OUTLINE

UNIVERSITY OF ZIMBABWE MSc.

IN ELECTRICAL POWER
ENGINEERING
POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION - MCEE505

LECTURE NOTES
By Engr. EVIAS KUFA
BSc(Elect), MEng(Power), GCC, MBL, Pr.Eng
 OUTLINE

Module Synopses

1. Definition of power system protection.

2. Protection devices
3. Overall network protection.
4. Protection schemes.
5. Differential protection.
6. Mertz price.
7. Fault detection and monitoring devices.
8. Application of PMUs in power systems protection.
 OUTLINE

Notes Outline
1. Module 1 – Fundamentals of power system protection.
2. Module 2 - Current and Voltage transformers.
3. Module 3 – Sequence Components and fault analysis.
4. Module 4 - Overcurrent protection.
5. Module 5 - Differential overcurrent protection.
6. Module 6 - Distance protection.
7. Module 7 – Differential protection of Bus, Transformer and
generator.
 OUTLINE

Preliminary Schedule
1. Module 1 – Fundamentals of power system protection - 20201204.
2. Module 2 - Current and Voltage transformers - 20201205
3. Module 3 – Sequence Components and fault analysis - 20201206.
4. Module 4 - Overcurrent protection - 20201211.
5. Module 5 - Distance overcurrent protection - 20201213.
6. Module 6 - Distance protection-20201215.
7. Module 7 – Differential protection of Bus, Transformer and
generator - 20201216.
8. Revision and Discussions and close – Early in January after
assignment marking
 Hypotheses(Cont)

Module 7 – Differential protection

of Bus, Transformer and Generator
1. Sub-module 7.1 – Bus protection.
2. Sub-module 7.2 – Transformer protection.
3. Sub-module 7.3 – Generator protection.
 Hypotheses(Cont)

Module 7.1 – Bus protection.

Sub-module 7.1 – Bus protection -Introduction

• Faults in a power system::
 Apparatus faults
 bus faults.
• Apparatus faults
 Faults in feeders, transformers, generators, or motors.
 Hypotheses(Cont)

Module 7.1 – Bus protection.

Sub-module 7.1 – Bus protection -Introduction

• Bus is an external interconnection point for terminals of
different apparatus.
• Bus fault – rare - but consequences severe.
• Losses of multiple feeders/transmission lines - potential
to create a large disturbance that induce transient
instability.
 Hypotheses(Cont)

Module 7.1 – Bus protection.

Sub-module 7.1 – Bus protection -Introduction

• Loss of load from important substation can be high
although it may not lead to transient instability.
• Bus arrangement designed with adequate redundancy so
that in case of a bus fault, an alternative bus automatically
takes over the functions of the ‘main bus'.
 Hypotheses(Cont)

Module 7.1 – Bus protection.

Sub-module 7.1 – Bus protection -Introduction

• End user sees no disruption in service except during the
fault interval.
• To configure a parallel arrangement for redundancy major
bus bar and additional circuit breakers are incurred.
• Hence, different bus configurations are used in practice –
each one representing a different tradeoff between cost,
flexibility and redundancy.
 Hypotheses(Cont)

Module 7.1 – Bus protection.

Sub-module 7.1 – Bus protection -Introduction

 In this lecture, we will discuss following bus arrangements:
 Single bus - single breaker
 Single breaker double bus with bus tie
 Double bus double breaker arrangement
 Hypotheses(Cont)

Module 7.1 – Bus protection.

Sub-module 7.1 – Bus protection.

 Different bus arrangements(cont)
 Ring bus arrangement.
 One and a half circuit breaker arrangement.
 Differential protection is also used for bus protection.
 If the algebraic sum of all apparatus currents is zero, then
there is no fault on the bus.
 During a bus fault the total current equals bus fault current.
 Hypotheses(Cont)

Module 7.1 – Bus protection.

Sub-module 7.1 – Bus protection - Single Bus Single Breaker
Arrangement

Fig.7.1 – Single bus single breaker arrangement with 6 circuits

 Hypotheses(Cont)

Module 7.1 – Bus protection.

Sub-module 7.1 – Bus protection - Single Bus Single
Breaker Arrangement
• Refer to Fig. 7.1 shows the single bus single breaker
arrangement.
• 6 feeders connected to a bus: each with CT to monitor
feeder current and a common VT for bus voltage.
• The ‘NC’s are mechanical switches which are normally
closed.
• During bus maintenance, these will have to be opened to
guarantee safety to maintenance personnel.
 Hypotheses(Cont)

Module 7.1 – Bus protection.

Sub-module 7.1 – Bus protection - Single Bus Single
Breaker Arrangement
• In case of bus fault, all the breakers have to be opened to
isolate the bus – Severe power supply disruption
• Scheme offers minimum flexibility but uses minimum
number of circuit breakers, (one per feeder) and it also
requires only one VT.
• Cheap scheme used for non-critical, low priority feeders
where loss of service is not a prime consideration, but low
cost (investment) is.
 Hypotheses(Cont)

Module 7.1 – Bus protection.

Sub-module 7.1 – Bus protection - Single Breaker Double Bus
with Bus Tie

Fig.7.2 – Single breaker double bus with bus tie and 6 circuits
 Hypotheses(Cont)

Module 7.1 – Bus protection.

Sub-module 7.1 – Bus protection - Single Breaker
Double Bus with Bus Tie
• This arrangement is used when
 Large number of circuits exists especially at lower voltage
and industrial substation.
 Substation is fed from two separate power supplies with
one supply for each bus.
• If each bus has its own source, then bus coupler with
overcurrent protection can be opened or closed.
• In case of loss of supply, 51 (AC time overcurrent relay) is
closed.
 Hypotheses(Cont)

Module 7.1 – Bus protection.

Sub-module 7.1 – Bus protection - Single Breaker
Double Bus with Bus Tie
• Each bus has differential protection is provided.
• Bus fault requires opening of all circuit breakers on bus
along with 51T (trip breaker) - partial loss of service.
• Scheme requires 2 x VTs.
• Scheme adds one bus bar and circuit breaker – thus more
flexible than single bus single breaker scheme.
 Hypotheses(Cont)

Module 7.1 – Bus protection.

Sub-module 7.1 – Bus protection - Double Bus Double
Breaker Arrangement

Fig.7.3 – Double bus double breaker arrangement with 5

circuits
 Hypotheses(Cont)

Module 7.1 – Bus protection.

Sub-module 7.1 – Bus protection - Double Bus Double
Breaker Arrangement
• Fig 7.3 shows a double bus, double breaker Scheme
• Each feeder connected to 2 buses which in normal
operation mode are paralleled.
• Bus differential protection is provided for each bus.
• Typically at high voltages such as 400kV.
• Directional distance protection provided as fault in the
primary line of Z2 of one of the relays cannot be left
unattended for time required for Z2 operation.
 Hypotheses(Cont)

Module 7.1 – Bus protection.

Sub-module 7.1 – Bus protection - Double Bus Double
Breaker Arrangement
• Directional comparison scheme is required for which
CCVT is used for communication.
• 1 x CCVT per feeder required for this scheme.
• A bus fault (say on bus 1), requires breakers connected to
this bus to be opened.
• Scheme allows automatic switch-over to alternative bus (e.g.
Bus 2) with no loss of service to load.
 Hypotheses(Cont)

Module 7.1 – Bus protection.

Sub-module 7.1 – Bus protection - Double Bus Double
Breaker Arrangement
• To isolate feeder all breakers connected to it need to be
opened.
• For line (feeder) protection, to measure feeder current the
CT contribution from both bus 1 and 2 have to be
summed. i.e. corresponding CTs are paralleled.
• In case of a stuck breaker, local backup for breaker failure
is to operate all the corresponding bus breakers.
• Scheme provides maximum flexibility, but costly as 2
breakers per feeder are required.
 Hypotheses(Cont)

Module 7.1 – Bus protection.

Sub-module 7.1 – Bus protection - Ring Bus Arrangement

Fig.7.4 –Ring bus arrangement with 4 circuits

 Hypotheses(Cont)

Module 7.1 – Bus protection.

Sub-module 7.1 – Bus protection - Ring Bus
Arrangement
• Fig 7.4 shows a typical ring bus arrangement with 4
feeders.
• If there is a feeder fault and need for isolation, two
adjacent breakers have to be operated.
• Similarly, feeder current is calculated by summing or
paralleling the appropriate CTs.
 Hypotheses(Cont)

Module 7.1 – Bus protection.

Sub-module 7.1 – Bus protection - Ring Bus
Arrangement
• Each feeder needs own VT.
• Scheme needs 1 circuit breaker per feeder and hence it is
less costly.
• Scheme popular due to low cost and high flexibility.
• Bus section between the two breakers is part of the line,
and hence separate bus protection is not applicable or
required as the feeder protection also provides the
functionality of bus bar protection.
 Hypotheses(Cont)

Module 7.1 – Bus protection.

Sub-module 7.1 – Bus protection - One and a Half
Circuit Breaker Arrangement

Fig.7.5 – One and half circuit breaker arrangement

 Hypotheses(Cont)

Module 7.1 – Bus protection.

Sub-module 7.1 – Bus protection - One and a Half
Circuit Breaker Arrangement
• Fig 7.5 shows the one and a half circuit breaker
arrangement.
• Called 1.5 as total number of breakers is 1.5 times the
number of feeders.
• Fig 7.5 shows 4 feeders and 6 breakers.
• There are 2 buses, each with own bus differential
protection.
 Hypotheses(Cont)

Module 7.1 – Bus protection.

Sub-module 7.1 – Bus protection - One and a Half
Circuit Breaker Arrangement
• All breakers connected to the bus will be opened in case of
bus fault
• Automatically, the system operation moves to alternative
bus without any further loss of service.
• Scheme also provides a high level of flexibility.
 Hypotheses(Cont)

Module 7.1 – Bus protection.

Sub-module 7.1 – Bus protection - One and a Half Circuit Breaker
Arrangement – Stuck breaker condition
• Fig 7.5 shows the one and a half circuit breaker arrangement.
• Now, consider the case of a stuck breaker say while clearing of feeder
fault on L1.
• In case of a stuck breaker which is connected to the bus (shown in
red in Fig 7.5), the local breaker backup (LBB) is to open all the
breakers on the bus.
• In the case of stuck central breaker (see green breaker) i.e. when the
shared breaker is stuck, LBB consists of opening the adjacent breaker.
• In addition, a transfer trip signal is required to the breaker at the
remote end of the feeder (L2) connected to the stuck breaker
 Hypotheses(Cont)

Module 7.1 – Bus protection.

Sub-module 7.1 – Bus protection - Differential relay
for bus bar protection can be implemented in one of
the following three ways:
 Differential relay for bus bar protection can be
implemented in one of the following three ways:
 Sample by sample comparison.
 Comparison of current phasors.
 High impedance bus differential relay.
 Hypotheses(Cont)

Module 7.1 – Bus protection.

Sub-module 7.1 – Bus protection - Differential relay for
bus bar protection can be implemented in one of the
following three ways:
 The main difficulty in bus differential protection is that
significant differential current may appear due to
saturation of CT on external fault.
 When a CT saturates, its secondary current is not scaled
replica of primary current.
 Therefore, sum of CT secondary current is not equal to
sum of primary currents even though primary CT
currents sum to zero.
 Hypotheses(Cont)

Module 7.1 – Bus protection.

Sub-module 7.1 – Bus protection - Differential relay for
bus bar protection can be implemented in one of the
following three ways:
 This causes a differential relay to operate on even external
faults, leading to mal-operation of bus protection scheme.
 This compromises security and is not acceptable.
 While the percentage differential can provide security
against normal CT errors due to mismatch of CT turns
ratio and magnetization current; it is not adequate to
handle severe CT saturation problem.
 Hypotheses(Cont)

Module 7.1 – Bus protection.

Sub-module 7.1 – Bus protection - Differential relay
for bus bar protection can be implemented in one of
the following three ways:
 Two pertinent questions arise regarding this
problem:
 How was this problem handled in the past, i.e. in the era
prior to numerical relays?
 How do numerical relays cope with this problem?
 Hypotheses(Cont)

Module 7.1 – Bus protection.

Sub-module 7.1 – Bus protection - High Impedance
Bus Differential Relay

Fig.7.6 – High impedance differential protection

 Hypotheses(Cont)

Module 7.1 – Bus protection.

Sub-module 7.1 – Bus protection - High Impedance Bus
Differential Relay
 The application of high impedance bus differential relay assists
in ensuring that external bus faults do not activate the system.
 It has been most successful with traditional electromechanical
and solid-state relay.
 Based upon following thinking:
 If you cannot beat CT saturation, exploit it!
 In fact, this is now a well-accepted principle in theory of systematic
innovation, also known as TRIZ (a Russian acronym)
 One innovative way to problem solving is to exploit the harm:
 Hypotheses(Cont)

Module 7.1 – Bus protection.

Sub-module 7.1 – Bus protection - High Impedance
Bus Differential Relay
 “If you cannot undo the harm, stretch the harm to the
extreme and then exploit it to your advantage".
 Saturated CT core acts like an air core device.
 Coupling btwn primary and secondary negligible.
 Impedance offered by CT as seen from the CT
secondary terminals very low and equals the
impedance of the CT secondary winding.
 Hypotheses(Cont)

Module 7.1 – Bus protection.

Sub-module 7.1 – Bus protection - High Impedance Bus
Differential Relay
 CT no longer current source with high impedance shunt but
plain low impedance path.
 Significant increase in the impedance of the relay element
which was to carry the differential current implies that the sum
of all the CT secondary currents (except for the saturated CT)
will be diverted into the low impedance path of saturated CT's
secondary.
 Thus differential current would be negligible and hence
protection system will not operate as shown by Fig.7.6
 Thus the saturation of CT itself has been used for saving
a false operation.
 Hypotheses(Cont)

Module 7.1 – Bus protection.

Sub-module 7.1 – Bus protection - High Impedance Bus
Differential Relay
 However numerical relays offer a low impedance path.
 This scheme of differential bus bar protection cannot be
replicated with numerical relays.
 With numerical relays the busbar protection has to be
very fast and to achieve this, decision making must be
completed before the CT saturates.
 It must be remembered that the saturation of a CT is
primarily a consequence of DC offset current.
 Hypotheses(Cont)

Module 7.1 – Bus protection.

Sub-module 7.1 – Bus protection - High Impedance Bus
Differential Relay
 CT core saturation time partly depends on time constant
(L/R) of transmission line.
 A protection system that makes a trip decision before the
onset of CT core saturation is reliable.
 Numerical relaying based bus bar protection is
expected to operate very fast within a quarter of a
cycle.
 The speed versus accuracy conflict requires good system
design to ensure that despite the speed, accuracy is still
retained.
 Hypotheses(Cont)

Module 7.1 – Bus protection.

Sub-module 7.1 – Bus protection - Nonlinear %

Differential Characteristics
• If the CT core saturation factor could be discounted
for, then we could use constant % differential
characteristic for bus bar differential protection.
• Then the CT can be modelled as a scaled current source
due to transformation ratio in parallel with magnetizing
impedance (Norton's equivalent).
 Hypotheses(Cont)

Module 7.1 – Bus protection.

Sub-module 7.1 – Bus protection - Nonlinear %

Differential Characteristics
• However, the magnetizing impedance itself is nonlinear.
• It is large when CT core is not saturated and small
when CT core is saturated.
• The current in this branch directly contributes to the
differential current.
 Hypotheses(Cont)

Module 7.1 – Bus protection.

Sub-module 7.1 – Bus protection - Nonlinear %

Differential Characteristics
• This suggests that % differential characteristics should be
modified to have higher slopes to take care of CT
saturation.
• A fast protection scheme can be devised by instantaneous
sample based differential protection scheme.
 Hypotheses(Cont)

Module 7.1 – Bus protection.

Sub-module 7.1 – Bus protection - Nonlinear %

Differential Characteristics
• However a phasor summation scheme will be
inherently slower as correct phasor estimates will have
to wait until the moving window is totally populated
with post fault current samples.
• One way out of this problem/complication is to use a
smaller data window such as 3 sample window.
 Hypotheses(Cont)

Module 7.1 – Bus protection.

Sub-module 7.1 – Bus protection - Nonlinear % Differential

Characteristics
• We know that the comparison scheme-based computation
of instantaneous samples can be error prone due to noise
transient related problem.
• Reliability is obtained by ensuring that consistent differential
current should be obtained.
• A transient monitor function can be used to check that.
• A transient counter is initialized to zero.
 Hypotheses(Cont)

Module 7.1 – Bus protection.

Sub-module 7.1 – Bus protection - Nonlinear % Differential

Characteristics
• If a fault is detected due to presence of differential current,
then counter is incremented.
• And if counter is greater than zero, and no fault is detected
(small enough differential current magnitude) then counter is
decremented.

• .
 Hypotheses(Cont)

Module 7.1 – Bus protection.

Sub-module 7.1 – Bus protection - Nonlinear %

Differential Characteristics
• If the counter crosses a preset threshold value, trip
decision is implemented.
• However this scheme will not trip on transient.
• However, in addition to internal faults, it will also trip on
external fault.
 Hypotheses(Cont)

Module 7.1 – Bus protection.

Sub-module 7.1 – Bus protection - Nonlinear %

Differential Characteristics

• For this purpose, the differential protection relay also must

have an inbuilt feature to detect CT saturation.
• One way to detect CT core saturation is based on
measuring current change in consecutive samples with the
expected sinusoidal signal model.
 Hypotheses(Cont)

Module 7.1 – Bus protection.

Sub-module 7.1 – Bus protection - Nonlinear %

Differential Characteristics
• A change much beyond the expected change in sinusoidal
model indicates CT core saturation.
• Many more schemes can be thought out to detect CT
saturation and students are encouraged to read widely on
the subject.
 Hypotheses(Cont)

Module 7.1 – Bus protection.

Sub-module 7.1 – Bus protection.

Fig.7.7
 Hypotheses(Cont)

Module 7.1 – Bus protection.

Discussions
 Hypotheses(Cont)

Module 7.2 – Transformer

protection
Sub-module 7.2 – Transformer protection.
a) Selection of CT ratios for differential protection
application.
b) Percentage differential protection.
c) Magnetizing inrush current and its complications.
d) Detection of inrush current and over-excitation current
e) Different restraint schemes in use.
f) Applications for 3-phase transformers.
 Hypotheses(Cont)

Module 7.2 – Transformer

protection
Sub-module 7.2 – Transformer protection -
Introduction.

Fig. 7.8 – Off nominal tap setting of transformer

 Hypotheses(Cont)

Module 7.2 – Transformer

protection
Sub-module 7.2 – Transformer protection -
Introduction.
 Differential protection of transformer involves establishing
circulating current through a pair of matched CTs installed
on the primary and secondary winding of the transformer.
 If there is no internal fault in the transformer, zero current
flows through the differential overcurrent element.
 Hypotheses(Cont)

Module 7.2 – Transformer

protection
Sub-module 7.2 – Transformer protection -
Introduction.
 However, in case of an internal fault, the CT secondary
currents are not matched and hence the differential current
Id is not zero.
 This causes the overcurrent element to pick up and operate
the circuit breakers to isolate the transformer.
 Hypotheses(Cont)

Module 7.2 – Transformer

protection
Sub-module 7.2 – Transformer protection –
Introduction – Selection of CT Ratio
 Let the transformer CT ratio – N1/N2 and corresponding
CT ratio by 1:n1 and 1:n2 as in Fig.7.8
 Current in CT - 1 primary = I1
 Current in CT-1 secondary = I1/n1
 Current in CT-2 primary = N1I1/N2
 Current in CT-2 secondary = N1I1/N2n2
 Hypotheses(Cont)

Module 7.2 – Transformer

protection
Sub-module 7.2 – Transformer protection – Introduction –
Selection of CT Ratio
 If there is no fault, then with proper connections account for
the CT polarity, we should obtain circulatory current through
CT secondary.
 Hence i1 = i2
 Therefore I1/n1 = N1I1/N2n2 or N2n2 = N1n1
 If the transformer (to be protected) is working on tap T as
shown in Fig. 7.8, then the above equality must be modified as
follows: N1n1 = N2n2T
 Hypotheses(Cont)

Module 7.2 – Transformer

protection
Sub-module 7.2 – Transformer protection – Introduction –
Selection of CT Ratio - Example
 Question:
 Let the primary of the transformer winding has 1000 turns while
secondary has 500 turns. If the primary CT ratio is 100:5, find the CT
ratio required in the secondary side to establish circulatory current
scheme.
 Answer:
 N1 = 1000; N2=500; n1=20
 Hence n2=N1n1/N2 = 1000 x20/500 = 40
 Thus a suitable secondary CT ratio will be 200:5
 Hypotheses(Cont)

Module 7.2 – Transformer

protection
Sub-module 7.2 – Transformer protection – Introduction –
Remark 1
 ‘Odd turns ratio' in primary, may render identification of
matching CTs on the secondary impossible.
 Thus ‘auxiliary CTs' are employed on primary or secondary (or
both sides) to obtain circulatory currents in absence of
internal faults.
 Primary of the auxiliary CT is connected in series with
secondary of main CT.
 Secondary of auxiliary CT participates in the circulating
current scheme.
 Hypotheses(Cont)

Module 7.2 – Transformer

protection
Sub-module 7.2 – Transformer protection – Introduction –
Remark 2
 Circulating current scheme in preceding slide traditionally used
with electromechanical and solid-state relays.
 Such physical connections not necessary with numerical relays
 Given turns ratio N1:N2 and CTs ratio 1:n1 and 1:n2, the
expected current in secondary of transformer (in absence of
internal fault) can be determined.
 In numerical relays, auxiliary CTs become redundant and the
transformer connections are simplified drastically.
 Hypotheses(Cont)

Module 7.2 – Transformer

protection
Sub-module 7.2 – Transformer protection –
Introduction – Remark 2
 Numerical relaying eliminates most hardware connections
and circulatory currents all of which are accounted for in
software.
 Further, with digital protection systems differential
protection can be implemented by either 'sample by
sample' comparison or by first computing the phasors and
then comparing them.
 Hypotheses(Cont)

Module 7.2 – Transformer

protection
Sub-module 7.2 – Transformer protection –
Introduction – Remark 2
 Phasor computation approach will involve a delay equal
to the time required for moving window to latch on to post
fault phasor.
 Conversely, 'sample by sample' comparison approach can
be faster but it is more prone to picking up to noise or
transients.
 Hypotheses(Cont)

Module 7.2 – Transformer

protection
Sub-module 7.2 – Transformer protection – Introduction –
Remark 2
 A 'polling scheme‘ can be used to slow down the fast
response.
 In this scheme, we increment a counter, whenever large
enough differential is detected.
 If counter is positive and differential is below threshold, we
decrement the counter.
 If the counter 'ensures as threshold, a trip decision is issued.
 Hypotheses(Cont)

Module 7.2 – Transformer protection

Sub-module 7.2 – Transformer protection.

Fig. 7.9 – Differential protection of delta- star 3-phase

transformer
 Hypotheses(Cont)

Module 7.2 – Transformer

protection
Sub-module 7.2 – Transformer protection – Remark 3
– Differential protection of delta/star – 3-phase
transformer.
 For 3-phase transformers, the transformer connections like
Y-Y or Y-D also play a role in determining CT secondary
interconnections to establish circulating current scheme.
 This is because of the phase shifts typically of the order of
+/-30o that result in the line currents when we move
from primary to secondary side of the power transformer.
 Hypotheses(Cont)

Module 7.2 – Transformer

protection
Sub-module 7.2 – Transformer protection – Remark 3 –
Differential protection of delta/star – 3-phase transformer.
 Fig 7.9 shows the typical connections for star-delta
transformer bank for establishing the circulatory currents.
 The study of the circuit brings out the following important
rule for interconnection of CT secondary for D-Y
transformers: “If the power transformer winding are
connected in Y configuration, use D configuration
for corresponding CT secondary interconnections" (and
vice-versa).
 Hypotheses(Cont)

Module 7.2 – Transformer

protection
Sub-module 7.2 – Remark 4
 With numerical relays such interconnection complexity can
be easily handled in software.
 After, specifying the turns ratio and the phase shift from
primary to secondary, it should be possible to work out the
expected secondary differential current by simple
calculation.
 Hypotheses(Cont)

Module 7.2 – Transformer

protection
Sub-module 7.2 – Transformer protection - Role of
Percentage Differential Protection

Fig. 7.10 – Percentage differential protection scheme

 Hypotheses(Cont)

Module 7.2 – Transformer

protection
Sub-module 7.2 – Transformer protection -Role of
Percentage Differential Protection .
 The ideal transformer has been the subject of our
discussion.
 In practice transformers and CTs pose additional challenge
to protection.
 Primary of transformer carries no load current(I) with
secondary open circuit resulting differential current on
which the protection scheme should not operate.
 Hypotheses(Cont)

Module 7.2 – Transformer

protection
Sub-module 7.2 – Transformer protection -Role of
Percentage Differential Protection .
 Exact matching of the CT ratio is impractical.
 Exact matching will also lead to differential currents under
healthy conditions.
 If transformer is used with an off nominal tap, then
differential currents will arise even under healthy conditions.
 In numerical protection scheme, tap position can be read and
appropriate adjustments effected.
 Thus numerical protection scheme is made adaptive.
 Hypotheses(Cont)

Module 7.2 – Transformer

protection
Sub-module 7.2 – Transformer protection -Role of
Percentage Differential Protection .
 To prevent the differential protection scheme from picking up
under such conditions, a percentage differential protection
scheme is used as in Fig.7.10.
 This scheme greatly improves security at the cost of sensitivity.
 An offset of Im to account for the no load current is
introduced.
 The current on the x- axis is the average current of primary
and secondary winding referred to primary.
 Hypotheses(Cont)

Module 7.2 – Transformer

protection
Sub-module 7.2 – Transformer protection -Role of
Percentage Differential Protection .
 Refer to Fig.7.10
 It indicates the restraining current while the corresponding
difference on Y- axis represents the differential current.
 The differential protection will pick up if magnitude of
differential current is more than a fixed percentage of the
restraining current.
 Hypotheses(Cont)

Module 7.2 – Transformer

protection
Sub-module 7.2 – Transformer protection - Complications
of Magnetizing Inrush

Fig. 7.11 – Circuit for magnetizing inrush phenomenon

 Hypotheses(Cont)

Module 7.2 – Transformer

protection
Sub-module 7.2 – Transformer protection - Complications
of Magnetizing Inrush.
 It can also be shown that even percentage differential
protection scheme may misclassify the inrush current as fault
current.
 During inrush, secondary current is negligible (zero if
secondary is open circuited), while primary current can be as
high as 10 - 20 times the full load current.
 Thus, some kind of restraint function is required to
inhibit the pickup on inrush.
 Hypotheses(Cont)

Module 7.2 – Transformer

protection
Sub-module 7.2 – Transformer protection -
Complications of Magnetizing Inrush.
 Traditionally, this restraint is based upon second
harmonic content in primary which discriminates a fault
from the inrush condition.
 Alternatives in numerical relaying also include voltage
restraint used in integrated substation protection scheme
and flux restraint scheme.
 Hypotheses(Cont)

Module 7.2 – Transformer

protection
Sub-module 7.2 – Transformer protection -
Complications of Magnetizing Inrush.
 Before, discussing these schemes further, we will review the
origin of magnetizing inrush phenomenon.
 Refer to Fig.7.11 for circuit diagram showing magnetizing
inrush phenomenon and the main switch is closed at t = 0.
 By Faraday's law, we have equations in the next slide.
 Hypotheses(Cont)

Module 7.2 – Transformer

protection
Sub-module 7.2 – Transformer protection -
Complications of Magnetizing Inrush.
 with

 and
 Hypotheses(Cont)

Module 7.2 – Transformer

protection
Sub-module 7.2 – Transformer protection – Complication of
magnetizing inrush

Fig. 7.12 – 6 flux wave form during inrush with angle = 0

 Hypotheses(Cont)

Module 7.2 – Transformer

protection
Sub-module 7.2 – Transformer protection -
Complication of magnetizing inrush
 To make analysis simple it can be assumed thatcore is
initially demagnetized.
 Then, the post energization flux wave form in the core
is shown in Fig. 7.12
 Hypotheses(Cont)

Module 7.2 – Transformer

protection
Sub-module 7.2 – Transformer protection – Steady state
analysis.

Fig. 7.13 – Steady state behavior of flux

 Hypotheses(Cont)

Module 7.2 – Transformer

protection
Sub-module 7.2 – Transformer protection –
Magnetizing inrush Steady state analysis..
 This wave form is quite different from what we obtain by
steady state analysis as shown in Fig 7.13.
 During steady state analysis, we can replace by d/dt by
and the corresponding steady state phasor equation is given
as shown in the next slide.
 Hypotheses(Cont)

Module 7.2 – Transformer

protection
Sub-module 7.2 – Transformer protection –
Magnetizing inrush Steady state analysis.

i.e,

and

 Thus it is clear that peak flux during energization is

twice as high as the steady state peak sinusoidal value.
 Hypotheses(Cont)

Module 7.2 – Transformer

protection
Sub-module 7.2 – Transformer protection – Magnetizing inrush
Steady state analysis.
 Depending upon the residual flux, it can be even higher. Now A =
Φm/Bknee where Bknee is the point flux density of core.
 Thus, during energization, the core is driven deep into saturation.
 The resulting H and hence magnetizing current can be very high (up
to 20 times full load current).
 This current is known as inrush current of transformer.
 So far, we have assumed Φ(0) = 0 but in general it depends on the
remnant flux in the core and H can be between – Φm and +Φm
 Hypotheses(Cont)

Module 7.2 – Transformer

protection
Sub-module 7.2 – Transformer protection –
Magnetizing inrush Steady state analysis.
 Therefore Φmax during energization will vary from
Φm to 3Φm as in Fig. 7.14
 Hypotheses(Cont)

Module 7.2 – Transformer

protection
Sub-module 7.2 – Transformer protection – Complications
of Magnetizing .
 Our analysis in Fig.7.12 show that flux and current wave
shape should persist till infinity i.e. it should represent the
steady state flux and current waveform in the core.
 However, we also know that steady state flux and current
waveform is as per Fig.7.13.
 The simplifying assumptions that the core is ideal, and the
winding is non resistive explains the discrepancy
 Hypotheses(Cont)

Module 7.2 – Transformer

protection
Sub-module 7.2 – Transformer protection – Complications of
Magnetizing .
 Assume winding resistance also modelled in the transformer, during
inrush, then the voltage available at the ideal transformer primary
terminals would reduce drastically due to large voltage drop.
 Thus the flux in the core is greatly reduced.
 As the flux in the core reduces, magnetizing current will follow the
same trend.
 The peak of the magnetization current will gradually decrease every
cycle and the magnetizing current and flux would finally approach
the one produced by steady state phasor equation
 Hypotheses(Cont)

Module 7.2 – Transformer

protection
Sub-module 7.2 – Transformer protection – Complications of
Magnetizing .
 This discussion is summarized below:
 Transformer when energized can be subjected to large inrush currents.
 Inrush current can trip differential protection of transformers.
 Some methodology to detect inrush has to be devised and
transformer differential protection has to be inhibited from tripping
during this condition.
 Detection of Inrush Current and Over-excitation Condition is
essential.
 Hypotheses(Cont)

Module 7.2 – Transformer

protection
Sub-module 7.2 – Transformer protection – Complications
of Magnetizing .
 Appreciable differential current can result due to either
inrush or over-excitation of transformer.
 When a transformer is overexcited, then from the
relationship V1 = 4.44N1fΦm, we can infer that peak
sinusoidal flux is large.
 This implies that transformer core will be driven into
saturation for an interval in each half cycle.
 Hypotheses(Cont)

Module 7.2 – Transformer protection

Sub-module 7.2 – Transformer protection –
Complications of Magnetizing .

Fig. 7.14 – Waveform of inrush current

 Hypotheses(Cont)

Module 7.2 – Transformer

protection
Sub-module 7.2 – Transformer protection –
Complications of Magnetizing .
 This saturation will cause a distortion from the
sinusoidal magnetization current.
 During saturation, the corresponding magnetizing
current can be quite large and on the resulting
differential the protection system may issue a trip
decision by confusing over-excitation for an internal
fault.
 Hypotheses(Cont)

Module 7.2 – Transformer

protection
Sub-module 7.2 – Transformer protection – Complications
of Magnetizing .
 Hence, in practice restraint has to be provided for both
over-excitation and inrush current condition.
 There are three possible ways in which restraint can be
achieved.
 Harmonic
 Voltage
 Flux
 Hypotheses(Cont)

Module 7.2 – Transformer

protection
Sub-module 7.2 – Transformer protection – Complications
of Magnetizing – Methods for provision of restraint –
Harmonic restraint
 Current waveform analysis shows that:
 Inrush current - Rich in 2nd harmonic.
 Current due to over fluxing – Rich in 5th harmonic.
 Thus, if we compute the 2nd and 5th harmonic current in Id
= I1-I2, then, we can provide following logic for restraining
operation of differential protection.
 Hypotheses(Cont)

Module 7.2 – Transformer

protection
Sub-module 7.2 – Transformer protection – Complications of
Magnetizing – Methods for provision of restraint – Harmonic
restraint
 Restrain operation of differential protection under the following
four conditions:
 Condition 1:
 |I1-I2| < Alpha for restrain(No load magnetization current)
 Condition 2:
 |(I1-I2)/2|<Beta(I1+I2)/2| (where Beta is slope of the %
differential characteristics)
 Hypotheses(Cont)

Module 7.2 – Transformer

protection
Sub-module 7.2 – Transformer protection – Complications
of Magnetizing – Methods for provision of restraint –
Harmonic restraint
 Condition 3:
 |(IdH2|> Lumda x Id (For restraining inrush current) (IdH2
is the magnitude of the second harmonic)
 Condition 4:
 (IdH5|> Delta x |Id| (For restraining over-excitation) (IdH5
is the magnitude of the fifth harmonic)
 Hypotheses(Cont)

Module 7.2 – Transformer

protection
Sub-module 7.2 – Transformer protection –
Complications of Magnetizing – Methods for provision
of restraint – Harmonic restraint
 Typically, IdH5 and angle γ are the percentage
harmonic restraint and would depend upon type of
transformer and steel.
 For numerical relays, the design of anti-aliasing filters
also affects the choice of above parameters.
 Hypotheses(Cont)

Module 7.2 – Transformer

protection
Sub-module 7.2 – Transformer protection –
Complications of Magnetizing – Methods for provision
of restraint – Harmonic restraint
 During any transient or fault condition, harmonics
develop more rapidly than fundamental necessitating
thus indirectly restraining the numerical relays
 Typical setting for angle γ used in practice are 10, 20
or 30%.
 Hypotheses(Cont)

Module 7.2 – Transformer

protection
Sub-module 7.2 – Transformer protection – Complications
of Magnetizing – Methods for provision of restraint –
Voltage based restraint
 For integrated substation protection system, bus voltage
measurement for transformer protection is obtained from
the bus VT at no extra VT cost.
 This voltage measurement can be used to restrain the
operation of differential protection scheme on inrush or
over-excitation.
 Hypotheses(Cont)

Module 7.2 – Transformer

protection
Sub-module 7.2 – Transformer protection –
Complications of Magnetizing – Methods for provision
of restraint – Voltage based restraint
 Voltage based restraint also referred to as “tripping
suppressor” as it suppresses tripping function.
 If the voltage signal is high, the relay is restrained
under the conditions detailed in the next slide:
 Hypotheses(Cont)

Module 7.2 – Transformer

protection
Sub-module 7.2 – Transformer protection – Complications of
Magnetizing – Methods for provision of restraint – Voltage
based restraint
 |Id|<α or |Id|< ß x |Ir| or |V|> δ or |tv|> p
 ‘tv is is known as the transient monitor function
 The transient monitor function is used to qualify the purity of
data.
 Typically, in a numerical relaying set up, with moving window
algorithm, there are a certain number of windows in which both
pre-fault and post-fault data points are present.
 Hypotheses(Cont)

Module 7.2 – Transformer

protection
Sub-module 7.2 – Transformer protection – Complications of
Magnetizing – Methods for provision of restraint – Voltage
based restraint
 Any phasor computation done with them is meaningless because
the window does not fit with either pre-fault or post-fault signal.
 Under such condition, the residual error ri ( ith sample) between
estimated (reconstructed) and measured signal is quite high.
 For a half cycle window with 6 samples in it, .
 When tv is greater than threshold value n , then tripping decision
should be inhibited.
 Hypotheses(Cont)

Module 7.2 – Transformer

protection
Sub-module 7.2 – Transformer protection - Complications of Magnetizing – Methods for provision of restraint –
Flux restraint

Fig. 7.15 – Current plane for transformer protection

 Hypotheses(Cont)

Module 7.2 – Transformer

protection
Sub-module 7.2 – Transformer protection - Complications
of Magnetizing – Methods for provision of restraint – Flux
restraint
 Fig 7.15 shows the flux current plane associated with no fault
and internal fault regions.
 It is difficult to evaluate the actual flux in the core, because the
initial condition is unknown.
 It depends also upon the remnant flux.
 Fortunately, to distinguish no fault (or external fault) from the
internal fault, we are interested in the slope of A – id curve
rather than the actual values
 Hypotheses(Cont)

Module 7.2 – Transformer

protection
Sub-module 7.2 – Transformer protection -
Complications of Magnetizing – Methods for provision
of restraint – Flux restraint
 This can be easily worked out as follows.
 Let the voltage at the terminal of the transformer be v(t),
current i(t) and let L be the leakage inductance of the
winding.
 If we neglect the resistance of the winding, then the next
slide details the resulting equations:
 Hypotheses(Cont)

Module 7.2 – Transformer

protection
Sub-module 7.2 – Transformer protection -
Complications of Magnetizing – Methods for provision
of restraint – Flux restraint

and using the trapezoidal rule for integration then

 Hypotheses(Cont)

Module 7.2 – Transformer

protection
Sub-module 7.2 – Transformer protection -
Complications of Magnetizing – Methods for provision
of restraint – Flux restraint
 From equations in slide 94 the following generic
relationship can be deduced:
 Hypotheses(Cont)

Module 7.2 – Transformer

protection
Sub-module 7.2 – Transformer protection -
Complications of Magnetizing – Methods for provision
of restraint – Flux restraint
 Operation on the unsaturated region of magnetizing
curve produces large values of slope
 Since the fault or over-excitation(saturated) region
have smaller slopes, we can distinguish
 Hypotheses(Cont)

Module 7.2 – Transformer

protection
Sub-module 7.2 – Transformer protection -
Complications of Magnetizing – Methods for provision
of restraint – Flux restraint
 Internal fault from saturation condition by following
counter scheme.
 If current differential indicates trip and then
increment counter
 Hypotheses(Cont)

Module 7.2 – Transformer

protection
Sub-module 7.2 – Transformer protection -
Complications of Magnetizing – Methods for provision
of restraint – Flux restraint

 Elser if kr > 0 and then

 Else if and then

 Hypotheses(Cont)

Module 7.2 – Transformer

protection
Sub-module 7.2 – Transformer protection - Complications of Magnetizing –
Methods for provision of restraint – Flux restraint
 If there is an internal fault in the system, then kr will monotonically
increase and once kr crosses a known threshold, trip decision will be
issued.
 On the other hand, during inrush or over excitation the will alternate
between low slope and high slope region depending upon whether the core
is in saturation or not.
 Thus, the counter kr will indicate a small tooth kind of behavior with kr max
being below the threshold value.
 Hence, operation of the different protection scheme would be restrained in
this region.
 Hypotheses(Cont)

Module 7.2 – Transformer

protection
Sub-module 7.2 – Transformer protection -
Complications of Magnetizing – Methods for provision
of restraint – Flux restraint
 Remark 5: We have illustrated the basic principle so
far using a single-phase transformer for simplicity.
 However, in practice, we use both three phase two
winding and three phase three winding (primary,
secondary, and tertiary) transformers.
 Hypotheses(Cont)

Module 7.2 – Transformer

protection
Sub-module 7.2 – Transformer protection - Complications
of Magnetizing – Methods for provision of restraint – Flux
restraint
 The basic principle of differential protection is the same,
but we now must scale up to multiple phases.
 For a three phase (two winding) transformer, there would
be 3 trip currents (one per phase) and three
restraining currents (one per phase).
 For three phase three winding transformers, two
restraining per phase are required.
 Hypotheses(Cont)

Module 7.2 – Transformer

protection
Discussions
.
 Hypotheses(Cont)

Module 7.3 – Generator protection.

Sub-module 7.3 – Generator protection.

a) Internal fault eg LLG, phase and ground faults.
b) Abnormal operations – Overload, under-frequency,
unbalanced generator etc.
c) Numerical protection issues.
 Hypotheses(Cont)

Module 7.3 – Generator protection.

Sub-module 7.3 – Generator protection - Introduction

 Generator protection and control are interdependent
problems.
 A generator has to be protected not only from electrical
faults (stator and rotor faults) and mechanical problems
(e.g. Related to turbine, boilers etc), but it also has to be
protected from adverse system interaction arising like
generator going on out of step with the rest of system,
loss of field winding etc.
 Hypotheses(Cont)

Module 7.3 – Generator protection.

Sub-module 7.3 – Generator protection - Introduction

 Under certain situations like internal faults, the generator
must be quickly isolated (shut down), while problems
like loss of field problem requires an ‘alarm' to alert
the operator.
 The next slides is a descriptive list of internal faults and
abnormal operating conditions.
 Hypotheses(Cont)

Module 7.3 – Generator protection.

Sub-module 7.3 – Generator protection - Introduction

 Internal Faults
 Phase and /or ground faults in the stator and associated
protection zone
 Ground faults in the rotor (field winding)
 Abnormal Operating Conditions
 Overload.
 Overvoltage.
 Hypotheses(Cont)

Module 7.3 – Generator protection.

Sub-module 7.3 – Generator protection - Introduction

 Loss of field.
 Unbalanced Operation e.g. single phasing.
 Under and over frequency.
 Motoring or loss of prime mover.
 Sub-synchronous oscillation.
 Loss of synchronization (out of step).
 Hypotheses(Cont)

Module 7.3 – Generator protection.

Sub-module 7.3 – Generator protection - Multi – CT

Differential Protection for Generators

Fig. 7.16 – Differential protection of star connected generator

 Module 7.3 – Generator protection.

Sub-module 7.3 – Generator protection - Multi – CT Differential

Protection for Generators

Fig, 7.17 – Differential protection of delta connected generator

 Hypotheses(Cont)

Module 7.3 – Generator protection.

Sub-module 7.3 – Generator protection – star and delta

connected generator - Multi – CT Differential
Protection for Generators
 Typical interconnections for differential protection of
connected generators is shown in Fig.7.16
 With a numerical relay, the circulatory current as shown in
Fig 7.16 & 17 is not be hard wired.
 Instead, equivalent computations can be done in
microprocessor.
 Hypotheses(Cont)

Module 7.3 – Generator protection.

Sub-module 7.3 – Generator protection – star and delta connected

generator - Multi – CT Differential Protection for Generators
 Differential protection requires CTs from same same manufacturer
with identical turns ratio to minimize CT mismatch.
 To improve security, percentage differential protection is preferred.
 The accuracy of the differential protection for generators is
expected to be better than that of differential protection for
transformers, as issues like over-fluxing, magnetizing inrush, no
load current and different voltage rating of primary and
secondary are non – existent.
 Hypotheses(Cont)

Module 7.3 – Generator protection.

Sub-module 7.3 – Generator protection – Stator ground

fault protection

7.18 – Ground(zero-sequence) differential protection for a generator

 Hypotheses(Cont)

Module 7.3 – Generator protection.

Sub-module 7.3 – Generator protection - Stator

Ground Fault Protection
 Insulation failure is largest failure cause in generators.
 They may lead to turn – to – turn faults and/or ground
faults.
 Thus ground fault protection is very critical for generators.
 Hypotheses(Cont)

Module 7.3 – Generator protection.

Sub-module 7.3 – Generator protection - Stator

Ground Fault Protection
 Three types of grounding schemes are used in
practice
 Fault Protection with high impedance grounding.
 Fault protection with low impedance grounding.
 Hybrid grounding.
 Hypotheses(Cont)

Module 7.3 – Generator protection.

Sub-module 7.3 – Generator protection - Stator

Ground Fault Protection - High Impedance Grounding
 Limits the maximum fault current due to fault in winding
near generator terminals to 1 – 10 A primary.
 Reduces iron burning in the generator thus preventing
costly repairs.
 Hypotheses(Cont)

Module 7.3 – Generator protection.

Sub-module 7.3 – Generator protection - Stator

Ground Fault Protection - High Impedance Grounding
 Fig 7.18 above shows a typical circuit connection for high
impedance grounding.
 High impedance grounding reduces sensitivity for
both feeder ground protection and differential protection
in the stators of the generators.
 Alternative to high impedance grounding is low impedance
grounding.
 Hypotheses(Cont)

Module 7.3 – Generator protection.

Sub-module 7.3 – Generator protection - Stator

Ground Fault Protection - Low Impedance Grounding
 The advantage of low impedance grounding is improved
sensitivity of the protection.
 However, if the fault is not cleared quickly, the damage to
equipment can be much higher.
 It is possible to engineer ground (zero sequence)
differential protection using a directional ground
overcurrent relaying as shown in Fig. 7.18
 Hypotheses(Cont)

Module 7.3 – Generator protection.

Sub-module 7.3 – Generator protection - Stator

Ground Fault Protection - Low Impedance Grounding
 The basic idea is to compare the sum of terminal
current with neutral current.
 If the two are identical, there is no internal ground fault.
 Conversely, a differential in the two quantities indicates an
internal ground fault on the generator.
 Hypotheses(Cont)

Module 7.3 – Generator protection.

Sub-module 7.3 – Generator protection - Reduced or

Loss of Excitation Protection - What is it?
 Reduction or loss of excitation to the field winding is an
abnormality rather than a fault.
 If the field winding is completely lost, then in principle,
synchronous generator will try to mimic an induction
generator.
 Hypotheses(Cont)

Module 7.3 – Generator protection.

Sub-module 7.3 – Generator protection - Reduced or

Loss of Excitation Protection - What is it?
 The induction generator mode of operation is possible if
power system to which generator is connected is strong
enough to provide necessary reactive power support.
 Recall that an induction generator has no field winding and
hence it cannot generate reactive power.
 Hypotheses(Cont)

Module 7.3 – Generator protection.

Sub-module 7.3 – Generator protection - Reduced or

Loss of Excitation Protection - What is it?
 If adequate reactive power support is not available (a
strong possibility!), then the generator will have to be shut
down.
 It is likely that field winding will be accidentally shut off
and usually loss of synchronism will require appreciable
time to take effect.
 Hence, it is preferable to first raise an alarm for operator to
restore field, failing which, generator must be shut down.
 Hypotheses(Cont)

Module 7.3 – Generator protection.

Sub-module 7.3 – Generator protection

7.19 – Capability curve of a generator

 Hypotheses(Cont)

Module 7.3 – Generator protection.

Sub-module 7.3 – Generator protection - Reduced or

Loss of Excitation Protection Consequences.
 With reduced insight, the consequence of reduced
excitation may not appear to be dramatic, but it can lead to
end-region over-heating in turbo-alternators.
 Hence, this abnormality must be detected, and an alarm
must be raised for the operator.
 Hypotheses(Cont)

Module 7.3 – Generator protection.

Sub-module 7.3 – Generator protection - Reduced or

Loss of Excitation Protection Consequences.
 The ultimate measure would be to shut down the
generator.
 Fig 7.19 shows the reactive power capability curve of a
generator.
 In the lagging power factor- operating region, limits are
determined either by rotor field heating limit or by stator
armature heating limit.
 Hypotheses(Cont)

Module 7.3 – Generator protection.

Sub-module 7.3 – Generator protection.

7.20 – Mapping of capability curve on R-X Plane

 Hypotheses(Cont)

Module 7.3 – Generator protection.

Sub-module 7.3 – Generator protection - Reduced or Loss

of Excitation Protection – Consequences(cont)
 Turbo-alternators may not have adequate reactive power
absorption capability.
 Hence, they are seldom operated with leading power
factor.
 Typically, leading power factor operation of generators
results when the field excitation is reduced.
 Hence, limitations on the reactive power absorption capability
set a lower limit on the reduction on field excitation system as
in dotted line of Fig 7.20.
 Hypotheses(Cont)

Module 7.3 – Generator protection.

Sub-module 7.3 – Generator protection.

7.21 – Modelling of Generator excitation system

 Hypotheses(Cont)

Module 7.3 – Generator protection.

Sub-module 7.3 – Generator protection - Reduced or Loss

of Excitation Protection – Consequences(cont) – How?
 Protection system for synchronous generators should detect
reduced or loss of excitation condition, raise an alarm and if
the abnormality persists, trip the generator.
 This can be achieved by use of distance relays that are
installed at generator terminals.
 Thus the relays investigate the condition of the generator
directionally.
 Hypotheses(Cont)

Module 7.3 – Generator protection.

Sub-module 7.3 – Generator protection - Reduced or
Loss of Excitation Protection – Consequences(cont) –
How?
 In this current illustration, the capability curve is interpreted
on the R-X plane.
 If the complex power generated is given by P+jQ then the
apparent impedance seen by the distance relay installed on
the generator terminals is given by -
 Hypotheses(Cont)

Module 7.3 – Generator protection.

Sub-module 7.3 – Generator protection - Reduced or Loss of
Excitation Protection – Consequences(cont) – How?
 To simplify analysis, impedance has been referred to the
primary side.
 Fig 7.20 shows the capability curve transferred to R-X plane.
 To protect the generator two distance relays and directional
units are used.
 To protect generator against complete loss of field, inner circle
is used.
 The relay operates when the impedance vector moves into this
circle.
 Hypotheses(Cont)

Module 7.3 – Generator protection.

Sub-module 7.3 – Generator protection - Reduced or
Loss of Excitation Protection – Consequences(cont) –
How?
 Operating time of about 0.2 to 0.3 seconds are used with a
complete shutdown of the generator.
 The diameter of this circle is of the order of , with the
upper part of the circle 50-75% of below the origin.
 The larger circle is used to detect reduced or partial loss of
excitation system.
 Directional blinder may be used to limit pickup on normal
operating condition.
 Hypotheses(Cont)

Module 7.3 – Generator protection.

Sub-module 7.3 – Generator protection - Protection against

unbalanced operation.
 In practice generator is connected to grid using a transformer.
 Windings on the generator side, traps the zero-sequence current from
flowing through the phase winding.
 But positive and negative sequence currents flow into the stator
winding.
 Positive sequence currents cannot discriminate between balanced and
unbalanced operating conditions.
 However negative sequence currents clearly indicate the abnormality.
 Hypotheses(Cont)

Module 7.3 – Generator protection.

Sub-module 7.3 – Generator protection - Protection

against unbalanced operation.
 Negative currents flow can be used as an effective
discriminant for unbalanced system operation.
 Negative sequence currents create an mmf wave in
opposite direction to the direction of rotation of rotor.
 Hence, it sweeps across the rotor induces second harmonic
currents in rotor, which can cause severe overheating and
ultimately, the melting of the wedges in the air gap.
 Hypotheses(Cont)

Module 7.3 – Generator protection.

Sub-module 7.3 – Generator protection - Generator

Motoring: why and how?
 If the mechanical input to the prime mover is removed
while the generator is in service, then rotors mmf wave will
tend to drive the rotor, just like an induction motor.
 This is dangerous to both steam and hydro turbine.
 Hypotheses(Cont)

Module 7.3 – Generator protection.

Sub-module 7.3 – Generator protection - Generator

Motoring: why and how?
 In steam turbines, it may lead to overheating while in
hydro turbine it would cause cavitation of the turbine
blades.
 The motoring of generator can be detected by reverse
power flow relays having sensitivity of 0.5% of rated
power output with time delay of approximate 2 seconds.
 Hypotheses(Cont)

Module 7.3 – Generator protection.

Sub-module 7.3 – Generator protection - Over Voltage

Protection - How?
 On its face value, over voltage protection should be
straightforward.
 First, one should raise an alarm if the over voltage is above
110% of rated value.
 There would be a subsequent trip if it persists for 1 min or
more.
 Very large over voltages of the order of 120% of rated value
or above, will lead to trip within approximately 6 seconds.
 Hypotheses(Cont)

Module 7.3 – Generator protection.

Sub-module 7.3 – Generator protection - Over Voltage

Protection - Why?
 Terminal voltage of a generator is controlled by an automatic
voltage regulator (AVR).
 If the load current (I) on the generator reduces, the AVR
would automatically reduce the field current to reduce open
circuit emf E to maintain constant terminal voltage V.
 However, loss of a VT fuse, incorrect operation or setting of
AVR etc can lead to over voltage which is detrimental to the
generator.
 Hypotheses(Cont)

Module 7.3 – Generator protection.

Sub-module 7.3 – Generator protection - Over Voltage

Protection - Why?
 Steady state over voltage will lead to saturation of iron,
both for generator and the unit transformer connected to
it.
 This will lead to large magnetizing currents, unacceptable
flux patterns, over-heating, which can damage the power
apparatus.
 Hence, generators must be protected against overvoltage.
 Hypotheses(Cont)

Module 7.3 – Generator protection.

Sub-module 7.3 – Generator protection - V/f

Protection
 During start-up or shut down, the speed of the generator
will deviate significantly from the nominal speed.
 As per the emf equation, overfluxing of the core is not
simply a consequence of over voltages with respect to
nominal voltage.
 Hypotheses(Cont)

Module 7.3 – Generator protection.

Sub-module 7.3 – Generator protection - V/f

Protection
 Rather overfluxing occurs when V/f ratio exceeds its
nominal value.
 Hence, over voltage protection is implemented after
normalizing the terminal voltage by the frequency of the
generator.
 Hypotheses(Cont)

Module 7.3 – Generator protection.

Sub-module 7.3 – Generator protection - Out-of-Step

Protection
 With modern generators having large Xd and EHV
transmission having low reactance, it is likely that the
electrical center, a consequence of out-of step condition
would be within the generator step-up transformer unit.
 To detect this condition, distance relay looking into the
generator (or into the transformer-generator unit) should
be installed.
 Hypotheses(Cont)

Module 7.3 – Generator protection.

Sub-module 7.3 – Generator protection - Out-of-Step

Protection
 Even a distance relay used for loss-of-field protection will
pick-up on such power swing.
 If the swing moves out of the relay characteristic, before
the timer runs down, then, no trip action will be initiated.
 However, if the swing persists for sufficient time, the loss-
of- excitation distance relay will operate on power swing.
 Hypotheses(Cont)

Module 7.3 – Generator protection.

Sub-module 7.3 – Generator protection - A Note on

Numerical Protection
 The differential protection scheme can be implemented by
either using sample comparison (time domain approach) or by
using phasor comparison (frequency domain approach).
 Time domain approach can be faster, than phasor comparison
approach.
 The DFT approach with 1-cycle window will require one cycle
to latch on to the phasor.
 Usually, the time constant associated with DC offset currents
for generator faults will be large.
 Hypotheses(Cont)

Module 7.3 – Generator protection.

Sub-module 7.3 – Generator protection - A Note on

Numerical Protection
 Hence, decaying dc offset can be approximated by dc signal,
which implies the full cycle DFT will be able to reject it.
 However, with half-cycle estimation, mimic impedance should
be used.
 Sample comparison approach is immune to dc-offset problem
but building reliability with such an approach requires a
polling scheme.
 .
 Hypotheses(Cont)

Module 7.3 – Generator protection.

Sub-module 7.3 – Generator protection - A Note on

Numerical Protection
 In other words, reliability is obtained at the cost of time by
ascertaining that successive samples return the trip
decision.
 One can even implement a hybrid approach where in one
switch from time domain to frequency domain approach.
 The decision to switch will depend upon the speed of
rotation.
 Q&A

Questions & Answers