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Hydrodynamics

Course Connections
Pre-Requisites
Fluid Mechanics
Mathematics
Computer Programming

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1.0 Generalised Concepts in Fluid Mechanics

1.1 Mass Conservation (continuity)
w
Governing Equations w z v
z v y
y
For incompressible 3-D flow:-

u u
u x
z x

v
x y
z
y
w
x

Mass flow in = Mass flow out. Provided the density is constant,

u v w
  0 u  0, u  u , v, w 
x y z
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1.2 Momentum Conservation

Newton’s 2nd Law: Force = mass x acceleration.

3 components of acceleration are:

u u u u
ax  u v w x-component
t x y z

v v v v
ay  u v w y-component
t x y z

w w w w
az  u v w z-component
t x y z

unsteady convective
accelerations accelerations

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e.g. 1-D flow

x1 x1
x2 x2
Qa Qb
U a2 U b2
U a1 U b1

(a) t  ta (b) t  tb

Unsteady acceleration u1  U b1  U a1 at x  x1

t tb  ta 

u U a 2  U a1 
Convective acceleration u  U a1 at t  t a
x x2  x1

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Consider mass M subject to external force Fx per unit mass

z
p
p p x
x

y

x
Equation of motion: " F  ma"
 u u u u  p
M   u  v  w   Fx M  xyz 
 t x y z  x

where Fx is an external body force per unit mass.

u u u u 1 p
Dividing by M  xyz  u  v  w  Fx 
t x y z  x

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Similar equations apply in the y and z directions with Fy and Fz .

In many practical cases Fx , Fy , Fz   0, 0,  g 

gravitational forces are the only external forces acting.

u u u u  1 p
u v w 
t x y z  x
v v v v  1 p
u v w  Euler equations
t x y z  y

w w w w  1 p
u v w  g
t x y z  z

Although the Euler equations are widely used, they are based on the
assumption that:

1. Gravitational forces represent the only external forces, F  0, 0,  g 

2. Viscosity can be neglected,   0.
3. The flow is laminar (non-turbulent).
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Considering each of these points in turn:

1.2.1 External body forces:

Although g is often dominant, exceptions include:

Coriolis forces - due to rotation of earth

- occur in large geophysical flows

Magnetic forces - Magneto-hydrodynamics (MHD)

- occur in liquid metal flows

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1.2.2 Internal viscosity

In solid body mechanics:

Stress is related to strain

In fluid mechanics:
Stress is related to ‘rate of strain’

In so-called ‘Newtonian Fluids’ - virtually all gases

- most liquids
Stress  rate of strain

Constant of proportionality =  , the dynamic viscosity

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Dynamic Viscosity  

• Units of kgm 1s 1

• Property of fluid

• Dependent upon:

(a) Temperature

(b) Pressure (slightly)

• For water,   10 3 kgm 1s 1

Kinematic Viscosity  

• Defined by  

• Units m 2 s 1

• For water,   10 6 m 2 s 1

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Consider 2-D fluid element subject to various strains

(i) 1-D plane strain - u with gradient u

z

u z z
u z
z A B A B
u  xz
zt
z

z  zx  zx

x  xz
u x x
C t0 D C D
At At t  t
Movement of AB relative to CD is u zt
z

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Rate of strain  u zt 

 z  1 u
  
  z  t z
 

Hence stress  xz    rate of strain

Notation: First index denotes direction  x 

Second index denotes plane z  const.

u
Hence:  xz  
z

or    u same equation, different notation.

y

Note: for equilibrium, additional stress

 zx   xz must also be produced

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u w
(ii) 2-D plane strain, u and w with gradients and
z x
u z
u z z B
z u
zt  xz
z
A B A
 zx
 zx

D
C D C  xz
u x x
w w
w  x At t  t
x
At t0
 u w 
For equilibrium  xz    z  x    zx
Two components of strain must be summed to give stress acting in both co-
ordinate directions.
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u
(iii) 1-D linear strain, u with gradient .
x

 zz
z u z
u  x
u x
A B
A B u
xt
x

 xx

C D C D
t0 x t  t x

u
Rate of strain in x-direction (tension).
x
u
Rate of strain in the z-direction  (compression).
x

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(iv) 2-D linear strain, u and w with gradients u and w .

x z

u w  u
 xx      or  xx  2
 x z  x Since
 u  w   0
 
 x z 
w u  or w
 zz   
- mass continuity.
   zz  2
 z x  z

Note: For incompressible fluid, sum of normal stresses = 0

u w  w u 
 xx   zz          0
 x z   z x 

Hence, viscosity does not affect pressure directly.

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Consider forces acting in a 2-D flow field:

 xz
 xz  z
z

x
 xx
p  xx  x
x
 xx
z y
z
y
x  xz

Net force per unit mass in x-direction is given by:

1   xx  xz 
Fx    xyz
M  x z 
1    u w    u w  
Fx           
  x  x z  z  z x  
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Assuming  constant,

   2u  2 w  2u  2 w 
Fx    
  x 2 xz z 2 zx 

1   2u  2 u  1
 Fx       u
2

  x 2 z 2  

In z direction, internal force per unit mass Fz is given by:

1   2 w  2 w  1
Fz      2 w
  x 2 z 2  

In 3-D flow viscous force Fx is:

1 1   2 u  2 u  2 u 
 2 u     where u  (u, v, w)
   x 2 z 2 y 2 

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Introducing the viscous forces into the Euler equations gives:

u u u u  1 p
u v w    2 u
t x y z  x
v v v v  1 p
u v w    2 v Navier - Stokes
t x y z  y equations

w w w w  1 p
u v w   g   2 w
t x y z  z
or in vector notation:

Du  1
  p  F   2 u
Dt 
  
where u  u , v, w F  0,0, g   , ,
x y z
2 2 2 D    
2  2
 2
 2
,  u v w
x y z Dt t x y w

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1.2.3 Turbulent Flows - turbulent Reynolds stresses

Consider a typical velocity record

(i) Statistically ‘stationary’ flows:

u t 
at fixed steady flow,
point ‘average’ does not
vary with time

u' t 
u

time, t
Velocity segregation gives u t   u  u ' t  Velocity fluctuation

Mean velocity

If statistically stationary u  f t , it is time independent.

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(ii) Non-stationary or time-dependent turbulent flows.

u t  Ensemble - averaged velocity

at fixed (mean of repeated experimental runs)
point

u' t 

u
time, t

u t   u  u ' t  , but note u  f t 

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