Mount Carmel College of Escalante, Inc.

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Subject ASTRONOMY Quarter Midterm

No.
Year BSED III Section
Level
Module Chapter 1
No. No.
Lesson Date 03-01-2023
No.

Learning At the end of the chapter, the students should be able to:
Goals
 To appreciate the age-old quest to understand our world and the
universe in which we live.

 To understand how and why the Sun, the Moon, and the Stars appear to
change their positions from night to night and from month to month.

 To recognize how the relative motions of the Earth, the Sun, and the
Moon lead to eclipses.

 To understand the simple geometric reasoning that allows astronomers

to measure the distances to faraway objects.

 To appreciate the importance of the scientific method in astronomy

INTRODUCTION TO ASTRONOMY:
Measuring the Universe
Subject: ASTRONOMY
Teacher: Carine Jade Tubongbanua
Contact #: 09954527536
Gmail Account: tubongbanuacarinejade@gmail
 Mount Carmel College of Escalante, Inc.
Carmelite Street, Escalante City
College Department

_____________________________________
Introduction

Nature offers no greater splendor than the starry sky on clear, dark night. Silent and
jeweled with the constellations of ancient myth and legend, the night sky has inspired wonder
throughout the ages- a wonder that leads our imaginations far from the confines of Earth and the
pace of the present day out into the distant reaches of space and cosmic time itself. Astronomy,
born in response to that wonder, is built on two of the most basic traits of human nature: the
need to explore and the need to understand. Through the interplay of curiosity, discovery, and
analysis- the key to exploration and understanding-people have sought answers to questions
about the universe since the earliest times. Astronomy is the oldest of all the sciences, and never
has it been more exciting than it is today.

__________________________________
PRE ACTIVITY
Read and answer carefully.

1. What is a constellation?
2. What does an astronomer mean by “the universe”?
3. What is parallax? Give an example.
4. What is the scientific method?
5. Why do we have seasons on Earth?

__________________________________
Discussion

Our Place in Space

Subject: ASTRONOMY
Teacher: Carine Jade Tubongbanua
Contact #: 09954527536
Gmail Account: tubongbanuacarinejade@gmail
Mount Carmel College of Escalante, Inc.
Carmelite Street, Escalante City
College Department

In all of human history, there have been only two periods in which our understanding of
the universe has been revolutionized within a single lifetime. The first occurred nearly four
centuries ago in the time of Galileo- the second is now underway. Our generation has broken
away from planet Earth and in doing so has achieved a whole new perspective on the universe in
which we live.
Of all the science accomplished to date, one result stands out boldly: Earth is neither
central nor special. We inhabit no unique place in the universe. Astronomical research, especially
within the past few decades, strongly suggests that we live on what seems to be in ordinary rocky
planet called Earth, one planet orbiting an average star called the Sun, on star near the edge of a
huge collection of stars called Milky Way Galaxy, one galaxy among countless billions of others
spread throughout the observable universe.
We are connected to these distant realms of space and time nit only by our imaginations,
but also through a common cosmic heritage: Most of the chemical elements in our bodies were
created billions of years ago in the hot centers of long-vanished stars. Their fuel supply spent,
these giant stars died in huge explosions, scattering afar the elements cooked deep within their
cores.
Eventually, this matter collected into clouds of gas that slowly collapsed to give birth to a
new generation of stars. In this way, the Sun and its family of planets were formed nearly 5
billion years ago. Everything on Earth embodies atoms from other parts of the universe and from
a past far more remote than the beginning of human evolution.
Although ours is the only planetary system we know of, others may orbit many of the
billions of stars in the universe. Elsewhere, other beings, perhaps with intelligence much greater
than our own, might at this very moment is gazing in wonder at their own nighttime sky. Our
own Sun might be nothing more than an insignificant points of light them, if it is visible at all. If
such being exist, they too must share our cosmic origin.

CONSTELLATIONS IN THE
SKY
Over the course of a clear night, we can see some 3000 points of light. Include
the view from the opposite side of Earth, and nearly 6000 star and visible to the unaided eye. A
natural human tendency is to see patterns, and so people connected the brightest stars into
configurations called constellations, which ancient astronomers named after mythological
beings, heroes, and animals- whatever was important to them. Constellation especially prominent
in the nighttime sky from October through March: the “hunter” named Orion. Orion was
mythical Greek hero famed for his great beauty and stature, his hunting prowess, and his
amorous pursuit of the Pleiades, the seven daughters of the giant Atlas. According to Greek
mythology, to save the Pleiades from Orion’s unwanted earthly attentions, the gods placed them
among the stars, where Orion nightly stalks them across the sky but never catches them). Many
Subject: ASTRONOMY
Teacher: Carine Jade Tubongbanua
Contact #: 09954527536
Gmail Account: tubongbanuacarinejade@gmail
Mount Carmel College of Escalante, Inc.
Carmelite Street, Escalante City
College Department

constellations have similarly fabulous connections with ancient cultures.

Generally speaking, the stars that make up any particular constellation are not
actually close to one another, even by astronomical standards. These stars merely are bright
enough to observe with the naked eye and happen to lie in roughly the same direction in the sky
as seen from Earth. That these stars have become associated with one another over the centuries
is a tribute to the power of the human brain, which is extremely good at recognizing patterns and
relationship between objects even when no true connection exists.
The origins of most constellations, and of their names, date back to the dawn of
recorded history. Some constellations served as navigational guides. For example, the Pole Star,
part of the little Dipper, always signals north, and the constancy of its location had aided
travelers since ancient times. Other constellations served as primitive calendars to predict
planting and harvesting seasons. The roots of both astronomy and astrology- originally
indistinguishable from one another- are in the patterns of stars that sweep nightly and yearly
across the sky.
Today we recognize that the constellations have no occult power to determine
our destinies and no special astrophysical significance. Most people recognize that astrology is
nothing more than an amusing diversion (although millions still study their horoscopes in the
newspaper every morning!). nevertheless, the ancient astrological terminology- the names of the
constellation and some terms used to describe the locations and motions of the planets, for
example-is still used throughout the astronomical world. The constellations still help astronomers
to specify bulk areas of the sky, much as geologists use land continents or politicians use voting
precincts to identify certain localities on planet Earth. In all, there are 88 constellations, most of
them visible from North America at some time during the year. See appendix A for sky charts
that can be used to locate prominent stars and constellations at different times of the year.

THE CELESTIAL SPHERE

Following the constellations nightly, ancient sky-watcher noted that star patterns
seemed unchanging. The stars of Orion moved across the sky as a unit thousands of years ago
much as they do today. It was natural, perhaps even patently obvious; to conclude that the stars
must be firmly attached to a Celestial Sphere surrounds the Earth-a canopy of stars resembling
an astronomical painting on a heavenly ceiling.
Fir the most part, stars rise in the east, move across the sky, and set in the west each
night. Some weep out large arc high above the horizon, but other appear to move very little. In
fact, closer scrutiny (or time-lapse photography)
From our modern standpoint, the apparent motion of the stars is the result of the
rotation, or spin, not of the celestial sphere but of the Earth. Polaris indicates the direction-due
Subject: ASTRONOMY
Teacher: Carine Jade Tubongbanua
Contact #: 09954527536
Gmail Account: tubongbanuacarinejade@gmail
Mount Carmel College of Escalante, Inc.
Carmelite Street, Escalante City
College Department

north-in which the Earth’s rotation axis points. Even though we know that the celestial sphere is
an incorrect description of the heavens, the concept is still used today as a convenient fiction that
helps us visualize the positions of stars in the sky. The point where the Earth’s axis intersects the
celestial sphere is known as the north celestial pole, and it is directly above the Earth’s North
Pole. In the Southern Hemisphere, the extension of the Earth’s axis in the opposite direction
defines the south celestial pole, directly above the Earth’s South Pole. Midway between the
north and south celestial poles lies the celestial equator, representing the intersection of the
Earth’s equatorial plane with the celestial sphere.

The Motion of the Sun and the Stars

DAY-TO-DAY CHANGES

We measure time by the Sun. The rhythm of day and night is central to our lives, so it
is not surprising that the period of time from one sunrise (or noon, or sunset) to the next in our
basic social time unit. The day measured relative to the Sun is called a solar day. The daily
progress of the Sun and the stars across the sky is known as diurnal motion. As we have just
seen, this motion is a consequence of the rotation of the Earth, and it repeats itself-almost-every
24 hours. But the repetition is not exact. Each night, the whole celestial sphere appears to be
shifted a little relative to the horizon, compared with the night before. The easiest way to confirm
this difference is by noticing the stars visible just after sunset or just before dawn. Of you look
carefully, you will find that they are in slightly different locations from the previous night.
Because of this, shift, a day measured by the stars- called a sidereal day after the Latin word
sidus, meaning star- differs from a solar day. Evidently, there is more to the apparent motion of
the heavens than just simple rotation. In fact, the motion of the Earth relative to the Sun- the
Earth’s revolution – is also of great importance.

SEASONAL CHANGES

The sun appears to move relative to the stars because the Earth orbits the Sun, completing one
orbit in 365.242 solar days- a period of time known as one tropical year. That this point the Sub
returns to its starting position on the celestial sphere, and the cycle begins anew. The apparent
motion of the Sun in the Sky, expressed relative to the stars, follows a path known as the
ecliptic. It forms a great circle in the celestial sphere, inclined at an angle of about 23.5º to the
celestial equator. This tilt is just a consequence of the inclination of the Earth’s rotation axis to
the plane of its orbit.

Subject: ASTRONOMY
Teacher: Carine Jade Tubongbanua
Contact #: 09954527536
Gmail Account: tubongbanuacarinejade@gmail
Mount Carmel College of Escalante, Inc.
Carmelite Street, Escalante City
College Department

The point on the ecliptic where the Sun is at its northernmost point above the celestial
equator is known as the summer solstice (from the Latin word sol, meaning Sun).

SUMMER AND WINTER

CONSTELLATIONS
The reason for these regular seasonal changes is, once again, the revolution of the Earth around
the Sun. Earth’s darkened hemisphere faces in a slightly different direction each evening. Since
our planet’s yearly orbit takes 365 days to complete and since a full circle has 360º, this change
in direction is only about 1º per night- too small to be easily noticed with the naked eye from one
evening to the next, but clearly noticeable over the course of weeks and months, Earth has
reached the opposite side of its orbit, and we see an entirely different group of stars and
constellations. In the older view, the Sun has moved to the opposite side of the celestial sphere,
so that a different set of stars is visible at night. The 12 constellations through which the Sun
passes as it moves along the ecliptic had special significant for astrologers of old. These
constellations are collectively known as the zodiac. The time required for the constellations to
complete one cycle around the sky and to return to their starting point as seen from a given point
on Earth is one sidereal year. The Earth completes exactly one orbit around the Sun in this time.
One sidereal year is 365.256 solar days long, about 20 minutes longer than a tropical year. We
will return to the reason for this slight discrepancy in a moment.

Celestial Coordinates

When talking about the stars, it is necessary to diverse a means of describing how to locate them
in the sky. The simplest method is to specify the constellation, and then rank the stars in it in
order to brightness. The brightness star is denoted by the Greek letter a (alpha), the second
brightness by B (beta), and so on. Thus, the two brightest stars in the constellation Orion-
Betelgeuse and Rige -are also known as A Orionis and B Orionis, respectively. (Improved
observations show that Rigel is actually the brighter of the two, but the names are now
permanent). Because there are many more stars in any alphabet, this method is of limited utility.
However for naked-eye astronomy, where only bright stars are involved, it is quite satisfactory.
While this system has a certain immediacy, it is not very precise. To quantify
measurements of the stars, astronomers find it helpful to lay down a system of celestial
coordinates on the sky. Of we think of the stars being attached to the celestial sphere centered
on the Earth, and then the familiar system of latitude and longitude on the Earth’s surface
extends quite naturally to cover the sky.
The analogs of latitudes and longitude on the Earth’s surface are known as declination
Subject: ASTRONOMY
Teacher: Carine Jade Tubongbanua
Contact #: 09954527536
Gmail Account: tubongbanuacarinejade@gmail
Mount Carmel College of Escalante, Inc.
Carmelite Street, Escalante City
College Department

and right ascension, respectively. Declination (dec) is measured in arc degrees north or south of
the celestial equator, just as latitude is measured in degrees north or south of the Earth’s equator.
Thus, the celestial equator is at a declination of 0 degrees (º), the north celestial pole is at +90º,
and the south celestial pole is at - 90º (the minus sign here just means “south if the celestial
equator”). Right ascension (RA) is measured in units called hours, minutes and seconds, and it
increases to the east. The choice of zero right ascension is quite arbitrary. It is conventionally
taken to be the position of the Sun in the sky at the instant of the vernal equinox, when the Sun
happens to lie between the constellations Pisces and Aquarius the meaning of right ascension and
declination on the celestial sphere and compares them with longitude and latitude on Earth.
The angular units used to measure right ascension are constructed to parallel the units of
time; the two sets of units are connected by the rotation of the Earth (or if the celestial sphere). In
one sidereal day, the Earth rotates once on its axis, or through 360º. Thus, in a time period of one
hour, the Earth rotates through 360º/24=15º, which is equal to 1hour. In one minute of time, the
Earth rotates through 1 minute, in one second; the Earth rotates through 1 second. These units are
used only for right ascension and are defined in this way to assist astronomical observation. The
names are rather unfortunate, however, as these are angular measures, not units of time, and the
minutes and second used in right ascension are not the same unit. I fact, 1m= 15º/60= 0.25º, or
15 arc minutes (15’), while 1 second= 15 arc seconds (15”). Simply remember that all angular
measurements except right ascension use arc minutes (‘) and arc second (“), and you should
avoid undue confusion.
Just as latitude and longitude are tied to the Earth, right ascension and declination are
fixed in the sky. Although the stars appear to move across the sky because of the Earth’s
rotation, their celestial coordinates remain constant. A system of coordinates that changed from
minute to minute and differed from place to place on the Earth would obviously be very
inconvenient and quite impractical. Thus, we have 4 quantitative alternatives to the use of
constellations in specifying the positions of stars in the sky. For example, Rigel and Betelgeuse
can be precisely located by looking in the directions 5th 13m 36s (RA),- 8º13’ (dec), respectively.
The Motion of the Moon

The moon is our nearest neighbor in space. Apart from the Sun, it is by far the brightest
object in the sky. Unlike the Sun and the Stars, however, it emits no light of its own. Instead, it
shines by reflecting sunlight. Again unlike the Sun and the stars, its appearance changes from
night to night-in fact, on some nights it cannot be seen at all. Also, the Moon’s daily rising and
setting and its nightly motion through the sky differ from the motion of the celestial sphere. Like
the Sun, the Moon appears to move relative to the stars-it crosses the sky at a rate of about 12º
per day, which means that it moves an angular distance equal to its own diameter-30”-in about
an hour. Today, we explain these observations in terms of the Moon’s revolution around the
Earth. For ancient astronomers, however, the Moon’s motion meant having to introduce yet
another sphere in the sky, with a motion separate from both that of the stars and that carrying the
Sun.
The Moon’s appearance undergoes a cycle of changes, or lunar phases, taking a little
more than 29 days to complete. (This word month is derived from the word Moon). Starting from
the so-called full Moon, visible as a complete circular disk in the sky, the Moon appears to wane
Subject: ASTRONOMY
Teacher: Carine Jade Tubongbanua
Contact #: 09954527536
Gmail Account: tubongbanuacarinejade@gmail
Mount Carmel College of Escalante, Inc.
Carmelite Street, Escalante City
College Department

(or shrink) a little each night, passing through the gibbous phase until, one week later, only half
of the disk can be seen. This phase is known as a Quarter Moon. During the next week, the
Moon is visible as a shrinking crescent. Two weeks after full moon, the crescent has shrunk to
nothing, and the Moon is all invisible. This phase is called a new moon. During the next 2 weeks,
the moon waxes (or grows) again, passing through the crescent, quarter, and gibbous phases and
eventually becoming full. The waning and waxing phases are not merely time reversals of each
other, however. The waning moon shrinks towards the eastern edge of the disk, and the waxing
Moon grows from the west.
The Moon doesn’t actually change its size and shape on a monthly basis, of course. The
full circular disk of the moon is present at all times. Why then don’t we always see a full Moon?
Because usually only a portion of the disk is actually visible from Earth however, not all of the
Moon’s sunlit face can be seen because of the Moon’s position with respect to the Earth and the
Sun. When the Moon is full, we see the entire “daylit” face because the Sun and the Moon are in
opposite directions from the Earth in the sky. In the case of a new Moon, the Moon and the Sun
are in almost the same part of the sky, and the sunlit side of the moon is oriented away from us.
A moment’s thought tells us that this sun- during the new moon, the sun must be almost behind
the moon, from our perspective.
As the Moon revolves around the Earth, its position in the sky changes with respect to the
stars, in one sidereal month (27.3 days), the moon returns to its starting point on the celestial
sphere, having traced out a great circle in the sky. The time required for the Moon to complete a
full cycle of phases, one syndic month, is a little longer-about 29.5 days. The synodic month is a
little longer than the sidereal month for the same reason that a solar day is slightly longer than a
sidereal day: because of the motion of the Earth around the Sun, the moon must complete
slightly more than one full revolution to return to the same phase in its orbit

Eclipses

From time to time-but only at new or full Moon- the Sun and the Moon line up precisely as seen
from Earth, and we observe the spectacular phenomenon known as an eclipse. When the Sun and
the Moon are in exactly opposite directions, as seen from Earth, the Earth’s shadow sweeps
across the Moon, temporarily blotting it out in a lunar eclipse. From Earth, we see the curved
edge of the Earth’s shadow begin to cut across the face of the full Moon and slowly eat its way
into the lunar disk. More often than not, the alignment of the Sun, Earth, and Moon is imperfect,
and the shadow never quite covers the Moon completely. This is known as a partial solar eclipse.
Occasionally, however, the entire lunar surface is obscured in a total eclipse. Lunar eclipses last
only as long as is needed for the Moon to pass through the Earth’s shadow-no more often
acquires an eerie, deep red coloration-the result of a small amount of sunlight being refracted
(bent) by the Earth’s atmosphere onto the lunar surface, preventing the shadow from being
completely black. It is perhaps understandable that many primitive cultures interpreted lunar
eclipse as harbingers of disaster.

Precession
Subject: ASTRONOMY
Teacher: Carine Jade Tubongbanua
Contact #: 09954527536
Gmail Account: tubongbanuacarinejade@gmail
Mount Carmel College of Escalante, Inc.
Carmelite Street, Escalante City
College Department

Earth has many motions- it spins on its axis, it travels around the Sun, and it moves with the Sun
through the Galaxy. We have just seen how some of these motions can account for the changing
nighttime sky and the changing seasons. In fact, Earth’s true motion is even more complicated.
Like a spinning top that rotates rapidly in its own axis while slowly turning about the vertical,
Earth’s axis changes its direction over the course of time (although the angle between the axis
and the ecliptic remains close to 23.5º). This is slow changing in the direction of the axis of
spinning objects us called precession.

The measurement of Distance

Knowing just the direction to an object is only part of the information needed to locate it in
space. Before we can make a systematic study of the heavens, we must find a way of measuring
distances, too. One such method is called triangulation. It is based on the principles of
Euclidean geometry and finds widespread application today in both terrestrial and astronomical
settings. Today’s engineers, especially surveyors, use these age-old geometrical ideas to measure
indirectly the distance faraway objects. In astronomical context, triangulation forms the
foundation of the family of distance- measurement techniques that together make up the
economic scale.
Imagine trying to measure the distance to a tree on the other side of a river. The
most direct method is to lay a tape across the river, but that’s not the simplest way. A smart
surveyor would make the measurement by visualizing an imaginary triangle, sighting the tree in
the far side of the river from two positions on the near side the simplest possible triangle is a
right triangle, in which one of the angle is exactly 90º, so it is usually convenient to set up one
observation position directly opposite the object, as at point A. the surveyor then moves to
another observation position at point B, nothing distance covered between points A and B. This
distance is the baseline of the imaginary triangle. Finally, the surveyor sights toward tree whose
distance is to be measured and notes the angle at point B. No further observations are required.
The rest of the problem is a matter of calculation. Knowing the value of one side (AB) and two
angles (the right angle itself, at point A, and the angle at point B) of the right triangle, the
surveyor can geometrically construct the remaining sides and angles and so establish the distance
to the tree.
The use triangulation to measure distance, a surveyor must be familiar with trigonometry,
the mathematics of geometrical angles. However, even if we knew no trigonometry at all, we
could still solve the problem by graphical means. Pacing off the baseline, letting it equals so
many intervals on a piece of graph paper, and setting the angle at point B, we can draw the
complete triangle. The number of graphed intervals from point A to the tree than approximates
the desired distance. We have solved the real problem by modeling it on paper. The point to
remember here is this: Nothing more complex than simple geometry is needed to infer the
distance, the size, and even the shape of an object too far away or too inconvenient to measure
directly.

Subject: ASTRONOMY
Teacher: Carine Jade Tubongbanua
Contact #: 09954527536
Gmail Account: tubongbanuacarinejade@gmail
Mount Carmel College of Escalante, Inc.
Carmelite Street, Escalante City
College Department

The Scientific Method

Ancient stargazers, for the most part, held firmly to the belief that whatever the reason for the
motions of the heavens, the Earth on general, and humankind in particular, were absolutely
central to the working of the universe. Modern science, by contrast, has arrived at a view
diametrically opposed to that held by those ancient philosophers. Our present-day outlook in that
the Earth, the solar system, and some would argue, humanity are ordinary in every way. This
idea is often (and only half-jokingly) called the “principle of mediocrity,” and it is deeply
embedded in modern scientific thought. Nowadays, any theory or observation that even appears
to single out the Earth, the solar system, or the Milky Way Galaxy as in some way special id
immediately regarded with great suspicion, and sometimes even outright hostility, in scientific
circles.
The principle of mediocrity extends far beyond a mere statement of philosophical
preference, however. Simply put, if we do not make this hypothesis, then we cannot make much
headway in science, and we cannot do astronomy at all. Virtually every statement made in this
text rests squarely on the premise that the laws of physics, as we know them here on Earth, apply
everywhere else too, without modification and without exception. Happily, there is no reason to
believe that we are the victims of some cruel cosmic conspiracy in this regard. The universe
appears to be knowable in terms of terrestrial physics.
During the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, people began to inquire more critically about
themselves and the universe. They realized that thinking about Nature was no longer sufficient;
looking at it was also necessary. Experiments and observations became a central part of the
process of inquiry. To be effective, theories-the framework of ideas and assumptions used to
explain observations of the real world- had to be tested and perhaps refined, if experiment
favored them, or rejected, if it did not. This new approach to investigation, combining thinking
and doing-that is, theory and experiment-was the scientific method, and it ushered in the age of
modern science.
Scientists throughout the world today use an approach that relies heavily on testing ideas.
In what is usually a three-step process, scientists gather some data, form a theory, and then test
that theory. This is a rational, methodical approach used to investigate all natural phenomena.
Experiment and observation are integral parts of the process of scientific inquiry. Theories
unsupported by such evidence rarely gain any measure of acceptance in scientific circle. Used
properly over a period of time, the scientific method enables us to arrive at conclusion that is
mostly free of the personal bias and human values of any one scientist. The scientific method is
designed to yield an objective view of the universe we inhabit.
Aristotle (384-322 B.C) performed one of the first documented uses of the scientific
method nearly 25 centuries ago. He noticed that during lunar eclipse when Earth is positioned
between the Sun and the Moon. The Earth’s shadow, projected onto the Moon’s surface, is
indeed curved. This is what Aristotle must have seen and recorded so long ago.
On the basis of these observations, Aristotle theorized that all lunar eclipse would show
that Earth’s shadow was curved, regardless of the orientation of our planet. Furthermore, because
the observed shadow is always an arc of the same circle, he concluded that the Earth must be
round. Aristotle was not the first person to argue that Earth is round, but he was apparently the
Subject: ASTRONOMY
Teacher: Carine Jade Tubongbanua
Contact #: 09954527536
Gmail Account: tubongbanuacarinejade@gmail
 Mount Carmel College of Escalante, Inc.
Carmelite Street, Escalante City
College Department

first to offer a proof of it using the lunar-eclipse method. Aristotle argued further that if Earth
were really round, distant stars in the nighttime sky would appear at different positions to
observers at different latitudes. He quoted the experience of travelers as confirmation of his
theory; especially the then well-known fact that a bright start named Canopus was visible in
Egypt but not farther north.
The reasoning procedure Aristotle used forms the basis of all scientific inquiry today. He
first made an observation. He then formulated a theory. Finally, he tested the validity of the
theory by making predictions that could be confirmed or refuted by further observation.
Observation, theory, and testing- these are the cornerstones of the scientific method, a technique
whose power will be demonstrated again and again throughout out text.

__________________________________
Application

Read and answer carefully.

1. What are causes a lunar eclipse? A solar eclipse?

2. Why isn’t there lunar and solar eclipse every month?
3. Why do we see different stars in summer than in winter?

__________________________________
Summary
The universe is the totality of all space, time, matter, and energy. Astronomy is the study of the
universe. Astronomer use scientific notation as a convenient means of expressing the large
numbers they encounter in their studies. A widely used unit of distance in astronomy is the light-
year, the distance traveled by a beam of light in one year.

Early observer grouped the thousands of stars visible to the naked eye into patterns called
constellations. These patterns have no physical significance, although they are very useful means
of labeling regions of the sky.

The nightly motion of the stars across the sky is the result of the Earth’s rotation on its axis.
Early astronomers, however, imagined that the stars were attached to a vast celestial sphere
Subject: ASTRONOMY
Teacher: Carine Jade Tubongbanua
Contact #: 09954527536
Gmail Account: tubongbanuacarinejade@gmail
 Mount Carmel College of Escalante, Inc.
Carmelite Street, Escalante City
College Department

centered on the Earth and that the motions of the heavens were caused by the rotation of the
celestial sphere about a fix Earth. The points where the Earth’s rotation axis intersects the
celestial sphere are called the north and south celestial poles. The line where Earth’s equatorial
plane cuts the celestial sphere is the celestial equator.

The time from sunrise to the next is called solar day. The time between successive risings of any
given star is one sidereal day. Because of Earth’s revolution around the Sun, the solar day is a
few minute longer than the sidereal day.

The Sun’s yearly path around the celestial sphere- or, equivalent, the plane of the Earth’s orbit
around the Sun- is called the ecliptic. Earth’s axis is inclined to the ecliptic plane, so we
experience seasons, depending in which hemisphere (northern or southern) happens to be
“tipped” toward the Sun.

At the summer solstice, the Sun is highest in the sky, and the length of the day is greatest. At the
winter solstice, the Sun is lowest, and the day is shortest. At the vernal and autumnal equinoxes.
Earth’s rotation axis is perpendicular to the line joining the Earth to the Sun, so day and night are
of equal length.

__________________________________
Post activity
Read and answer carefully.

1. Explain how Aristotle used the scientific method to conclude that the Earth is round.
2. Why is it important to astronomical science that the laws of physics as we know them
apply equally well throughout the whole universe?

__________________________________
Reference
Chaisson, Eric.
Astronomy a beginner’s guide to the universe/ Eric Chaisson
Steve McMillan.
Includes index
ISBN 0-13-644063-0:
1. Astronomy I. McMill, S. (Stephen)
QB43.2.C43 1995
520-dc20

Subject: ASTRONOMY
Teacher: Carine Jade Tubongbanua
Contact #: 09954527536
Gmail Account: tubongbanuacarinejade@gmail