The International Journal of Management Education 17 (2019) 286–293

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The International Journal of

Management Education
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/ijme

Emotional intelligence predicts academic achievement in Pakistani

T
management students
Zahid Ahmeda, Muhammad Asima, John Pellitterib,∗
a
Karachi University Business School (KUBS), University of Karachi, Pakistan
b
Queens College, City University of New York, USA

A R T IC LE I N F O ABS TRA CT

Keywords: Emotional Intelligence (EI) has been identified as an emerging area that influences academic
Trait Emotional Intelligence achievement. Previous studies found conflicting results in this relationship as well as in gender
Academic achievement differences both within Pakistan and in other countries. The purpose of this study is to examine
Pakistan the relationships between EI, academic achievement and gender differences for Pakistani man-
Management students
agement students. The correlational and group comparison methods were based on a sample of
189 participants (106 males and 83 females). The results of this study established EI as a pre-
dictor of academic achievement. The Self-Control, Sociability and Well-being components of the
Trait Emotional Intelligence Questionnaire (TEIQue) were positively correlated with GPA while
the Emotionality component was negatively correlated. The negative correlations between Self-
control and both Emotionality and Sociability differed from the normative sample of the TEIQue
suggesting notable cultural differences. Patterns of gender differences found males scoring higher
on Self-control and Well-being while women scored higher on Emotionality. Issues such as lan-
guage-based self-report formats and cultural differences in emotion socialization were con-
sidered. Recommendations suggest that universities include EI development as part of the aca-
demic process and that male and female students would require different types of EI support.

1. Introduction

Emotional Intelligence (EI) has been identified as a core competency that predicts success in the workplace, academics and
personal-social relationships (Brackett, Rivers, & Salovey, 2011; World Economic Forum, 2016; Zeidner, Matthews, & Roberts, 2009).
According to the New Visions for Education report by the World Economic Forum (2016) social-emotional intelligence underscores
several competencies and character qualities that are essential for 21st century students who will enter the global work force. The
report drew upon meta-analytic studies on connecting social-emotional learning (SEL) to academic performance noting an 11%
increase in academic achievement for students receiving SEL training (World Economic Forum, 2016). EI has been established as a
predictor for academic achievement at various grade levels including pre-adolescence (Billings, Downey, Lomas, Lloyd, & Stough,
2014; Reyes, Brackett, Rivers, White, & Salovey, 2012), high school (Costa & Faria, 2015) and college (Parker, Summerfeldt, Hogan,
& Majeski, 2004). One study encompassing EI and social behavior highlighted that students with better emotional balance perform
better than those with frustration resulting in more caring and engaged behaviors towards education (Majid & Shaista, 2012). At the
university level, academic achievement is a notable factor indicating not only school success but in predicting career and employment
outcomes. Studies have found connections between academic performance and early career success (Kool, Mainhard, Jaarsma,

∗
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: john.pellitteri@gmail.com (J. Pellitteri).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijme.2019.04.003
Received 10 December 2018; Received in revised form 18 February 2019; Accepted 19 April 2019
Available online 18 May 2019
1472-8117/ © 2019 Published by Elsevier Ltd.
Z. Ahmed, et al. The International Journal of Management Education 17 (2019) 286–293

Brekelmans, & van Beukelen, 2016) as well as between academic engagement in college and early career earnings (Hu & Woliniak,
2013).
In Pakistan as well as in neighboring countries, academic achievement is an important area of focus as it is an indicator of
educational success that can lead to career access through employment hiring and to greater opportunities for job advancement.
Achievement also has important social and cultural significance in Pakistan. In contrast to Western societies, the cultural frameworks
from South Asian societies place a great deal of importance on interdependence and on family values such as honor and respect.
(Markus & Kitayama, 1991). In this light the motivation and goal-orientation toward academic achievement takes on significant
importance for Pakistani students since achievement brings honor and respect not only to the students but for their families
(Hofstede, 2001; Kim, Yang, Atkinson, Wolfe, & Hong, 2001). Thus academic achievement has culturally-driven emotional value
embedded within it (Kitayama & Markus, 1994).
The group of university students in management was chosen due to their importance in finding employment in finance or
administrative positions in government and private sector organizations. The work environments are highly demanding in nature in
terms of financial responsibilities, human capital management, developmental roles, and relationships with clientele. On a larger
scale, South Asian countries are experiencing a rapid transition to a globalized economy and Pakistan as a developing economy on the
world map is a geo-strategic business hub for many bordering economies. These economic advances stand in reciprocal balance with
important social, educational and developmental changes (Alvi, 2019; Ullrich, 2018, pp. 287–297). It is essential therefore, to
understand what factors contribute to management students’ optimal learning allowing them to effectively meet the 21st century
regional and global challenges in Pakistan (Farah & Riaz, 2009; Hasan, 2008).
Several studies have established the importance of EI with various groups in Pakistan utilizing multiple research methods and
diverse EI measures. Researchers have found positive relationships between EI variables and employment factors such as job sa-
tisfaction (Ashraf, Ahmad, Shaikh, & Bhatti, 2014), job performance (Asrar-ul-Haq, Anwar, & Hassan, 2017; Mehmood, Qasim, &
Azam, 2013; Zahid, Wasim, & Raziq, 2008), organizational performance in banking (Rahim & Malik, 2010), organizational com-
mitment in college teachers (Shafiq & Rana, 2016), self-efficacy in nursing staff (Abbas, Akber, & Siddiqa, 2012), employee devel-
opment and progress (Akram, Haider, & Akram, 2016; Malik & Ahmad, 2014), team performance (Naseer, Chishti, Rahman, &
Jumani, 2011) and leadership (Batool, 2013; Mir & Abbasi, 2012; Rasool, Arfeen, Mohti, & Aslam, 2017; Rehman, Najam Ul Arfeen, &
Rehman, 2015; Rehman & Waheed, 2012) as well as non-employment factors such as marital quality (Batool & Khalid, 2012) and
mental health (Butt, 2014; Masum & Khan, 2014). These studies represent a growing body of research where EI is emerging as a
significant factor particularly as it applies to work related variables. Some of these studies however rely on qualitative case study
methodology attesting to the need for more correlational data with Pakistani samples that can establish statistically-grounded pre-
dictive factors.
Numerous studies from outside Pakistan have supported this link between EI and academics with both performance and trait
measures. Lanciano and Curci (2014) found incremental validity for EI and academic achievement using a performance measure (i.e.
Mayer-Salovey-Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test, MSCEIT) while MacCann, Fogarty, Zeidner, and Roberts (2011) found coping
abilities as a mediator for academic achievement using both the MSCEIT and the Situational Judgment Test (SJT). Correlations
between trait EI and academics were found using the Emotional Quotient Inventory (EQi; Nasir & Masrur, 2010; Parker et al., 2004)
and the Trait Emotional Intelligence Questionnaire (TEIQue; Siegling, Vesely, Saklofske, Frederickson, & Petrides, 2017). While
discrepancies exist between the competing performance and trait models of EI (Cote, 2014; Pellitteri & Lei, 2016; Petrides, 2009;
Zeidnar et al., 2009) emotional factors most certainly play a role in academic achievement given the converging validity of numerous
studies with various measures and diverse EI models. Thus the examination of how emotions influence academic achievement is an
important focus for research as well as for educational institutions.
Hanafi and Noor (2016) in an extensive review of EI and academic achievement examined five major methods of measurement
including performance and self-report measures. Working across various cultural contexts with multiple types of assessments they
found significant correlations between EI and academics in 13 of the 26 studies retained in their analysis after meeting their criteria
for inclusion. In some of the studies examined, the relationships between EI and academic achievement was indirect or was based
only on components of the EI measures.
Several of the studies in the Hanafi and Noor (2016) analysis included Pakistani samples and yielded contradictory results. Studies
by Nasir and colleagues (Nasir, 2012; Nasir & Masrur, 2010) found positive correlations between EI and academic achievement in
Pakistani samples using the EQi. By contrast Gilani, Waheed, Saleem, and Shoukat (2015) found negative insignificant relationships
between these variables using the TEIQue measure with a Pakistani sample. Another study (Malik & Shahid, 2016) not included in the
meta-analysis also used the TEIQue and found a weak relationship between EI and academics. These studies conflict in their findings
and are not consistent with the general findings in the field that EI positively impacts academic achievement. Therefore, the first goal
of this current research study is to examine the relationships between EI and academic achievement in Pakistani management
students in light of these discrepancies in Pakistan-based studies and given the importance of academic achievement for future career
success and family honor.
The second goal of this current study is to examine patterns of EI within a Pakistani sample to provide empirical data on the
relevance of EI within this cultural context and to address the need to increase culture specific EI research with identified groups.
While there is apparent appeal to assume that EI has a universal benefit, it is important to recognize that socio-cultural factors
influence the creation, interpretation and expression of emotions (Mesquita, Boiger, & De Leersnyder, 2016), and in turn the ap-
plication of EI. Display rules for example, are culture-specific norms that govern the expression of emotions in ways that are ap-
propriate for the particular culture. Thus direct eye contact with another person and a direct statement of one's immediate feelings
may be valued in Western societies as asserting oneself, while the same behaviors might not be intelligent in Asian cultures that use

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different display rules as they could be interpreted as disrespectful or confrontational. Scott-Halsell, Saiprasert, and Yang (2013)
examined Western and Eastern cultural contexts and suggest that EI differences exist along mentoring, curriculum, and training
programs. In a Pakistani study Nasir and Maliha (2011), identified EI as having a mediating effect on cultural adjustment and
academic achievements with international students.
As many of the current measures of EI were developed in Western countries, it can be expected that cultural biases exist in the
conceptualization and measurement of EI. Studies that examine culture specific applications of EI are essential to understanding how
the predictions of current EI measures vary across cultures and where common universal factors may emerge. Sub-components of the
different EI models may interact differently depending upon cultural contexts. Brackett, Rivers, Bertoli and Salovey (2016) note the
importance of cross cultural research in the development of EI.
A third goal of the study is to examine gender differences in EI. In some cultures it is generally assumed that women have higher
EI than men (Naghavi & Redzuan, 2011), however there are conflicting results on this issue. Fernández-Berrocal, Cabello, Castillo,
and Extremera (2012) found women scoring higher than men on a performance measure of EI in a Spanish sample however these
differences were mediated, and became non-significant after controlling for age. Fischer, Kret, and Broekens (2018) also found higher
scores for women on self-reported measures of EI however in testing for emotional perception and sensitivity they found no dif-
ferences and concluded that gender differences in EI were not based on women's greater sensitivity to emotional cues as originally
assumed, but rather to men's perception of non-target emotions on the tasks. In Pakistani samples Abbas and ul-haq (2011), using the
self-report Schutte Emotional Intelligence Scale and Bibi Saqlain and Mussawar (2016) using the Wong & Law EI measure, both found
women to be significantly higher in EI than men. By contrast Ahmad, Bangash, and Khan (2009) found that men scored higher than
women in a Pakistani sample using the EQi to measure EI and concluded that gender-based power differences in society accounted for
this finding. Also using the EQi, both Meshkat and Nejati (2017, pp. 1–8) with an Iranian sample and Nasir and Masrur (2010) with a
Pakistani sample did not find significant gender differences on the total scores but did find sub-score differences. It would appear that
EI differences in gender intersect with cultural frameworks that facilitate differing socialization processes with regard to emotions.
Another consideration is the type of EI measure used and the instrument's sensitivity to gender-specific factors. This study will
examine gender differences to contribute to this debate.
In sum, the current study will (1) examine the relationship between EI and academic achievement since it is an important
predictor of future career success and since there are conflicting results from previous studies, (2) contribute to the increasing body of
empirically-based culture-specific studies to determine if current EI measures can be relevant in Pakistan and (3) examine gender
differences to compare to findings from other cultural groups.

2. Methods

2.1. Sample

The sample of 300 Management Science students from public and private universities in Karachi, Pakistan were invited to par-
ticipate in the study. 287 participants completed the measures. The criteria of 2.0 Grade Point Average was used to limit the sample
to those with adequate academic achievement and avoid the confounding variable of academic problems. After the criteria and
removal of incomplete questionnaires 189 participants were retained in the study. The age ranges of the participants were from 18 to
22. Gender was 83 women (44%) and 106 men (56%).

2.2. Measures

Trait Emotional Intelligence Questionnaire Short-Form (TEI Que – SF) is a 30-item Likert scale measure that yields four components.
Petrides (2009) reports internal consistencies between 0.59 (Emotionality) 0.74 (Self-Control) 0.71 (sociability) and 0.86 (Well-
being) with a Global Trait EI at 0.78. Validity is supported by a four factor analytic solution with loading from 0.35 to 0.92. That
explained 69% of variance as well as correspondences with broad personality dimensions (Petrides, 2009). In the current sample
Cronbach alpha reliability of the data was 89% for global trait EI and component reliabilities of well-being 64.5%, Self-control 74%,
emotionality 75% and sociability 67%.
Grade Point Average was determined by self report in the demographic questionnaire. The general range of the GPA scale is from
1.0 to 4.0 with 2.0 = adequate performance; 3.0 = good performance and 4.0 = excellent performance in academic subjects.
Demographic Questionnaire-was used to gather gender, age, and academic program information.

2.3. Procedures

The participants were invited to complete the questionnaires through their classroom instructors at their respective universities.
The paper-and pencil measures were completed in one session which took approximately 15–20 min (see Table 1).

3. Results

The reliability of the sample with Cronbach Alpha was overall TEIQue score at 65.9%, followed component scores: Well-being
53.5%, Self-control 76.7%, Emotionality 75.2%; Sociability 67.4%. Table 2 illustrates the bivariate correlations between the four
TEIQue components and the dependent variable (Grade point average). Well-being (r = 0.362) and Self-control (r = 0.729) were

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Table 1
Demographic information of the respondents.
Frequency Percentage

Gender Male 106 56.1%

Female 83 43.9%
Total 189 100.0%
Age 18 Years 2 1.1%
19 Years 35 18.5%
20 Years 54 28.6%
21 Years 49 25.9%
22 Years 49 25.9%
Total 189 100.0%
Semester semester 2 11 5.8%
semester 4 54 28.6%
semester 6 65 34.4%
semester 8 59 31.2%
Total 189 100.0%

Table 2
Bivariate correlations TEIQue subscales and GPA.

CGPA well_being self_control Emotionality Sociability

a a a
GPA Pearson Correlation 1 .362 .729 -.606 -.080
Sig. (2-tailed) .000 .000 .000 .275
N 189 189 189 189 189
well_being Pearson Correlation .362a 1 .213a .025 .332a
Sig. (2-tailed) .000 .003 .728 .000
N 189 189 189 189 189
self_control Pearson Correlation .729a .213a 1 -.610a -.260a
Sig. (2-tailed) .000 .003 .000 .000
N 189 189 189 189 189
emotionality Pearson Correlation -.606a .025 -.610a 1 .596a
Sig. (2-tailed) .000 .728 .000 .000
N 189 189 189 189 189
Sociability Pearson Correlation -.080 .332a -.260a .596a 1
Sig. (2-tailed) .275 .000 .000 .000
N 189 189 189 189 189

a
Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).

positively correlated with GPA while Emotionality (−0.606) was negatively correlated. Sociability (0.275) was not correlated with
GPA. Intra-test correlations between the TEIQue components indicate that Sociability is positively correlated to Well-Being
(r = 0.332) and Emotionality (r = 0.596) and negatively correlated to Self-Control (r = −0.260). Emotionality is also negatively
correlated with Self-Control (r = −0.610) and uncorrelated with Well-being. Self-control is positively correlated with Well-Being
(0.213).
The regression analysis illustrated in Table 3 indicates that the four TEIQue components predict GPA. Well-being, self-control and
sociability were significant positive predictors of GPA while emotionality was a significant negative predictor.
Gender differences are noted through t-test analyses and the Levene's tests for equality of variance and are reported in Table 4.
Males scored significantly higher than females on Well-being and Self-control with females scoring significantly higher than males on
Emotionality. No significant differences in means were found between the genders on Sociability. Differences in variance were noted
between gender groups on Self-control and Sociability.

Table 3
Regression Analysis of four facets of Trait Emotional Intelligence.
Coefficients ANOVA

Beta t-value p-value (t) R Square F p-value (F)

Well Being 0.127 3.978 .000 .680 97.598 .000

Self-Control .201 8.368 .000
Emotionality -.325 −7.652 .000
Sociability .159 4.781 .000

Dependent Variable: CGPA.

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Table 4
Independent Sample T-Test comparisons between males and females on four TEIQue components.
Groups Statistics Levene's Test for Equality of Variances t-test for Equality of Means

Emotional Intelligence four facets Gender N Mean Std. Deviation F Sig. (F-test) Mean Difference t Sig.

Well-being Male 106 4.3386 .61986 1.183 .278 .22239 2.266 0.025
Female 83 4.1162 .72842
Self-control Male 106 5.1167 .78509 28.468 .000 .45021 2.824 0.006
Female 83 4.6665 1.27574
Emotionality Male 106 2.6688 .47683 1.308 .254 -.35705 −3.625 0.000
Female 83 3.0259 .85940
Sociability Male 106 2.3667 .51693 3.957 .048 -.08646 −0.702 0.484
Female 83 2.4532 1.02523

4. Discussion

The study examined EI as a predictor of academic achievement as well as identified gender differences and patterns of EI
components from a Pakistani sample. Academic achievement is an important variable in the Pakistani culture as it corresponds with
employment, career success and family honor. Identifying predictors of achievement is valuable for guiding academic programs to
support students to meet current economic and globalization demands in Pakistan. The overall results of the study found that EI as
measured by the TEIQue predicted academic achievement and is consistent with other studies involving the TEIQue with Pakistani
samples (Malik & Shahid, 2016) and in other countries (Ferrando, Prieto, & Almeida, 2010). A notable difference is that in the current
sample, the Self-Control, Well-being and Sociability components of the TEIQue were positive indicators of achievement while
Emotionality was negatively correlated. Petrides (2009) describes the Emotionality component as measuring self-reported traits of
being aware of emotions in the self and others and using these emotions in relationships. It may be that for the current sample of
Pakistani management students, higher degrees of attention to emotions may direct attention away from or may interfere with, the
intellectual tasks required for academic achievement. Self-Control and Well-Being by contrast may enhance the intellectual capacities
that increase academic achievement as measured by GPA. Implications for student support at academic institutions may consider how
attention to emotions impacts scholarly tasks that influence GPA and may aim to establish an effective balance between emotional
and academic factors.
EI is recognized as a predictor for academic achievement in management science students in Pakistan and academic achievement
in turn is important for career success. For example, Ming Chia (2005) concluded that EI is a useful tool for job placement process of
students studying in accounting – which is one of the specializations within the scope of management science. However, it is also
important to consider how EI itself can be resilient forecaster for organizational citizenship and job performance. Amjad (2018) in a
study with a Pakistani sample found that EI is a strong predictor of organizational commitment. Chaudhry and Usman (2011) found
that EI is related to work environment factors such as organizational citizenship behavior and job performance and recommend EI as
a selection tool for managers dealing in human resources. One role of EI in work related success could be the decrease in job stress
(Rahim, 2010) that is usually caused by changes in work environments and employment demands. This adaptive function of EI
appears to be notable and may be related to how EI enhances productivity at workplace, increases organizational commitment and
significantly impacts job satisfaction (Navas & Vijayakumar, 2018).
Academic achievement as measured by GPA is a major indicator of success in a university program that prepares students for the
workforce. The demands of school can be comparable to the demands faced on the job. It may be that the process by where EI
enhances academic achievement parallels the processes of EI contributions to workplace adjustment and stress management. A study
by Shipley, Jackson, and Segrest (2010) supports EI as a predictor of academic achievement in school also suggests positive asso-
ciations with work experience, leadership ability and job performance. Therefore, it is important for universities to promote EI in
their academic programs not only for its positive impact on achievement and GPA, but also that EI capacities are useful for career and
employment success.
EI research with various cultural groups is important as it brings to light differences in the socio-cultural construction and
expression of emotions. As the TEIQue is a self-report measure, perceptions of emotions and the personal traits for using emotions will
ultimately be influenced by socio-cultural frameworks. The finding that Emotionality is negatively correlated with GPA possibly
reflects an aspect of how emotions are experienced and processed in Pakistani culture and/or may indicate elements of the academic
environment that foster success with the suppression of emotional attention. Another finding from this study draws a contrast
between the TEIQue in the Pakistani sample and the results reported by Petrides (2009) of the normative sample that included
predominantly white participants from the United Kingdom. In the latter study, the four TEIQue components- Well-being, Self-
Control, Emotionality, and Sociability-were positively correlated with each other. In the current study, there were negative corre-
lations between Self-control and Emotionality and as well as between Self Control and Sociability. The latter of these two pairs
(Emotionality and Sociability) were positively correlated with each other and indicate that emotions are indeed important for in-
terpersonal relations. These findings might suggest that from a Pakistani cultural perspective, attention to emotions is perceived as
lacking in self-management or self-discipline. These findings might reflect a socio-cultural dynamic in attitudes toward emotions and
could represent Eastern-Western distinctions in emotionality. Additionally, philosophical perspectives over history have alternated
between viewing emotions as disruptive to logical reasoning to considering how emotions can enhance thinking (Scarantino, 2016).

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It is important however, to consider that the intra-test correlations in the current sample may be based on the particular way that
the TEIQue captured these variables. The wording of the items for example, especially in English as a second language for the
participants could have led to certain assumptions that are different than the intended conceptualization of the TEIQue authors. One
item from the TEIQue is, “I often pause and think about my feelings.” One interpretation of this item could be that the participant is
attentive to his or her own emotional states indicating presumably that they are reflective about the meanings of the emotion.
Another alternative interpretation could hinge on the word “think” where a participant's personal phenomenology is that he or she
“experiences” emotions in the body rather than intellectualizes about the feelings and their meanings. This example highlights
possible cultural differences that are reflected in the measure, individual personality differences in how participants experience
emotions and/or language differences in the interpretations and translations of the words. All are inherent issues in any self-report
measure.
Gender differences are notable particularly in cultures that have distinct gender roles and can reflect the outcomes of gender
socialization of emotions and emotional display rules. There are conflicting findings in the field of EI studies in Pakistan. Ahmad et al.
(2009) using a self-report EI measure (EQi) found overall scores of men higher than women. By contrast, several researchers (Abbas &
ul-haq, 2011; Bibi et al., 2016; Rahim & Malik, 2010) found women to have significantly higher EI scores than men. These studies
used overall EI scores from self-reported measures other than the TEIQue. In the current study, three of the four TEIQue components
had significant differences in gender where males scored higher on Self-control and Well-being while women were higher on
Emotionality. These results are consistent with the mixed results of the above-mentioned studies as well as a previously mentioned
study by Meshkat and Nejati (2017, pp. 1–8) that found significant subcomponent variations between genders.
The explanation of why men and women score higher on different components is more complex. The finding that males (more
than females) perceive themselves with greater degrees of self-control and overall well-being could reflect differentials in social status
in the culture, or differences in gender-based values. Women's higher scores on the Emotionality variable is consistent with the
general, but somewhat disputed claim that women are more emotional. Interestingly, in the current Pakistani sample, there were no
differences in the TEIQue component of sociability indicating that these gender differences do not impact participants perceived
capacities for interpersonal relationships.
As before, the consideration of the test's limitation in the English language must be noted, although the language barriers would
be equivalent in an intra-sample comparison where both men and women would presumably be affected equally. The TEIQue item, “I
don't seem to have any power at all over other people's feelings” for example could activate consideration of gender-based social
power that influences the response styles of the men and women in the sample. Another consideration - social desirability as a
dynamic for any type of self-report format, could also play a role in influencing the participants' responses. Thus if it is generally
acceptable that women are more “emotional” then the males in the sample may have suppressed their responses on Emotionality
items and possibly masked the degree of their attention to emotions. Lastly the numerical differences between men (N = 106) and
women (N = 83) could have played a role in a heavier weighing of man perspectives in the sample patterns.
The findings of this study must be considered in light of its limitations. The sample consisted of management students in Pakistan
urban universities which is not representative of the whole population and may not capture variables in different educational levels
or various regions. Therefore generalizations of the results need to be made with caution. In addition, as noted previously, the
measures were conducted in English which is presumably a second language for the university students and may have led to mis-
understandings of some of the items. Likewise, the TEIQue was developed in the United Kingdom and the items may not reflect
nuances or culture-specific aspects of the sample group. As illustrated above, particular items may have been interpreted differently
than originally intended and/or may have activated culture-specific meanings or socially-based gender expectations. Another lim-
itation is that the current study did not consider pedagogy or subject content in examining the relationship between EI and academic
achievement which may be contributing factors considering the contradictory findings of other studies that found weak or insig-
nificant correlations between these variables.
In sum, the results, when compared to other studies from within Pakistan and from other countries, suggest that EI is an important
variable in the direct prediction of academic achievement in university management students. While this study did not measure
employment success factors it is only through the associations between academic achievement and work-related factors that EI can be
considered to have a distal connection to these factors. The recommendations are that academic institutions would benefit from
developing EI in students in order to better prepare them for success in the workplace. More nuanced consideration must be given to
the role of emotionality (verses self-control and well-being) in supporting students so that a balance is achieved that could maximize
educational attainment. Gender differences would suggest that universities provide different types of support for female students than
for male. If women tend to have higher emotionality, yet this variable is negatively associated with GPA, then female students would
need support to adjust the strengths of their emotionality to match the possibly male-oriented demands of university settings.
Management of emotions has been implicated in various types of resiliency and adjustment (Gross, 2014) and the strategies that
women in Pakistani universities might use could differ from men. Certainly the established themes from the literature indicate that EI
is significant in achieving workplace success. Men who tend to score lower than women on Emotionality, may need to develop greater
attention to emotional factors when making decisions and adjusting to the demands of the work place as part of a general approach to
increasing EI.
Finally, the study and the review of the literature highlights the importance of considering the various models of EI and the multi-
faceted dimensions of each model. The TEIQue as distinct from other EI measures could differentially favor male or female strengths
in intelligence as well as cultural dimensions of emotion socialization. Continued culture-specific research is needed with multiple
measures to shed light on which EI factors and their respective conceptualizations are more relevant. Future directions of EI research
(see Batool & Khalid, 2011) could aim to develop new measures within specific cultures in the target language that capture the

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complex aspects of the intersection of social and gender.

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