutions
as well. An easy example will be how politicians are no longer going on face to face campaign to
have the personal touch with their constituency, but rather they engaged actively with the public
through their online profile. It allows the public not only to have a transparent view of their
politicians in real time, but also to voice their grievances and expect feedback from their
politicians.

In the beginning of its inception, mass media was only a conduit of communication, as evident
from its term, ―mediating or medium.‖ Therefore, the studies of media often focused on the
technological aspect of it and not beyond that. However, as mass media evolved, unintentionally
it grows beyond that to be a standalone institution with its own logic, rather known as ―media
logic‖ under the concept of mediatization. Through the years, the traditional media had
improvised and integrated in many different forms to make it accessible at any time any place.
With the emergence of online media, media landscape was completely renewed.

Today we have social media, hand-phone applications such as Whatsapp and Line, as well as
television service on the go. New ideas such as user generated content, citizen journalism and
prosumers are new terms generated as a result. This proves that media researches are in strong

16
need of a new concept that could explain how media strongly impact and changes other
institutions in society. Mediatization is a word that has its origin in German, mediatisierung. The
essence of mediatization is the dominance of media in the existing system and institution in
society. It is ―meta process by which everyday practices and social relations are increasingly
shaped by mediating technology and media organizations‖ and mediatization is one of the
processes that shapes modernity. The following table sums up the reason why mediatization is a
crucial area of studies as we look into the institutional development of the media.

Dominant Institutional Dominant logic Media system Purposes and

period character objectives

1920 Media as Steered by Party press, Persuasion and

instrument particular interest scientific agitation on the
of other journals, religious part of specific
institution and arts interests in the
publications etc. specific institution
1920-1980 Media as a Public steering Public service Representation of
cultural radio and various
institution television institutions in public
(monopoly), arena
omnibus press
1980-now Media as an Media Commercial and Servicing of
independent professionalism competitive audiences, sales to
media media, satellite target groups in a
institution TV, Internet, differentiated
mobile media media system

The table clearly indicates the shift of media‘s role from a mere companion to other institution to
become a powerful and independent institution of its own. In the olden days, the media was
guided and dominated by the elites of the society. As society becomes more literate, it becomes
part of the public‘s tool whereby there were representations from all facets of life as players of

17
the media. However, today, the scenario is such that media has become part of everyone‘s life
due to its convenience, affordability and dynamic. It became a dominant institution of its own
and increasingly independent of any other institution. In fact, other institutions are relying
heavily upon media which resulted in new shift of paradigm where everything is now
―mediated.‖ The media has obviously changed human interaction as it allows people to transcend
physical and space boundaries. The media was a mean of interaction and extension of human‘s
senses to reach out to the most people in shortest time possible. The media has changed the
interaction and relations among the people. Simply put, it is not just a mean of interaction, but
that it directly changes and intervene interactions.

The postmodern theory scholars argued that currently media has blurred the line of distinction
between the reality and perceived reality. Baudrillard (1994) has said that the ―hyper-reality‖
created by the media is even more real to the audience than the reality. Hjarvard (2013) do not
deny the impact of media, but reinstated that the postmodernist‘s approach may seems ―too
grand.‖
3.2.2. Mediatization and politics
In the beginning of its development, mediatization was applied in political context, whereby
―political system to a high degree is influenced by and adjusted to the demands of the mass
media in their coverage of politics‖. Mediatization conceptualizes the effect and power of media
in the political scenes, especially in European country. In the era of propaganda theory, broadcast
media was a tool by politicians to spread their ideologies to the people. Due to expenses needed
to maintain a broadcast or radio station, traditional mass media was largely owned by the state
political powers. Inevitably, all media contents were staged and controlled by political logics.
Media organizations needed the support of political power to survive. At current times, political
powers are very much dependent upon the media while the media is getting more independent of
political power. While this was true with the traditional media, it is more so now with the advent
of technologies where anyone can disseminate information using online media.

Election campaigns have gone digital. The social media allowed personalization, interactivity
and engagement of politics like never before. Social media also empowered the audiences where
anyone with Internet access can make their voices heard. In other words, there is a revolution of
what democracy constitutes now than last time. Political elites clearly have strong love-hate

18
relationship with media whereby news of them can go viral at any time, be it good or bad. This is
clearly proven when Barack Obama, the President of United States is one of the most highly
followed figure on Twitter with around 7 million followers. He was deemed the new generation
of presidents as he engaged with the society and makes known his policy using new media.
3.2.3. Mediatization and society
Mediatization of society refers to the process of increasing dependency of society upon media
and its logic. Media logic refers to the construction of reality as portrayed by the media.
According to Hjarvard (2008), media logic refers to the ―institutional and technological modus
operandi of media, including the way in which media distribute material and symbolic resources
and operate with the help of formal and informal rules.‖ Human are interactive being that wants
to be part of the society. This sense of belonging are what gives us security, identity and a sense
of purpose. In the olden days, the point of reference had always been family members, opinion
leaders of society, religious figures and education authorities. However, the online media has
changed that whereby we can always find people who are across the world who think like us.
The interactivity of human no longer confined to a certain time and space. It changes the concept
of relationship whereby you can feel very connected to people that you may not have met in real
life.
Mediatization was then further elaborated with media‘s pivotal role in embedding and promoting
contemporary culture. Culture that was once decided by the masses prevalent taste and trend is
now dominated by the media. In other words, the media today become the providers of cultural
products and belief, rather than a mere medium and carrier. A simple example will be the
merchandise chain churned out by the manufacturer upon the release of any new animation
movie in the cinema. When a cartoon is successful, the merchandise will prove to be top-selling
products in the market, indicating how the media culture is turned into a society contemporary
culture. Again this is an indication of ―hyper-reality‖ created by the media that seems to be even
more real than reality itself in describing the latest trend.
3.2.4. Mediatization and media itself
One of the neglected areas of studies in terms of mediatization is ironically the media system
itself. The media no doubt has changed other institution, but what about the mediatization within
the media itself? The media itself has experienced a storm of changes. Many have said that the
traditional mass media such as television, radio and newspapers is at the crossroad now. It is

19
being challenged by the online media for the status of ―mainstream‖ media. There were
assumptions that the traditional media had also been attacked in terms of its credibility as it often
time linked with political authorities. There lies in the challenge, do the traditional media
continue to stand on its own and revolutionize their ways or do they join the online media
bandwagon?
3.3. Media Effects
3.3.1. Individual level Media effects
There are six types of media effects on individuals. These six differ in terms of the part of the
person affected or the character of the experience of the effect within an individual.
These six are cognition, belief, attitude, affect, physiology, and behavior. All individual-
level media effects studies examine how the media exert an influence on one or more of
these six types.

A cognitive media effect: occurs when media exposure influences a person‘s mental
processes or the product of those mental processes. The cognitive effect that is easiest to
document is the acquisition of factual information from media messages, particularly
from books, newspapers, television news stories, and informational websites. The
human mind can absorb this information through the process of memorization.
However, the human mind can do far more than memorize; it can transform information
into knowledge. This transformation of information can take the form of inferring
patterns across media messages. The human mind can also group media messages in
different ways to create new meanings. It can generalize beyond media messages to
generate principles about real life. All of these mental activities are cognitive effects on
individuals.

Beliefs: have been defined as cognitions about the probability that an object or event is
associated with a given attribute. Simply stated, a belief is faith that something is real or
is true. The media continually create and shape our beliefs by showing us more of the
world than we are able to see directly for ourselves. None of us has ever met George
Washington, but we all believe he existed and was one of the founders of the United
States as a country, because we have read about him in history books and web- sites and
seen films about him. Each of us holds beliefs about the existence of a great many things

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that we have never seen directly in our real lives; many of these beliefs have come from
media messages.
Attitudes: are judgments about something. For example, people see a character in a film
and make judgments about that character‘s attractiveness, hero status, likeability, and so
on. When the media also present stories about people, events, issues, and products in the
real world, these stories often trigger the need for us to make our own judgments about
controversial issues, political candidates, advertised products, and such.

Affect: refers to the feelings that people experience. This includes emotions and moods.
The media can trigger emotions, especially fear, lust, anger, and laughter. The media also
provide people with lots of opportunities to manage their moods, such that when we are
feeling stressed with all the problems in our real lives, we can chill by listening to
music, forget our problems by watching television, or lose ourselves in the experience of
playing games on the Internet.
A physiological effect: is an automatic bodily response. The body response can be either
purely automatic (such as pupil dilation, blood pressure, galvanic skin response) or quasi-
automatic (heart rate, sexual responses). For example, when people watch an
action/adventure movie, their heart rates and blood pressure typically increase. Their
muscles tense and their palms sweat. They are experiencing a fight-or-flight response that
has been hard wired into humans‘ brains. Threats trigger attention, and the body prepares
itself to fight a predator or to flee. This fight-or-flight effect has enabled the human race to
survive for thousands of years.

Behaviors: are typically defined as the overt actions of an individual. Media effects
researchers have conducted a lot of studies in which they observe people‘s media
exposure behaviors to see which media they use and how they use those media.
Researchers also expose people to particular media messages, and then observe their
subsequent behaviors for things like aggression, use of advertised products, and debating
of political issues.

When any of the six types of effects occur in an individual, we need to determine
whether or not that occurrence was influenced by the media. If we conclude that the
effect was influenced by the media, then we have a media effect. This does not mean

21
that the media were the sole cause of the type of effect; instead we mean that the media
played some sort of a role in bringing about that effect.

How do the media exert their influence? There are four possible ways. These four ways
generally span across all six types of effects. They are functions in the sense that they
refer to distinct actions that influence and shape the character of an effect differently in
each of the six categories of type. These four media-influenced functions are acquiring,
triggering, altering, and reinforcing. The first two of these functions influence immediate
effects that would show up either during the exposure or immediately after. The third—
altering—has features that can show up immediately during exposure as an immediate
effect, but it also has other features that may take a longer period of time to manifest
themselves. And the fourth function is a long-term effect that would take a long time to
manifest itself. Let‘s examine each of these functions in some detail, and then we will use
them to construct a map to organize the range of individual level effects.

Acquiring: Every media message is composed of elements, and during exposures to these
messages individuals acquire and retain some of these elements. Message elements include
things like facts, images, sounds, a pundit‘s attitude about something, the depiction of a
sequence of events, and so on. During a media exposure, a person could pay attention to
certain elements in a message and keep those elements in his or her memory. This is an
immediate effect because the element is committed to memory during the exposure to the
message. This memory might last a few seconds or a few years, but it is not how long the
memory lasts that determines whether the effect is an immediate one or not—it is when
the effect first occurs.

The acquiring function is applicable to all types of effects except for physiology, where
media messages have no power to create a physiological element in an individual.
Individuals acquire information and store it in their memory structures. People can also
acquire beliefs, attitudes, affective information, and behavioral sequences in the same
manner through the use of the skill of memorization. With all of these types of effects,
the media are creating something in a person‘s mind that was not there before the
exposure. It is possible to argue that all of these effects are essentially cognitive, because
they all require the use of the cognitive skill of memorization and the retention of

22
information in the individual‘s memory. And that is a valid point. However, while the
process and the skill used may be the same across categories, the nature of what is
retained is very different. Thus the function remains the same, but the effect itself is
different and requires different categories of cognition, attitude, and belief.

Triggering:-During media exposures, the media can activate something that already
exists in the individual. The triggering effect is applicable for all six categories of effects.
A media message could activate the recall of previously learned information, the recall
of an existing attitude or belief, an emotion, a physiological reaction, or a previously
learned behavioral sequence. The media can also trigger a process that sets a person off
on a task involving many steps. For example, when people read some news coverage
about a political candidate that they have never heard about before, they have no existing
attitude about that candidate. During exposure to this news coverage, people can take the
information from the news story and compare it to their standards for political
candidates and create an attitude. This is different than simple acquisition, because the
person is not memorizing someone else‘s attitude presented in the media but instead
going through a construction process in the creation of his or her own attitude; in this
case the media message element of a new piece of information triggered in the person
the construction of a new attitude.

The media can also trigger a reconstruction process. A media message might present
information that does not conform to a person‘s existing knowledge structure, so the
person must do something to incorporate the new information into his or her existing
knowledge structure. For example, let‘s say that Mark has a very favorable attitude about
a particular breakfast cereal but then is exposed to a media message that presents facts
about the break- fast cereal using contaminated ingredients; this new information is likely
to trigger a reevaluation of his previously positive attitude

Altering:- During an exposure, the media can alter something that is already present in
the individual. The altering effect works with all types of effects. Media messages can
alter a person‘s knowledge structures with the addition of new facts. A belief can be altered
when the media present a fact revealing that an individual‘s existing belief was faulty. The
media can alter individuals‘ standards for use in constructing attitudes. Individuals who

23
continually expose themselves to arousing elements in stories of horror and violence will
have their natural fight-or-flight responses worn down. By shifting content, the media can
alter a person‘s mood. When individuals continually play interactive games, this practice
serves to improve their hand–eye coordination and reduce reaction times to stimuli.

The alteration can show up immediately (that is, during an exposure or immediately
after the exposure to the media message) or it can take a long time to show up. The
alteration can be temporary (and disappear after a few seconds) or it can last a long time.
Most of the research on long-term media effects is based on assumptions of long-term
media influence as a gradual shaping process. This is a kind of a drip-drip-drip process of
message after message slowly altering our knowledge structures. Greenberg (1988)
reminds us that there are also ―drench‖ influences. He says that not all media messages
have the same impact and that not all characters in media stories are equally influential on
our beliefs and attitudes. Some portrayals stand out because they ―are deviant, are
intense, and thus are more important viewing experiences‖.
Reinforcing: - Through repeated exposures, the media gradually and continually add
greater weight to something already existing in a person, thus making that something more
fixed and harder to change. The reinforcement function is applicable to all six types of
effects. When the media continually present the same people and events in the news over
and over, individuals‘ knowledge structures about those people and events become more
rigid and less likely to open to change later. When the media present the same beliefs and
attitudes, individuals‘ comfort levels with those beliefs and attitudes become so strong that
they are not able to change them. When the media present the same kinds of messages
every week or every day, individuals‘ behavioral patterns of exposure become more fixed
and harder to change.

Types of Media influences functions

Effects Acquiring Triggering Altering Reinforcing
Cognitive Memorize Recall Change memory Strengthen skills
message element information structure Construction of a
pattern Reinforce
connections

24
Belief Accept belief Recall belief Change belief Strengthen
generalization
Construction of a
belief

Attitudes Accept Recall attitude Change attitude Strengthen

attitude evaluation
Construction of a
new attitude
Reinforce attitudes

Affects Learn Recall emotion Change Strengthen

emotional emotional emotional
information sensitivity connection

Physiology Mood change Reinforce Automatic Reinforce reactions

mood response

Behavior Learn Recall of Behavioral Reinforce habits

behaviors behavior change Performance of novel
Imitation behavior
of
behavior

3.3.2. Macro-level Media effects

Up to this point, we have discussed media effects on individuals. We dealt with this
topic first, because the literature on how the media have influenced individuals is much
greater than the literature on larger aggregates such as the public, institutions, and the
media themselves. However, it is also important to understand how the media exert
effects on aggregates.

Aggregates, at first, might seem to be the simple sum of effects on individuals. After all,
isn‘t public opinion (which is an aggregate effect) really just the adding up of all
individuals‘ attitudes? Mathematically that is correct. Public opinion is assessed in
nationwide surveys of about a thousand or so individuals who are asked about their
25
attitudes and beliefs, such as their approval of the way the president is doing his job. If in
such a survey 600 individuals say they approve of the way the president is leading the
country, while the other 400 individuals say they disapprove, and then public opinion is
60% approval. But conceptually the idea of public opinion is more than the sum of
individual attitudes. It is something else. To illustrate this, ask yourself if you are
particularly interested in the opinion of a random individual halfway across the country.
Your answer is likely to be no. Why should you care about his or her one opinion? Now
think about some social issue that you care about—such as changing the age for drinking,
driving, voting, or military service. Would you be interested in hearing about what the
public in America thinks about the issue? The answer to this question is likely to be yes,
because that information would provide context for your own opinion. That aggregate
opinion would also be far more illuminating to you. For example, if you knew that a
random guy in Nebraska was in favor of making military service mandatory for all
males and females ages 18 to 22, it would not likely concern you. But what if you were
told that public opinion was strongly in favor of mandatory military service for all
citizens—male and female—ages 18 to 22? That would likely be of high interest to you.
Also, other aggregates, such as institutions and society, seem to be entities that have a
life of their own apart from individuals. Sociologists have known for a long time that
studying aggregates is important.

The Media Effects Template that was developed for individual-level effects has been
modified a bit to be useful in organizing macro-level effects. The macro-level MET is
structured by five types of effects (behavior, cognitions, beliefs, attitudes, and affect) and
three macro units (the public, institutions, and the media themselves). Notice that the
types of effects down the left side of that matrix are the same as individual level effects,
with the exception of physiological effects, which apply well to the human body but not
to the public or other macro-level units. Also, the functions of acquiring, triggering,
altering, and reinforcing were eliminated as column headings. These were important to
classify the large literature of media effects on individuals; however, the literature of
media effects on macro units is much smaller and at this time it would not be useful to
classify it by functions. Instead, the columns represent the three major kinds of macro
units that have been examined in the media effects literature: the public, institutions,

26
and the media themselves.

Types of effects

The public Institutions The media

Cognition Public knowledge Institutional Media knowledge

knowledge

Belief Public beliefs Institutional Media beliefs/norms

beliefs/norms

Attitudes Public opinion Institutional attitudes Media attitudes

Affects Public mood Institutional mood Media mood

Behaviors Public behavior Institutional practices Media practices

Chapter Four: Political Campaigns, Mobilization and public relations

4.1.Public Relations

Public relations is a conduit, a facilitator, and a manager of communication, conducting research,

defining problems, and creating meaning by fostering communication among many groups in
society. Public relation is a strategic conversation. It is an ephemeral and wide-ranging field,
often misperceived, and because of the lack of message control inherent in public relations, it is
difficult to master. Public relation is even difficult to define. Is it spin or truth telling? Either
way, the public relations function is prevalent and growing; the fragmentation of media and
growth of multiple message sources means that public relations is on the ascent while traditional
forms of mass communication (such as newspapers) are on the decline. You can find public
relations in virtually every industry, government, and nonprofit organization. Its broad scope
makes it impossible to understand without some attention to the taxonomy of this diverse and
dynamic profession.

But, what is the meaning of public relations remain challenging and among the many competing
definitions of public relations, J. Grunig and Hunt‘s is the most widely cited definition of public
relations: Public relations is ―the management of communication between an organization and its
publics.‖ One reason this definition is so successful is its parsimony, or using few words to

27
convey much information. It also lays down the foundation of the profession squarely within
management, as opposed to the competing approaches of journalism or the promotion-based
approach of marketing and advertising that focuses primarily on consumers. The component
parts of Grunig and Hunt‘s famous definition of public relations are as follows:
• Management: The body of knowledge on how best to coordinate the activities of an enterprise
to achieve effectiveness.
• Communication: Not only sending a message to a receiver but also understanding the
messages of others through listening and dialogue.
• Organization: Any group organized with a common purpose; in most cases, it is a business, a
corporation, a governmental agency, political parties or a nonprofit group.
• Publics: Any group(s) of people held together by a common interest. They differ from
audiences in that they often self-organize and do not have to attune to messages; publics differ
from stakeholders in that they do not necessarily have a financial stake tying them to specific
goals or consequences of the organization. Targeted audiences, on the other hand, are publics
who receive a specifically targeted message that is tailored to their interests. As ―the
management of communication between an organization and its publics,‖ public relations has
radically departed from its historical roots in publicity and journalism to become a management
discipline—that is, one based on research and strategy.

Today, the public relations field has grown to encompass the building of important relationships
between an organization and its key publics through its actions and its communication. This
perspective defines the field as a management function and offers insight into the roles and
responsibilities of public relations professionals.

Thus, public relation is a process that serves a number of functions. While the definitions may
vary, the nature of Public Relations indicates that it is essentially a task of promoting rapport and
goodwill between a person, firm or institution and the community at large through dissemination
of information. It seeks to earn support, mobilize or solicit favour for an idea, a cause, a problem,
for an institution or an individual. It uses a two-way communication in dealing with public
opinion. First, it assesses the attitudes of the public towards the organization. Next, it executes
communication programmes to gain public understanding and acceptance of the management's
point of view. Public Relations aim to bring about harmonious and mutually advantageous

28
adjustment between an organization and the community through dissemination of ideas and also
by providing feedback from the public to the management. It also evaluates public attitudes,
identifies policies that interests public and executes the programme of communication. Good
public relations implies a sound moral base, i. e., communication must be sincere and based on
facts. Harmless conduct is not enough. Action is required to gain favourable recognition. This
may be expressed as striving for three objectives:
 To attract attention;
 To win belief: and
 To impart understanding.
Briefly, Public Relations involve four major elements. They are inter-related and overlapping.
In fact, one tends to lead to another. These are :
1) Two-way Communication;
2) Mutual Understanding;
3) Caring for Public Opinion:
4) Social Responsibility.
1) Two-way Communication
Public Relations philosophy puts great emphasis on the need for two-way communication. It is
now fairly well accepted that feedback is important. How does one set it? Many
misunderstandings spring from a total lack of or an inadequate communication. The foremost
objective in any public relations programme, therefore. is to improve existing channels of
communication to establish two-way flow of information. However, this is not as easy as it
sounds! Even if you have a strong desire to communicate, there may be great difficulties in
achieving success because of the barriers in communication process.

Many of the human problems in organization are ascribed to lack of communication.

Managements are constantly advised to give prompt and regular information to employees and
the public. Public Relations methods can do much to resolve such conflicts to reconcile
differences or even as a preventive measure but let nobody underestimate the difficulties
involved.

29
 2) Mutual Understanding
Mutual understanding requires, by definition, a two-way communication. Public Relations policy
for any organization, for example, should include both inward activity and intelligence to assess
the policies and behavior of the management, to see whether action is necessary to improve the
organization‘s image and outward activity to inform the public about its achievements. You may
be curious about one point- where does the question of 'mutual understanding arise‘? In any
public relationship, there are at least two parties involved. First, there is the organization which
has something to promote, often in competition with others. Second, there are the "publics" to
which the organization directs its efforts.

There are two interests to be met: The private interest and the public interest. Generally, these
interests are in conflict. Each party interprets the public interest in terms of its own self-interests.
Let as take an example of manufacturing industry. It is exposed to pressure from different sides.
The consumer wants to pay lower prices for the goods while the workers wants the highest
wages or salaries for producing goods. The stockholders want maximum dividends or profits for
the machinery used to produce goods while the government wants highest sales or excise taxes.
Therefore, each group has its own interest in mind. Resolving these conflicts of interest is the
essential part of public relations because satisfying those interest is essential for the enduring
success of the organizations. This can only be done by achieving mutual understanding between
the organization and those interests. For this, two way communications is necessary by providing
information to the people and seeking public favour through an informed public opinion.
3) Informed public opinion
Public opinion has been described as the "source spring" of Public Relations. Public opinion is
the consensus of individual opinion of the majority among the masses based on their attitudes
and widely held beliefs, moulded by the public interests. Abraham Lincoln once said that ‗public
sentiment is everything. With public sentiment, nothing can fail, without public sentiment,
nothing can succeed.‘ A public relations practice is therefore requires unwavering faith in the
wisdom of information to various public interest groups in the interest of the organization.
Satisfying the public interest to the mutual advantages of all parties in conflict is a basic
requirement of sound public relations. Arriving at this definition of mutual interests requires
satisfactory two-way communication as a pre-requisite to achieve goodwill.

30
Public opinion impinges on an organization at many levels: with official bodies, contact with
stakeholders, relations with distributors, whole sellers, reactions of buyers or consumers and
internal relations with employees. In all these fields there is a need for constant endeavor to
establish and maintain mutual understanding.
4) Social Responsibility
The social responsibility of any organization stems from what has been discussed earlier: that all
organizations work in the name of the people with the main aim of serving their interests. For the
organization to profit or gain through, its efforts, it has necessarily to first achieve the acceptance
and approval of the people for its role. Many organization through getting profit from society,
do not show their concern for the latter welfare and thereby end upheaving problems. Public
relation seeks to attune itself to the needs and aspirations of the community it serves and
identifies the interests of the organization with that of the community, for example, participating
in festival, sponsorship of local sport events, instituting of scholarship, bus, shelter, promoting
local causes etc. These are the social responsibilities of public relations.

Chapter Five: Political Socialization and Political Culture

5.1. Political Socialization

5.1.1. Definitions of concepts

Different scholars define political Socialization in different ways. The more comprehensive
definition is which define political socialization as the process by which orientations toward the
politics transferred from one generation to the other generation. These orientations include
development of new generation‘s political knowledge, political behavior, political engagement
and opinion about politics. The history of systematic study of political socialization began with
Plato. In his book the Republic, Plato advocated education and training from early childhood on
to develop guardians of the city, what we call today politicians/political leaders.

Plato believed that political knowledge is the product of socialization process. He ascertained
that the level of political knowledge in the society has important implications for the
development of what type of political system exists and to be formed. Combined with
knowledge, a certain set of attitudes and values determines what kinds of political system exist
and to be formed. The political believes and values of society are referred to as culture. Each
nation has a political culture, which refers to its political values or political ways of doing things.

31
For example, political socialization researches in America show that in America, there is an
acceptance/general public opinion by many of a kind of democratic creed composed of majority
rules and minority rights, rule of laws, free speech, free and fair elections. There is a consensus
on the rule of the game played in American politics.
a. Instruments of political Socializations
If political socialization processes start at a young age, what are the mechanisms through which
children learn about politics? First, children learn directly or indirectly about social and political
issues from various socializing agents. Such agencies can be diverse: family, peers, school, mass
media, and even the political context. There is also a mobilizing element to political
socialization, as those around us can influence, encourage, or discourage our behavior.

Thinking about the mechanisms of political socialization, let us make an analogy to describe the
idea of socialization as forming relatively stable political preferences. Imagine that we each have
a finite bookshelf that holds our political values, identities, and behavior, which is empty when
we are born. During our childhood and adolescence these shelves are slowly filled with stories
that we receive from the various agents of socialization and our own experiences. We learn about
the political world and are exposed to (biased) information about political ideas. Each
experience, conversation, and piece of information gets stored on our mental bookshelves. But at
some point there is no more space on the shelves, and we start to have pretty definite ideas about
politics and our own opinions. If asked what we think about political issues or how we should
behave politically, we go to our mental shelves and take out the books that contain information
and experiences related to this topic. The problem, however, is that as one‘s shelf fills up, it is
more and more difficult for new information to be considered, as this implies that old books need
to be disregarded. New books might pile up somewhere on the floor, but they will not be stored
as considerations in our set of beliefs and values. This idea of predispositions that are quite
fundamental in a person‘s belief system and that come from socialization processes goes back to
the work of John Zaller (1992).

Another viewpoint on political socialization is the idea of habit formation, a mechanism that has
mostly been researched in relation to individual level voter turnout, that is, a citizen‘s decision to
vote or abstain from voting in elections. In the political learning approach to political behavior, it

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is argued that citizens learn the habit of either voting or nonvoting in the early stages of their
adult lives, and that past behavior predicts present behavior.
i. Parents as Socialization Agents
Scholars have emphasized the impact of the family as one of the main socialization agents in the
transmission of basic political orientations. The determinant influence of parental socialization
has mostly been stressed in conjunction with the development of party identification, political
ideology and political participation. Parents are considered to influence the development of their
children‘s political orientations in at least two ways. First, parents influence their children‘s
levels of political awareness through the explicit political characteristics of family life. Highly
politicized parents may foster positive civic orientations that stimulate engagement in politics.
Moreover, successful parent-child transmissions occur more often when the family environment
is more politicized, parents provide consistent signals about where they stand politically. The
presence of role models, parents in particular, may lead to imitation and subsequently even
adoption of behaviors and attitudes.

The second way in which parents influence their children is through parental socioeconomic
status (SES). Parental SES can contribute to political involvement due to a direct effect on
children‘s SES. Parents with higher SES have children who are more likely to have high levels
of education. Children‘s levels of education, in turn, influence levels of political interest and
knowledge. Parental SES, moreover, can contribute to the development of class-specific political
orientations as well as encourage civic attitudes and involvement. However, Westholm (1999)
shows that parent-child socialization is not just a two-step process whereby children create an
image of where parents stand politically and subsequently adapt their own behavior and thinking
to this. Instead, the image that children have of their parents‘ political views serves as an
intervening rather than as a conditioning factor. Moreover, the relationship between children‘s
own views and the image they have of their parents‘ views is reciprocal. Substituting children‘s
image of their parents‘ views for actual parent data obscures some of the socialization
mechanisms.

Newer research on the influence of parents on their offspring has challenged the idea that
children to a large extent adopt the views of their parents. Dinas (2014) shows that parent-child
correspondence in party identification is dependent on parental politicization. Those with

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politically interested and involved parents are indeed most likely to adopt their parents‘ party
identification as adolescents but are also more likely to revise their party affiliation in (early)
adulthood, because ―those who are politically engaged are most likely to be exposed to new
political stimuli in early adulthood‖. Also researching the imperfections of parental
transmissions, Wolak (2009) found that both the personality of adolescents and their wider
political environment mediated parent-child transmission in party identification. Like Dinas,
Wolak (2009, 581) finds that amore inquisitive adolescents and those who are more attentive to
political news tend to have more volatile party preferences and thus are more likely to challenge
their parents‘ political views.
a. The Influence of School
Besides parent-child transmission of political attitudes and behaviors, the influence of school on
the development of political engagement has been the focus of much research. Education itself is
highly correlated with political knowledge, interest, voter turnout, and other forms of political
participation. Yet it has been repeatedly suggested that this connection might exist largely
because education serves as a proxy for social class or cognitive ability, or that education simply
serves as a sorting mechanism that divides the population into higher and lower status. These and
similar questions about the effects of education mean, in David Campbell‘s words, that ―we
know relatively little about the civic development of adolescents. Specifically, we have a limited
understanding of how schools do, or do not, foster political engagement among their adolescent
students‖. With respect to the influence of civic education, the uncertainty is even greater. For a
long time it was argued that civic education and the curriculum more broadly had almost no
influence at all on students‘ attitude. That proposition has been under fire for almost two
decades. Still, the precise way in which schooling influences students is unclear. One possibility
is that civics instruction itself—the classes students take that teach about one‘s government and
one‘s role as a citizen—is the causal agent. Even then, the influence may stem from specific
features of the class: whether it consists mostly of lectures, incorporates class discussions,
involves students in group projects, and so forth.

Another possibility, which has found support from a major cross-national study, is that the
climate of the classroom—how free students feel to express their opinions and have them
discussed and respected—underlies student attitudes, political engagement, and even political
knowledge. Community service, which may or may not be a part of formal classroom

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instruction, is yet another factor that may influence youths‘ feelings and actions about civic and
political participation. The role of civic education in mobilization and political participation has
not only been explored in Western democracies. Based on research in the Dominican Republic
and South Africa, Finkel (2002) finds that civic education also mobilizes citizens in developing
democracies, but that the impact depends on citizens‘ levels of political resources. Civic
education and other mobilizing processes are complementary, which implies that civic education
alone cannot overcome the unequal distribution of politically relevant resources in developing
democracies.

More recent work on civic education has attempted to gauge the relative influence of multiple
socializing agents. For example, Neundorf, Niemi, and Smets (2016) study the combined effect
of parental socialization and civic education. As discussed previously, the political environment
in the parental home has a strong impact on the political development of children. However,
many young people do not come from political families and hence are disadvantaged in
developing political preferences and being mobilized into politics. Neundorf, Niemi, and Smets
(2016) hence investigate whether civic education in school can compensate for missing parental
socialization. Their findings are based on panel data and suggest that civics training in schools
indeed compensates for inequalities in family socialization with respect to political engagement.
b. Peers and (Social) Media
School is one of the first environments in which children have contacts with other people who
are not parents, siblings, or other family members. Not only are children mobilized by their
peers, they also discuss sociopolitical issues together, share popular culture, and develop sets of
values. Peer groups also introduce social norms; moreover, being part of a social network
establishes useful democratic and economic principles such as the exchange of goods, services,
and information. Peer cultures are also transmitted via (social) media. Wattenberg (2008) argues
that media nowadays socialize young people in a different way than they did in previous
generations. Commercialization of the media has had consequences for both the content and
form of all items broadcast. As a consequence, young people are less likely to be exposed to
political information and more likely to be exposed to entertainment. This in turn has led to a
growing lack of interest in politics as well as lower levels of political knowledge among young
people. Of course nowadays citizens spend an increasingly larger portion of their time online.
One of the questions that has garnered a lot of scholarly interest is whether such new media

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forms foster interaction with people with different views or rather tend to be echo chambers in
which citizens interact with like-minded people only. Work on the mobilizing effects of new
social media shows that these networks tend to be homophilic and that citizens mostly interact
with people who have similar ideological preferences and political views. These findings open
up avenues for new ways of using big data collected through social media websites.
c. Political Events
The political context in which citizens grow up has often been overlooked as a socializing agent.
In his contribution on turnout in established democracies and the learning effect of voting, Mark
Franklin argues that the way in which young voters react to the character of an election is crucial
to this incoming cohort‘s future turnout levels. Short-term characteristics of elections influence
younger citizens‘ turnout decisions but have much less impact on the decisions of older voters,
who have already established a habit of voting or abstaining. Electoral competition is especially
important in this respect. As Smets and Neundorf (2014) demonstrate, high-stakes elections tend
to attract more voters than elections in which the outcome is a foregone conclusion. This
mobilization effect is strongest for young voters. Cohorts that grew up in a highly politicized
context have a higher propensity to turn out to vote in later life. However, using data from the
US General Social Survey, Smets and Neundorf show that those coming of age in a highly
polarized political context are less likely to vote in later life. In a two-party system like the
United States, large ideological distances may imply that voters have to choose between two
parties that do not represent their views. This is especially the case for voters placing themselves
in the center. Hence, in the US setting large ideological distances are more likely to have a
negative effect on individual level turnout. Schuman and Corning research the impact of critical
periods that occur in the lives of citizens from adolescence onward and show that the experience
of a transformative event during the critical years of later childhood, adolescence, and early
adulthood, as well as the experience of an event after the critical years, can contribute to
generation-defining memories. The role of political context in political socialization is certainly
not confined to the role of elections and electoral behavior. Dinas (2013), for example, shows
how the Watergate scandal disproportionately affected young people‘s (negative) evaluations of
President Richard Nixon. Another example by Erickson and Stoker (2011) demonstrates how the
Vietnam War impacted political attitudes related to partisanship and international intervention
among young Americans.

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 5.2. Political Culture

Everyone has their own view of politics, and their own interests and ideas and ways of
behaving. However, individuals do not exist in isolation and nor are they unique. If this were
the case it would make no sense to talk about ‗the working class‘ or ‗youth cultures‘, or to
make generalizations about ‗left-wing intellectuals‘ or ‗right-wing business interests‘. At a still
more general level, citizens of the same country usually share similar assumptions and views
about politics, which makes the Swedes different from the Chileans, the Spanish different
from the South Africans and the South Koreans different from the Irish. Political scientists
find it useful to label these shared patterns of beliefs and attitudes ‗the political culture‘.

Political values and attitudes are important in their own right, but they are also significant
because they tell us something about how people are likely to behave, and behavior has a
big and direct impact on political life. In order to understand what people do, and why they
do it, it is necessary to understand what they think. For example, it is not enough to know that
someone did not vote in an election: we need to know whether their inaction was caused by
apathy, alienation, or contentment. In the right circumstances, the alienated may take to the
streets in revolutionary action, leaving the apathetic at home watching television.

There is another good reason for trying to understand political cultures. The structures and
institutions of government rest on cultural foundations. If most people are satisfied with the
way their system of government works, then it is likely to be stable over time. If a large
proportion is dissatisfied and takes political action, then the system may come under
pressure to change. Democratic political institutions rest upon democratic cultures and a
combination of democratic cultures and institutions produces stable democracy. In other
words, there are two good reasons for studying political culture: it helps to explain
individual behaviour and it helps to explain the persistence of democratic institutions and
structures o f government.

Political attitudes and behavior are not random. People with the same background often
have a lot in common politically: manual workers differ from managers and professionals,
students from their parents and teachers, and men from women. Individuals build their
political ideas around their personal circumstances and interests, and when we talk about

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political interests, we mean two sorts of things:
 Material interests – money, promotion, taxes, security
 Ideal interests – political values and ideals, such as a sense of justice and freedom,
religious beliefs, or a left–right political position
How people define their material and ideal interests is in turn, closely connected with who
and what they think they are. They may define themselves as a member of a social class,
or an ethnic or religious group, or perhaps as part of a gender, or age, or regional group.
How people see the political world depends on how they believe they fit into it, and how
they see their own political identity. According to this approach, politics is a struggle
between people and groups whose material and ideal interests vary according to their class,
region, ethnicity, age, gender, language, or nationality.

Thus, one of the most influential approaches to the study of political attitudes, values and
behavior in the post-war period has been built around the study of political culture. The
concept of political culture is an elusive and complex one, and it can be loose and vague,
but we can best see political culture as a sort of map of how people think and behave
politics. A map is not the real thing, it deals only with selected and general features of the
world, but it can be a useful guide to the real thing. In the same way, political culture does
not reproduce every detail of what citizens know and think and feel about politics, but it can
be a useful and simplified guide to the most important features of individual beliefs, values
and attitudes. Used well, the concept helps us to focus on what is important and to see
patterns in what would otherwise be a confused jumble of individual features.

Culture is not innate: we are not born with a genetic imprint of a political culture in our
brains. Rather, we absorb the political culture that surrounds us through the process of
political socialization, which passes on culture from one generation to the next. Hence
cultures persist over time. We also absorb the culture of our own social background and
group. Hence political cultures are patterned and Persistence. Political cultures are passed
on from one generation to the next so they persist over time. They do change, of course,
but they usually change slowly according to the accumulation of events and experiences,
unless there is some traumatic event (war, revolution, economic collapse) to bring about a
major change. The first and most influential study of political culture was done by Gabriel A.

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Almond (1911–2002) and Sidney Verba (1932–). They define political culture as a pattern of
political orientations to political objects such as parliament, elections or the nation. They then
divide political orientations into three dimensions: Cognitive, Affective and Evaluative.

Cognitive Affective Evaluative

To participate in To participate in politics, To know how they should

politics, citizens must
be aware of, know
about and understand
something about their
political system, its
main institutions,
historical events,
election system,
political figures and
national background.
citizens must believe that
politics is important enough to
take up their time. It is
significant, for example, that
two out of three citizens in
Austria, The Netherlands and
Norway claim an interest in
politics, compared with fewer
than one in three in Argentina,
Chile and Spain.
participate in politics, citizens
must also evaluate the system:
• Should it be supported or
reformed (political
support)?
• Do ordinary citizens have
enough influence (subjective
or internal efficacy)?
• does the system operate as it
should (system or external
efficacy)

Almond and Verba, identified three pure types of political culture, and showed that these
were combined in different proportions in the countries they surveyed.

 Parochial cultures: have a low level of awareness, knowledge and involvement with
government. They are usually Third World and rural societies with poor education, low
economic development and poor communications, but there are pockets of parochialism
in developed countries as well.
 In subject cultures: people are aware of government and what it does (its outputs) but do
not participate much (citizen inputs). Subject cultures are mainly found in non-democracies
that emphasize the power of government rather than citizen rights and duties. Subject
cultures do not encourage enough democratic participation.
 In participant cultures: citizens are knowledgeable about politics, attach an importance
to them and participate because they feel competent and knowledgeable.

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On the other continuum, no country has a perfectly uniform political culture and there are
often variations between sub-groups and regions. Indeed, the existence of materialist
political cultures side by side with post-materialism in the same country is evidence of the
existence of sub-cultures. Members of a sub-culture share in the larger culture, but they also
have their own characteristics. For example, the Canadian political culture differs in some
important respects from that in Finland and South Africa, but at the same time French- and
English-speaking Canadians have their own political sub-cultures. Sub-cultures are typically
aligned with important divisions in society such as class, gender, generation, religion, region or
race. One of the most important sub- cultures in any society is that of the elite political culture.
Elite political cultures are normally different from mass cultures, partly because elites are
often drawn from the best educated and more middle- and upper- class sections of the
population, and partly because they interact so closely with each other over such long
periods of time that they tend to develop their own world view. Compared with mass
cultures, elite cultures are:
• Abstract They tend to be organized around abstract political ideas and ideals as well as
dealing with the concrete policy issues of everyday political life.
• Complex They are more elaborate and systematic.
• Informed They are based on a good deal of information.
• Broad They cover most of the general and particular issues in politics.
Because of this, political elites are said to be ‘ideologues’ who have a broader, more
sophisticated and better-informed view of the political world, compared with most ordinary
citizens.

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