Spectral Library

TERRASPEC STARTER PACK
S PECTRAL I NTERPRETATI ON
F IELD M ANUAL
AusSpec International Ltd., 2012

Great care has been taken in the production of this Spectral Interpretation Field Manual to
ensure the accuracy of the contained information. However, the reader should be aware
that typographic errors may exist in either the text or figures. AusSpec International Ltd.
accepts no liability for the application of any of the information contained this guide as this
remains solely at the discretion of the reader. Because this technology is constantly
advancing AusSpec International Ltd also reserves the right to change at any time its
interpretation of data, analytical approaches and data analysis techniques. If the reader is
in any doubt regarding the accuracy or validity of any information contained in these
guides or wishes to discuss any of the topics covered by the guides they should contact
AusSpec International Ltd.
The Spectral Interpretation Field Manual and associated digital data sets are subject to
copyright. No part of the guide (including the digital data set) may be reproduced or
transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, for any purpose,
without the express written permission of AusSpec International Ltd.
Contents i
C O N T E N T S
SPECTRAL INTERPRETATION FIELD MANUAL VOL 1 1
Introduction 1
Introduction to Mineral Analysis Using vis-NIR-SWIR 3
Mineral Analysis using SWIR 3
Absorption Features Relevant to the SWIR 6
Suitable Mineral Groups for SWIR Analysis 7
Unsuitable Mineral Groups for SWIR Analysis Error! Bookmark not defined. 7
Wavelengths of Absorptions 8
Mineral Analysis using the vis-NIR 10
Suitable Mineral Groups for vis-NIR Analysis 10
Information in the Reflectance Spectrum 13
Hull Corrections 14
The Hull Line 14
Calculating the Hull Quotient 15
Advantages of Hull Corrections 15
Disadvantages of Hull Corrections 15
Interpreting SWIR Spectra 18

A Structured Approach to SWIR Spectral Interpretation 18
Spectral Mixtures 21
What to Expect in Mixed Spectra 22
How to Interpret Simple Mixtures 23
Problematic Minerals in Mixtures 24
Artefacts in Mixtures 24
Spectral Variations within Mineral Groups 26
Influence of Crystallinity 26
Influence of Composition 27
Spectral Library 29
Mineral Group Index 30
Mineral Index 32
Spectral Search Index 34

2160-2170nm 35
2180-2228nm 36
2230-2264nm 37
2264-2298nm 38
2300-2330nm 39
2330-2370nm 40
Miscellaneous Silicates 41
Miscellaneous 42
A u s S p e c I n t e r n a t i o n a l
ii Contents
The Kandite Group 43

Kaolinite 44
Kaolinite Crystallinity 46
Dickite 48
Halloysite 50
Nacrite 52
Pyrophyllite 55
Pyrophyllite 56
The White Mica Group (Illite-Sericite-Muscovite) 59

Illite/ Sericite 60
Muscovite/ Sericite 62
Illite/Sericite Crystallinity 64
White Mica Composition 66
The Smectite Group 69

Montmorillonite 70
Nontronite 72
Saponite 74
Mg Clay 77
Palygorskite 78
The Chlorite Group 81

Mg-Chlorite 82
Mg-Fe Chlorite 84
Fe-Chlorite 86
Chlorite vis-NIR-SWIR 88
Chlorite Composition 90
The Biotite-Phlogopite Group 93

Phlogopite i 94
Phlogopite ii 96
Biotite 98
Biotite vis-NIR-SWIR 100
The Amphiboles 103

Actinolite/Tremolite 104
Hornblende 106
The Carbonate Group 109

Calcite 110
Ankerite 112
Siderite 114
Dolomite 116
Magnesite 118
Fe- Carbonate vis-NIR-SWIR 120
Contents iii
The Cu and Mn Carbonate Group 123

Rhodochrosite 124
Azurite 126
Malachite 128
The Sulphate Group 131

Alunite 132
Gypsum 134
Jarosite 136
Jarosite vis-NIR-SWIR 138
Calcsilicate 141
Epidote 142
Mg Phyllosilicates 145
Talc 146
Serpentine 148
Aluminium Hydroxides 151

Gibbsite 152
Diaspore 154
The Zeolite Group 157

Natrolite 158
Ammonium Minerals 161

NH4 Illite/ Sericite 162
Buddingtonite/ NH4 Feldspar 164
Pyroxene Group Minerals 167

Orthopyroxene 168
Clinopyroxene 170
Miscellaneous Silicates Group 173

Prehnite 174
Topaz 176
Tourmaline 178
Tourmaline vis-NIR-SWIR 180
Zunyite 182
Fe Oxide Group 185

Hematite 186
Goethite 188
iv Contents
T E C H N I C A L S U P P O R T
S E R VI C E
AusSpec supports the application of the TerraSpec with specialist

services that allow companies to trust the technology and fully
appreciate the role spectral data plays in the exploration and
mining environment. This support includes:
 Assisting clients with understanding the potential

application of TerraSpec to a geological
environment/deposit style/mine site;
 Liaising with clients in conducting feasibility trials and to
translate that knowledge into application;
 Providing specific and tailored training programs that

optimise the use of TerraSpec and TSG;
 Delivering advanced processing methods to optimise

the spectral data being collected as well as assisting
clients to understand and use the output effectively;
 Technically supporting the use of TerraSpec and TSG

through the application process; and
 Delivering QA/QC support to clients to ensure that the

TerraSpec technology is being effectively
implemented.
This support service can be accessed by:
 E-mail: support@ausspec.com
WWW: ausspec.com
Introduction to SIFM 1
G E TTIN G S TARTE D
INTRODUCTION
The Spectral Interpretation Field Manual (SIFM) is:
 A Mineral Spectral library, providing essential

background information on the identification of mineral
spectra from the vis-NIR-SWIR;
 A Spectral Interpretation Manual for use with the

AusSpec spectral geology training.
AusSpec’s SIFM is well established and the descriptive notes

described are the product of years of practical experience and
measurements from well characterised mineral collections.
We appreciate that this spectral library is not a definitive
reference to the spectra of all minerals in the SWIR or VNIR.
However, a considerable effort has been made to include the
mineral groups most commonly encountered in mineral
exploration.
Most of the enclosed spectra are hull quotient corrected and

smoothed. Where appropriate, reflectance spectra have also
been included.
Most spectra demonstrated here are of the SWIR spectral

range (1300-2500nm) as this spectral range contains the
diagnostic information for most of the minerals listed here.
However, where relevant, full vis-NIR-SWIR spectra, have
been included to show diagnostic vis-NIR features of selected
minerals.
2 Spectral Interpretation Field manual
The spectral library contains three indexes:
1 A Mineral Group index, which lists the minerals according

to their mineral groups.
2 A Mineral Index which lists mineral spectra according to

mineral name.
3 A Spectral Search Index which lists mineral spectra

according to the designated spectral group;
The spectral search index is an important tool of the Library

and is used with the structured approach to spectral
interpretation presented in the next section.
INTRODUCTION TO MINERAL
ANALYSIS USING VI S-NIR-SWIR
Visible (vis), Near Infrared (NIR) and Short Wavelength
Infrared (SWIR) spectrometry is a useful technique for
mineral identification because many minerals have
characteristic spectral signatures or spectra at these
wavelengths. This is because a mineral spectrum is
dependent on various crystallographic factors unique to each
mineral species. Figure 1 illustrates where the vis-NIR-SWIR
spectral region located in the electromagnetic spectrum.
MINERAL ANALYSIS USING SWIR

When a sample is illuminated by the light source in the
spectrometer, certain wavelengths of light are absorbed by
the minerals in the sample, as a result of sub-molecular
vibrations. This vibration is the result of bending and
stretching of molecular bonds in the minerals.
Although the molecular vibrations have primary (or, more

correctly, fundamental) absorption features in the Mid-
Infrared, the absorptions that we see in the SWIR are related
to harmonics of these fundamental vibrations.
These absorptions are represented in the reflectance

spectrum as minima/troughs below the baseline of the
spectrum.
The bonds giving rise to absorption features in the SWIR

include those in hydroxyl, water, carbonate and ammonia and
between Al-OH, Mg-OH, and Fe-OH. These molecules are
found as major components in: phyllosilicates (including clay,
chlorite and serpentine minerals), hydroxylated silicates (such
as epidote and amphiboles), sulphates (alunite, jarosite and
gypsum), carbonates and ammonium minerals.
The majority of the spectral absorption features that

distinguish different silicates in the SWIR are due to
vibrational transitions associated with hydroxyl and water,
producing absorption features near 1400nm (OH and water)
and 1900nm (water). Other important and diagnostic spectral
absorption features occur at or near 2200nm, 2250nm and
2330nm and are related to the bending and stretching of the
bonds between AlOH, FeOH and MgOH, respectively.
The spectra of sulphates have diagnostic OH absorptions that

are easy to distinguish from the silicate absorptions.
Carbonates also have characteristic spectra and display a
distinct and diagnostic carbonate absorption feature between
2300-2370nm.
Figure 1: The electromagnetic spectrum and relative positions of the vis-NIR and SWIR.
In addition to mineral identification, SWIR spectra can also

provide information on the degree of crystallinity of a mineral.
Variations in crystallinity
For example, clay minerals, such as muscovite, illite and
are reflected by variations in kaolinite, display variations in crystallinity that may be
the shapes of the diagnostic detected spectrally, and which can permit the delineation of
absorption features temperature and chemical zoning in an alteration system or
distinguish weathering from alteration related clays.
Generally, variations in crystallinity are reflected by variations

in the shapes of the diagnostic absorption features. The
absorption features typically increase in sharpness with
increasing crystallinity, which is a function that may be
parameterised in a similar way to the crystallinity indexes
used in XRD.
Spectral analysis can also be used to discriminate

compositional variations within mineral groups, which is
significant as mineral composition may vary systematically in
Compositional variations are
an alteration system as a function of the temperature and
typically represented by shifts
in the wavelength positions of composition of the altering fluids and with proximity to zones
diagnostic absorption features of mineralisation. Mapping these variations can allow field
geologists to evaluate mineralisation/alteration relationships
and to position themselves within an alteration system.
Compositional variations are typically represented by shifts in

the wavelength positions of diagnostic absorption features,
with the overall characteristic spectral signature of the mineral
remaining unchanged. Typically, minerals such as chlorite,
carbonate and white mica display distinct wavelength shifts in
their diagnostic absorption features associated with
compositional variations. These are represented in the library.
A B S O R P T I O N F E A T U R E S
R E L E V A N T T O T H E S W I R
The majority of the absorption features in the SWIR
wavelength region are related to the bending and stretching
of the bonds in:
- Hydroxyl (OH);
- Water (H2O);
- Carbonate (CO3);
- Ammonia (NH4).
It is the hydroxyl anion that produces the majority of the

diagnostic absorptions in the SWIR mineral spectra, because
its crystallographic position and environment varies between
most minerals. The OH vibrations also form combinations
with what are called lattice vibrations and absorptions related
to the vibrations between:
- AlOH
- FeOH
- MgOH
The carbonate anion produces characteristic SWIR

absorption features in carbonate spectra.
In contrast to OH and CO3, the absorption features

associated with water and ammonia often do not differ
between minerals, and therefore are not always diagnostic.
S U I T A B L E M I N E R A L G R O U P S
F O R S W I R A N A L Y S I S
The molecules OH, water, AlOH, FeOH, MgOH, CO3 and NH4
are found as major components in:
 Phyllosilicates
(e.g. clays, chlorite, talc and serpentine minerals);
 Hydroxylated silicates
(e.g. epidote and amphiboles);
 Sulphates
(e.g. alunite, jarosite and gypsum);
 Carbonates
(e.g. calcite, dolomite, ankerite and magnesite);
 Ammonium-bearing minerals
(e.g. buddingtonite, NH4-illites).
It is the minerals in these groups that have diagnostic

absorption features in the SWIR.
U N S U I T A B L E M I N E R A L
G R O U P S F O R S W I R
A N A L Y S I S
Minerals that have no structural OH, water and CO3 (such as
silica/quartz or feldspar) have no diagnostic absorption
features in this wavelength region. The spectra of samples
dominated by these other minerals can, however, display
absorptions associated with non-diagnostic secondary
components.
For example:
 Broad water bands, associated with fluid inclusions in

silica;
 Clay absorptions, due to weathering/alteration of

felspathic components in the sample.
W A V E L E N G T H S O F
A B S O R P T I O N S
The dominant absorption features of OH, water, AlOH, FeOH,
MgOH and CO3 commonly occur in characteristic wavelength
bands (Figure 2). These are:
 OH ~1400nm (also ~1550nm and

~1750-1850nm in some minerals)
 Water ~1400nm and ~1900nm
 AlOH ~2160-2228nm
 FeOH ~2230-2298nm
 MgOH ~2300-2370nm
 CO3 ~2300-2370nm (and also at 1870nm,

1990nm and 2155nm)
The wavelength positions of these absorptions can also give

valuable information on the composition of the mineral,
particularly those of the AlOH, FeOH, MgOH and CO 3
absorptions (see Figure 2).
These absorption features are significant because in noisy or

weak spectra they allow identification of at least the mineral
group/composition (e.g. as an MgOH mineral, or AlOH clay).
Note: If the deepest absorption

is in the AlOH waveband,
absorptions at these wavelengths
will include SECONDARY
AlOH absorptions of that mineral.
1350
1550
1720
1860
1880
2040
2160
2220
2230
2296
2306
2365
1300 1400 1500 1600 1700 1800 1900 2000 2100 2200 2300 2400 2500
Wavelength (nanometres)
Water and OH OH Water AlOH

(Water = single broad (eg sulphates (Single broad FeOH
absorption +/- shoulders) +kaolinite asymmetric CO3 and/or
(OH = can be multiple clays absorption
sharp absorptions of + diaspore) +/-shoulders) MgOH
varying intensities) (if deepest)
(Otherwise check
in AlOH band as
it may be a 2ndy
AlOH feature)
Figure 2: Major spectral absorption bands in the SWIR.
MINERAL ANALYSIS USING THE

VI S-NIR
Whereas the absorptions in the SWIR are associated with
molecular bonds, those observed in the visible-NIR are
associated with sub-atomic transitions.
The majority of the absorption features commonly observed

in the vis-NIR are related to the electronic transitions in iron
(both ferric (Fe3+) and ferrous (Fe2+)).
S U I T A B L E M I N E R A L G R O U P S
F O R V I S - N I R A N A L Y S I S
In general, most iron bearing minerals will have ferric and/or
ferrous absorption features in the vis-NIR. Other commonly
observed transition elements in minerals that also give rise
to features in the vis-NIR include copper and manganese.
In summary, minerals with diagnostic absorption features in

the vis-NIR include:
 Iron oxides, goethite, hematite: ferric features (Figure

3);
 Hydroxylated silicates with Fe, such as chlorite, biotite,

epidote: ferric and ferrous features;
 Sulphates, jarosite: ferric iron;
 Iron carbonates: ferrous iron, with intensity dependent

on iron content of carbonate, results in Fe2+ slope seen
in the SWIR (Figure 4);
 Pyroxenes (opx and cpx), olivines: ferrous features

(Figure 5);
 Cu-oxides and carbonates: Cu features;
 Mn carbonates and silicates: Mn features;
 Visible wavelengths can also include features

associated with rare earth elements.
Red
Peak
Intense
charge
transfer
Go
He ~930nm
~860nm
Figure 3: Hematite and goethite ferric absorption features.
Figure 4: Fe Carbonate ferrous absorptions (illite + Fe Carbonate assemblage)
CPX
OPX
Figure 5: Pyroxene ferrous absorptions.
INFORMATION IN THE
REFLECTANCE SPECTRUM
The raw data collected by TerraSpec are termed reflectance
spectra. In addition to displaying absorption features, the
reflectance spectra can be influenced by broad and intense
absorptions some of which are out of the range of the
spectrometer, these include:
 Ferrous iron absorptions around 1000-1200nm;
 Ferric iron absorptions (near 900nm) and charge transfer

slope (from 750nm to shorter wavelengths);
 Strong water and carbonate absorptions around 2700nm

(for all VIS-NIR-SWIR spectrometers).
The influence of these strong absorptions can affect the

overall background shape (or continuum) of the spectrum.
This background curvature of the reflectance spectrum is
known as the “reflectance hull”.
The Fe2+ response in
mineral spectra allows The reflectance hull can contain useful information particularly
iron-bearing minerals to be on the influence of ferrous iron on the reflectance spectrum.
distinguished from
non-iron-bearing equivalents This feature often allows iron-bearing minerals to be
distinguished from non-iron-bearing equivalents in cases
where these minerals are otherwise spectrally identical (e.g.
actinolite and tremolite).
The charge transfer slope of the ferric iron oxides is also a

useful characteristic to assist evaluation of the weathering
intensity of a sample in some environments.
However, although the reflectance hull contains useful

information, the curvature tends to distort the spectral
absorption features. This can make determination of the
wavelength positions of the SWIR absorptions difficult,
particularly those on the steepest parts of the reflectance
spectrum, towards longer wavelengths.
Therefore, when processing the SWIR absorption features, it

is advisable to process the spectra to remove the reflectance
hull and to enhance the spectral absorption features. This
enhancement is achieved by applying a base-line correction
to the spectral data. The calculation commonly used to
correct spectra is known as hull quotient correction. The
result of this processing is a "hull quotient” spectrum (see
next section).
Note that the reflectance spectrum is required for analysis of

Reflectance spectra are best
the vis-NIR absorption features because the hull quotient
to use for analysis of vis-NIR
absorption features. correction (described below) will either smooth out, remove,
or distort the broad features at these wavelengths.
HULL CORRECTIONS
T H E H U L L L I N E
The basis of the hull correction is a baseline or hull which is a
calculated to touch the maximum number of points on the
spectrum whilst remaining convex and not crossing the
spectrum line. The hull line touches the spectrum at the start
of the spectrum and at the end of the spectrum. The result of
this is that the resulting spectrum should have ‘reflectance’
values of 100% at the beginning and end of the spectrum.
However, due to slight variations in hull correction algorithms
and plotting capabilities of some software the beginning and
end points on the corrected spectrum may not be plotted at
100%. This is the case in Figure 6.
Spectra that have had no hull correction applied are variously

referred to as either ‘uncorrected’, ‘reflectance’ or ‘raw’
spectra.
C A L C U L A T I N G T H E H U L L
Q U O T I E N T
The calculation of the hull quotient corrected spectrum
involves by dividing the reflectance value for each wavelength
on the spectrum by the reflectance value for the same
wavelength on the calculated hull line (see Figure 6).
A D V A N T A G E S O F H U L L
C O R R E C T I O N S
The main advantage of using hull corrected data is that
absorption features or minima not detectable in the
reflectance spectrum become apparent in the hull corrected
spectrum.
HQ spectra are The spectral signatures of specific minerals are also generally
useful for analysis of SWIR more easily visually identifiable in hull corrected data. This is
spectra
especially the case for the SWIR spectra of many common
minerals with diagnostic features between 2100-2400nm.
D I S A D V A N T A G E S O F H U L L
C O R R E C T I O N S
The main disadvantage of using hull corrected spectra is that
the effect of Fe2+ on a SWIR spectrum is largely removed by
a hull correction. This effect can be seen in Figure 6 where
the slope of the reflectance spectrum between 1300nm and
about 1600nm is removed by the hull correction and so is not
visible in the lower hull corrected versions of the same
spectrum.
For this reason it is important that spectra are examined as

reflectance spectra if the presence of Fe2+ bearing minerals is
to be recognised. The spectrum in Figure 6 is dominated by
phengite but also contains a significant proportion of an Fe
carbonate which is largely responsible for the Fe 2+ response
in the reflectance spectrum.
In addition, when analysing vis-NIR absorption features it is

essential to view them in reflectance (raw or normalised) as
these often broad features can be distorted in shape and
Reflectance spectra are
wavelength by the hull quotient correction. For example the
ESSENTIAL for analysis of
vis-NIR spectra
intense charge transfer slope of Fe oxides will be removed by
the hull quotient correction and this slope is important in
determining the Fe-oxide intensity in a sample (which is often
a useful proxy for down hole weathering intensity).
Figure 6: Hull corrections.
INTERPRE TING
SPECTRA
A STRUCTURED APPROACH TO
SPECTRAL INTERPRETATION
Although the spectral signatures or patterns of mineral
spectra are characteristic, it is cumbersome to identify an
unknown spectrum by comparison with spectra in a large
spectral library. It is useful therefore to have a methodology to
follow for most common minerals.
On this basis a unique mineral interpretation approach was

developed by AusSpec and is based on the following
important points:
 Most minerals have a characteristic spectrum between

1300-2500nm;
 Most minerals have major diagnostic absorption features

between 2050-2450nm;
 Most minerals can be grouped spectrally according to

the wavelength position of the deepest absorption
feature between 2050-2450nm.
Using these characteristics this approach allows the user to

simplify the interpretation process by prioritising different
parts of the spectrum rather than trying to interpret the whole
spectrum at one time.
The following steps describe the structured approach to

interpreting SWIR spectra using the spectral library. These
steps are summarised in Figure 7.
1. Obtain the best spectrum of your sample (hull

corrected and smoothed if necessary) and get the
7
best display of the spectrum on paper or on the PC
screen.
E as y St ep s 2. Look at the 2050-2450nm spectral region.

to
Sp ect ral 3. Identify the deepest absorption in the 2050-2450nm
I n t erpret at ion spectral region and note its wavelength position.
4. Look this wavelength up in the Spectral Search

Index and identify which Spectral Group the
spectrum belongs to.
5. Go to that spectral group page in the spectral

library.
6. Looking at the 2050-2450nm spectral region, take

into account the shapes and wavelengths of other
absorption features and compare the unknown
spectrum with each of the spectra of this spectral
group. Identify the spectrum with the closest match
to your unknown.
7. Turn to the page of the closest match. Take into

account other absorption features between 1300-
2050nm and cross check your identification to
confirm similarities with the library spectrum, and to
make a final distinction between spectrally similar
minerals.
Most spectra will be identified after these steps have been

carried out. However, if it is still not possible to make a full
Additional info
identification then you may be looking at a mixed spectrum,
in the vis-NIR
comprising overlapping absorption features of different
minerals.
When some minerals are similar in the SWIR (such as

chlorite and biotite) analysis of the shapes and wavelengths
of the iron features in the vis-NIR can allow improved
discrimination.
13 50
15 50
18 80
20 40
24 50
2 4 3 1
1300 1400 1500 1600 1700 1800 1900 2000 2100 2200 2300 2400 2500
Wa vele ngth (nanom etres)
2 4 3 1
Compa re the absorptions Look a t this Look a t the depth & sha pe Most diagnosti c wavelength region
(shapes and wavelengths) w avel ength rgion of any water absorption to Look here first to make your interpretation
in this part of t he spectrum la st for other ide ntify water-beari ng 1. Pick out DEEPEST absorption
to help/confirm ID diagnostic mi nerals 2. Note wavelength
absorptions of 3. Search in spectral library
sulphates and 4. Compare shapes/wavelengths of
diaspore other features in this spectral region
Figure 7: A structured approach to spectral interpretation.
SPECTRAL MIXTURES
Considered simply, spectral mixing can be viewed as a linear
process, where one mineral’s spectral signature is simply
added to those of other minerals in the mixture. For example,
Mixed Spectrum
=
X% Mineral 1 + Y% Mineral 2 + Z% Mineral 3
(Where the ‘%’ of each mineral relates to the

strength of its spectral signature not necessarily
its actual proportion in the target sample.)
This is why this type of analysis is only semi-quantitative.

Mineral proportions are usually expressed as relative
proportions calculated from the strength of one mineral’s
spectral signature relative to the signature of a second
mineral or absorption feature.
The spectral response of a mineral mixture is mainly

influenced by varying absorption coefficients between
different minerals. In other words some minerals absorb light
of particular wavelengths more strongly than do other
minerals.
As a result, the intensity of the absorption features often do

not correspond directly to the proportion of a particular
mineral in the mixture. For example;
Clays will always
dominate the spectrum
 Clays will always dominate the spectrum in mixtures of
in mixtures of carbonates and clays;
carbonates and clay
 Carbonates have a low coefficient of absorption and are
typically spectrally dominated by other spectrally
absorbing minerals (e.g. chlorite and white mica);
 Talc will typically dominate in a mixed spectrum as it has

quite a high coefficient of absorption.
WHAT TO EXPECT IN MIXED

SPECTRA
Typically in mixed spectra, overlap of the spectral absorptions
of more than one mineral usually produces a spectrum which
is often dominated by one mineral, but which displays the
spectral characteristics of other components.
The characteristics of a mixed spectrum include:
 Additional absorption features along with those of the

spectrally dominant mineral;
 Additional shoulders or inflections on the dominant

mineral spectrum;
 Increased depth of absorptions, relative to the normal

depths of the features in the dominant mineral spectrum;
 Broadening of absorption features;
 Wavelength shifts in absorption features.
HOW TO INTERPRET SIMPLE

MIXTURES
One of the easiest ways to identify the components of a
mixed spectrum is to consider the spectral responses of a
suite of samples from the same region.
These responses should represent mixtures of varying

proportions of the mineral components in these samples.
Given that some of the spectra will be dominated by one or
other of the mineral components, this allows the identification
of these “end-member” components in a mixed spectrum.
This type of interpretation is best achieved by comparing the
suite of spectra on a stack plot.
Starting with a suite of samples from the same region, the

following steps may be followed to interpret the spectral
mixtures in the suite:
1. Identify the spectrally dominant mineral, using the same

procedure as applied for pure minerals.
2. By comparison with the library spectrum, identify the

wavelength positions of any additional absorption
features and/or approximate positions of inflexions,
Easy Steps
to 3. Note absorptions that appear deeper relative to the other
Mixed Spectra absorptions, when compared to the relative depths
Interpretation represented in the library spectrum.
4. Refer to the other “end-member” spectra to identify the

minerals that may be causing these additional features
(i.e. in other associated spectra of samples close to your
mixed/problem sample).
5. Search the spectral library for minerals that display

absorptions at these wavelengths.
PROBLEMATIC MINERALS IN
MIXTURES
Opaque minerals, such as magnetite and sulphides, have an
adverse effect on the spectrum of a sample if:
 Finely disseminated in the sample;
 Present in proportions >5-10%.
Their effect on the spectrum is to:
 Significantly lower the reflectance;
 Weaken the spectral absorption features of other

minerals in the sample.
Carbonaceous material in rocks such as black shales will

have a similar effect on their spectral responses as that
caused by finely disseminated opaque minerals.
ARTEFACTS IN MIXTURES
Artefact features are additional features in a spectrum that
are not related to the sample mineralogy and therefore will
often cause errors in automated analysis and complicate your
interpretations because they are not represented in many
mineral spectral libraries. The presence of these can lead to
misidentification.
The most common artefact features are due to impurities

such as kerogen oil (from drill rig, diesel spill or other
sources), dry vegetation or wood, resin impregnations, or
plastic.
Other artefacts can be introduced into the spectrum by an

unusual overall curvature to the spectrum, which may be
related to dark samples or poor illumination.
K
K
Figure 8: Example of kerogen/oil spectra. Unlabelled spectrum is of a sample with

kerogen/oil impurity. Labelled spectrum is of a kerogen sample.
SPECTRAL VARIATIONS WITHIN

MINERAL GROUPS
Subtle spectral variations, such as wavelength shifts and
variations in the shapes of the absorption features, may be
observed within the spectra from a mineral group. These
may be attributed to:
 Crystallinity variations;
 Compositional variations;
 Mineral orientation.
Of these, mineral crystallinity and composition are the most

significant for mineral exploration.
INFLUENCE OF CRYSTALLINITY
In terms of spectral analysis, significant crystallinity variations
are associated with the white mica and kaolinite groups of
minerals, both very important in terms of alteration and
regolith mapping for mineral exploration.
Crystallinity variations are typically represented by subtle

variations in the shapes of the absorption features.
 Poorly crystalline minerals, for example, often display

relatively broad absorption features with poorly
developed secondary absorption features.
 In contrast, highly crystalline minerals typically have well-

developed absorption features, which are often sharp
and well-defined.
These variations are illustrated in the relevant sections in the

spectral library (see kaolinite and illite).
INFLUENCE OF COMPOSITION
The white mica, chlorite, biotite, carbonate, alunite and
smectite mineral groups are those most commonly observed
to exhibit compositional variations in their spectra. These
minerals are often very important in terms of alteration and
regolith mapping for mineral exploration.
Compositional variations are typically represented by shifts in

the wavelength positions of diagnostic absorption features,
with the overall characteristic spectral signature of the mineral
remaining generally unchanged.
These variations are illustrated in the relevant sections in the

spectral library.
NOTES
Spectral Library 29
SPECTRAL
LIBRAR Y
The Spectral library has been developed into three components:
1. Mineral Group Index
2. Mineral Index
3. Spectral Search Index
This format allows the user to quickly access, compare and cross reference between
mineral species, mineral groups and perhaps most importantly spectral similarity. The
Spectral Search Index Group is unique to GMEX and provides the user with a straight
forward method for easy spectral interpretation using the spectral library.
MINERAL
GROUP INDEX
The mineral groups listed below are listed to provide the user with a
quick reference to the spectra of related mineral phases and are
grouped to show the subtle variation that exists between each
phase.
Kandite group 43
White Mica group 59
Smectite group 69
Mg Clay group 77
Chlorite group 81
Biotite-Phlogopite group 93
Amphibole group 103
Carbonate group 109
Mn and Cu Carbonate group 123
Spectral Library 31
Sulphate group 131

Calcsilicate group 141
Mg Phyllosilicate group 145
Aluminium hydroxide group 151
Zeolite group 157
Ammonium minerals group 163
Pyroxene group 167
Miscellaneous silicates 173
Iron oxide group 185
MINERAL
INDEX
The mineral groups listed below are listed to provide the user with a quick reference to the
spectra of specific minerals.
Actinolite 104 Chlorite (Mg-Chlorite) 82
Alunite 132 Chlorite (vis-NIR-SWIR) 88
Ankerite 112 Chlorite Composition 90
Azurite 126 Clinopyroxene 170
Biotite 98 Diaspore 154
Biotite (vis-NIR-SWIR) 100 Dickite 48
Buddingtonite/ NH4 Dolomite 116

Feldspar 164
Epidote 128
Calcite 110
Fe carbonate (vis-NIR-SWIR) 120
Chlorite (Fe-Chlorite) 86
Goethite 188
Chlorite (Mg-Fe Chlorite) 84
Gibbsite 152
Spectral Library 33
Mineral index continued……………..
Gypsum 134 Nontronite 72
Halloysite 50 Orthopyroxene 168
Hematite 186 Palygorskite 78
Hornblende 106 Phlogopite I 94
Illite/ Sericite 60 Phlogopite II 96
Illite/Sericite Composition 66 Prehnite 174
Illite/Sericite Crystallinity 64 Pyrophyllite 50
Jarosite 136 Rhodochrosite (Mn carbonate) 124
Jarosite (vis-NIR-SWIR) 138 Saponite 74
Kaolinite 44 Serpentine 148
Kaolinite Crystallinity 46 Siderite 114
Magnesite 118 Talc 146
Malachite 128 Topaz 176
Montmorillonite 70 Tourmaline 178
Mn Carbonate-Rhodochrosite 124 Zunyite 182
Muscovite/ Sericite 62
Nacrite 52
Natrolite 158
NH4 Illite/ Sericite 162
SPECTRAL
SEARCH INDEX
The Spectral Search Index groups minerals according to their spectral grouping and
provide the user with a quick reference to identifying minerals based on the structured
approach outlined on page 18 onwards.
SPECTRAL GROUPS
2160-2170NM PAGE 35
2180-2228NM PAGE 36
2230-2264NM PAGE 37
2264-2298NM PAGE 38
2300-2330NM PAGE 39
2330-2370NM PAGE 40
Miscellaneous
Silicates PAGE 41
Miscellaneous PAGE 42
Spectral Library 35
2160-2170nm
page
Pyrophyllite
1-56
Alunite
1-132
1300 1400 1500 1600 1700 1800 1900 2000 2100 2200 2300 2400 2500
2180-2228nm
page
Halloysite
1-50
Kaolinite
1-44
Dickite
1-48
Nacrite
1-52
Muscovite
1-62
Illite
1-60
NH4 Illite
1-162
Montmorillonite
1-70
1-78
Palygorskite
1300 1400 1500 1600 1700 1800 1900 2000 2100 2200 2300 2400 2500
Spectral Library 37
2230-2264nm
page
Chlorite
1-86
Biotite
1-98
1300 1400 1500 1600 1700 1800 1900 2000 2100 2200 2300 2400 2500
2264-2298nm
page
Jarosite
1-136
Gibbsite 1-152
Nontronite 1-72
1300 1400 1500 1600 1700 1800 1900 2000 2100 2200 2300 2400 2500
Spectral Library 39
2300-2330nm
page
Phlogopite I
1-94
Phlogopite II
1-96
Mg-Chlorite
1-82
Actinolite/Tremolite
1-104
Talc 1-146
Serpentine
1-148
Dolomite
1-116
Magnesite
1-118
Saponite 1-74
1300 1400 1500 1600 1700 1800 1900 2000 2100 2200 2300 2400 2500
2330-2370nm
page
Epidote 1-142
Mg-Fe Chlorite
1-84
1-86
Fe-Chlorite
Biotite 1-98
Hornblende
1-106
Prehnite
1-174
1-112
Ankerite
Calcite
1-110
1300 1400 1500 1600 1700 1800 1900 2000 2100 2200 2300 2400 2500
Spectral Library 41
MISCELLANEOUS SILICATES
page
Buddingtonite
1-164
Natrolite 1-158
Topaz
Tourmaline
1-178
Zunyite
1-182
1300 1400 1500 1600 1700 1800 1900 2000 2100 2200 2300 2400 2500
MISCELLANEOUS
page
Diaspore
1-154
Gypsum
1-134
1300 1400 1500 1600 1700 1800 1900 2000 2100 2200 2300 2400 2500
Spectral Library 43
T H E K A N D I T E G R O U P
KAOLINITE
Kaolinite
DICKI TE Dickite
HALLOYSI TE Halloysite
NACRI TE
Halloysite
(dehydrated
)
Nacrite
1300 1400 1500 1600 1700 1800 1900 2000 2100 2200 2300 2400 2500
KAOLINITE
K
A Al4[Si4O10](OH)8
N
D
I
T
E
S
Spectral Library 45
183
0
~231 238
2 ~2350
~216
~1400,
2
1412
~220
6
130 140 150 1600 170 180 190 200 210 220 2300 240 250
0 0 0 0 0 0 (nanometres)
Wavelength 0 0 0 0 0
Distinctive Features
Present in highly
crystalline kaolinites Typically weak to no water
NO Fe features Characteristic
in vis-NIR 3 absorptions of
kaolinite spectra
This absorption
persists in mixed
spectr
a
Diagnostic double
Double OH absorption AlOH absorption.
Note different
Note different intensities
and wavelength positions wavelengths
compared to Dickite and Halloysite. compared to Dickite.
This absorption may be seen as an Variations in crystallinity
Variations in crystallinity affect inflexion or weak absorption
this doublet affect this doublet
in poorly crystalline kaolinite and in
mixtures
KAOLINITE
K CRYSTALLINITY
A
N
D
I
T
E
S
Spectral Library 47
K2
y
t
i
n K1
i
l
l
a
t
s
y K3
r
C
g
n
i
s
a
e K4a
r
c
n
I K4b
130 140 150 1600 170 180 1900 200 210 220 230 240 250
0 0 0 0 Wavelength
0 (nanometres)
0 0 0 0 0 0
DICKITE
K
A Al4[Si4O10](OH)8
N
D
I
T
E
S
Spectral Library 49
~180
0
~237
8
~138
4
~141
8 ~217 ~220
8 6
130 140 150 160 170 180 190 200 210 220 230 240 2500
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 (nanometres)
This is a highly crystalline dickite. Dickite may not Distinctive Features

always display as intense absorptions for the doublets,
especially the one around 1400nm
NO Fe features
in vis-NIR
This absorption persists

in mixed spectra
Diagnostic OH doublet
Note difference in wavelengths
and intensities relative to Diagnostic AlOH doublet
Note difference in wavelength
Kaolinite and Halloysite
position and intensity of 2178nm
absorption relative to Kaolinite
HALLOYSITE
K
A Al4Si4(OH)8O10.8H2O
N .
D
I
T
E
S
Spectral Library 51
Dehydrated
~216
6
~138
9 ~141
0 Hydrated
~220
6
~139
4 ~141
4
130 140 150 160 170 180 190 200 210 220 230 240 2500
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 (nanometres)
Width of this feature
increases in hydrated Halloysite
NO Fe features
in vis-NIR
This degree of detail

Note lack of minor in the secondary
absorptions here absorptions is not
compared to Kaolinite always present
Diagnostic OH doublet
Note difference in wavelength
and intensities relative to
Kaolinite and Dickite Water feature increases Diagnostic AlOH Kandite doublet.
in intensity in the Note similar wavelengths to
hydrated halloysites kaolinite but typically weaker
2166nm absorption relative
to 2206nm absorption
NACRITE
K
A Al4[Si4O10](OH)8
N
D
I
T
E
S
Spectral Library 53
~238
0
1386
141
7
220
217 2
9
130 140 150 1600 1700 180 190 200 210 2200 230 240 250
0 0 0 0 0 (nanometres)
NO Fe features
in vis-NIR
This absorption
persists in mixed
spectr
a
Diagnostic double AlOH

Double OH absorption absorption.
Note different intensities Note different
and wavelength positions wavelengths
compared to Kaolinite. compared to Kaolinite.
Although at a similar wavelength The two absorptions
this absorption is narrower and are typically closer
sharper than in Dickite together than in Dickite.
NOTES
Spectral Library 55
P Y R O P H Y L L I T E
PYROPHYLLITE
P PYROPHYLLITE
Y
R Al4[Si8O20](OH)4
O
P
H
Y
L
L
I
T
E
Spectral Library 57
2066,
2078
~231
9
~139 ~216
6 6
130 140 1500 160 170 180 190 200 210 220 230 240 250
0 0 0 0 0 0 (nanometres)
Wavelength 0 0 0 0 0 0
NO Fe features
in vis-NIR
This absorption
persists
mixtures
in
Single sharp Diagnostic AlOH absorption.

OH absorption This absorption will persist
in mixtures and may be
identified even when
These absorptions may
pyrophyllite is only present
persist in mixtures but
in minor amounts.
only when significant
proportions of pyrophyllite
is
present.
NOTES
Spectral Library 59
THE WH I T E M I C A
GROUP
(ILLITE-SERICITE-MUSCOVITE)
ILLITE/SERICITE Illite/Sericite
MUSCOVI TE/SERICITE
COMPOSITIONAL
VARIATIONS
Muscovite/Sericite
CRYSTALLINITY
VARIATIONS
1300 1400 1500 1600 1700 1800 1900 2000 2100 2200 2300 2400 2500
NOTE ABOUT TERMINOLOGY:

The different names of the white mica phases can be confusing. In general
they can be simplified as follows: the highly crystalline white micas (i.e. 2M
white micas) can be referred to by their mineral names muscovite, phengite,
or paragonite. The illitic white micas also display compositional substitution
and can be referred to as illite, phengitic illite or paragonitic illite.
ILLITE
I
L (Ca0.05Na0.03K0.61)(Al1.53Fe+30.22Fe+20.03Mg
L
0.28)
(Si3.4Al0.6)O10(OH)2
I
T
E
S
Spectral Library 61
~234 ~244
7 0
~191
2
~141
0
2180-2228
130 140 150 160 170 180 190 200 210 220 230 240 250
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 (nanometres)
Two diagnostic
absorptions
.These persist in
mixed spectra
Single sharp
OH absorption
Water absorption
(Note that this absorption is weak Diagnostic single sharp AlOH absorption
in the muscovite spectrum) varies in wavelength from
2180-2228nm depending on composition
MUSCOVITE
I
L K2Al4[Si6Al2O20](OH,F)4
L
I
T
E
S
Spectral Library 63
~211
4
~234 ~243
2 5
~141
0
2180-
2228
130 140 150 160 170 180 190 200 210 220 230 240 250
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 (nanometres)
Distinguished from illite by weak
to absent water absorption
Two diagnostic
absorptions
(Note relative depth
to main 2200nm
Single sharp absorption)
OH absorption These persit in
mixed spectra
Diagnostic single sharp AlOH absorption

varies in wavelength from 2180-2228nm
depending on composition
I LLITE /W HITE
I MICA
L C RYSTALLINITY
L
I
T
E
S
Spectral Library 65
y
t
i
n
i
l
l
a
t
s
y
r
C
g
n
i
s
a
e
r
c
n
I
INCREASING CRYSTALLINITY
=
1. Increasing sharpness of AlOH
absorption
2. Increasing depth of AlOH absorption
relative to water absorption
3. Weakening water feature
130 1400 150 160 170 180 1900 200 210 220 230 240 250
0 0 0 0 Wavelength
0 (nanometres)
0 0 0 0 0 0
W HITE M ICA
I C OMPOSITION
L
L
I
T
E
S
Spectral Library 67
Paragonite
Tending to
Paragonite
2184
'Normal' Potassic
compositions
(Muscovite)
219
0
Tending to Phengite
2202
221
4
Phengite
222
5
1300 1400 1500 1600 1700 1800 1900 2000 2100 2200 2300 2400 2500
NOTE ABOUT TERMINOLOGY:

The different names of the white mica phases can be confusing. In general they can be simplified
as follows: the highly crystalline white micas (ie 2M white micas) can be referred to by their
mineral names muscovite, phengite, or paragonite. The illitic white micas also display
compositional substitution and can be referred to as illite, phengitic illite or paragonitic illite.
NOTES
Spectral Library 69
T H E S M E C T I T E G R O U P
MONTMORILLONITE
NONTRONITE Montmorillonite
SAPONITE
Nontronite
Saponite
1300 1400 1500 1600 1700 1800 1900 2000 2100 2200 2300 2400 2500
MONTMORILLONITE
S
M (1/2Ca,Na)0.7(Al,Mg,Fe)4
[(Si,Al)8O20](OH)4.nH2O
E
C
T
I
T
E
S
Spectral Library 71
2205-
2212
~141
1
~190
4
130 140 150 160 170 180 1900 200 210 220 230 240 250
0 0 0 0 0 0
Wavelength 0
(nanometres) 0 0 0 0 0
Note lack of any

absorptions here
in contrast to the two
absorptions of illite
and muscovite
Deep water absorptions Single AlOH absorption.

Typical of all smectites Typically broader than illite or muscovite.
Absorption may vary in wavelength
(Note sharp minima and from 2205-2212nm. Note relative
asymmetric shape) depth of this absorption to water features
Note: Beidellite (high Al montmorillonite)

has wavelengths 2180-2190.
NONTRONITE
S
M (1/2Ca,Na)0.7(Fe,Al,Mg)4
[(Si,Al)8O20](OH)4.nH2O
E
(Nontronite is the Fe-end member of the
C Montmorillonite series)
T
I
T
E
S
Spectral Library 73
~2363-2394
~2270-2296
1300 1400 1500 1600 1700 1800 1900 2000 2100 2200 2300 2400 2500
Diagnostic
secondary
absorption
Deep water absorptions

Diagnostic FeOH absorption
(Note sharp minima and
(Note wavelength position within FeOH band.
asymmetric shape)
Typically wavelength position shifts
depending on Fe:Mg:Al proportions)
SAPONITE
S
M (1/2Ca,Na)0.7(Mg,Al,Fe)4[(Si,
E Al)8O20](OH)4.nH2O
C
T
I
T
E
S
Spectral Library 75
~2380
1416
~2309
1908
1300 1400 1500 1600 1700 1800 1900 2000 2100 2200 2300 2400 2500
Diagnostic
secondary
absorption
Diagnostic saponite
MgOH absorption
(Note wavelength
position of absorption
within MgOH band)
Deep water absorptions characteristic
of smectites (Note sharp minima and
asymmetric shape)
NOTES
Spectral Library 77
M G C L A Y
PALYGORSKITE
PALYGORSKITE
M
G (OH2)4(OH)2Mg5Si8O20.4H2O
-
C
L
A
Y
Spectral Library 79
~2256
~2220
~1421
~1918
1300 1400 1500 1600 1700 1800 1900 2000 2100 2200 2300 2400 2500
NOT an absorption
~an artefact of
hull quotient
processing.
Two diagnostic
Characteristic absorptions
deep water absorptions
(Note sharp minima and
asymmetric shape)
NOTES
Spectral Library 81
T H E C H L O R I T E G R O U P
M G -C H L O R I T E
Mg Chlorite
M G -F E
CHLORITE
Mg-Fe Chlorite
F E -C H L O R I T E
Fe-Chlorite
PLUS
CHLORITE
1300 1400 1500 1600 1700 1800 1900 2000 2100 2200 2300 2400 2500
vis-NIR-SWIR
MG-
C CHLORITE
H
L (Mg,Al,Fe)12[(Si,Al)8O20](OH)16
O
R
I
T
E
S
Spectral Library 83
1880
2380
1506
1980
1430 ~2245
1394 2325
1300 1400 1500 1600 1700 1800 1900 2000 2100 2200 2300 2400 2500
Common shape of chlorite water absorptions
This feature may be

better developed in
other Mg-Chlorites
Common shape of
OH absorptions Diagnostic MgOH absorption
for Mg-Chlorites Typical wavelength position
Diagnostic FeOH absorption
of Mg-rich Chlorite (see plot
(see plot of Mg N o
of Mg N ovs wavelength) .
vs wavelength)
This absorption is not
always a doublet
M G -F E
C C H L O RI T E
H
L (Mg,Al,Fe)12[(Si,Al)8O20](OH)
O 16
R
I
T
E
S
Spectral Library 85
2000
1409
2254
2347
1300 1400 1500 1600 1700 1800 1900 2000 2100 2200 2300 2400 2500
Common shape of
chlorite water absorptions.
Note wavelength position

of OH absorption
relative to Epidote
Diagnostic MgOH
absorption.
The wavelength
Diagnostic FeOH absorption position is typical of the
(see plot of Mg No vs wavelength). intermediate Chlorites.
The FeOH can in rare cases be (see plot of Mg No
deeper than the MgOH feature. vs wavelength)
F E -C H L O R I T E
C
H (Mg,Al,Fe)12[(Si,Al)8O20](OH)16
L
O
R
I
T
E
S
Spectral Library 87
2261
1300 1400 1500 1600 1700 1800 1900 2000 2100 2200 2300 2400 2500
Common shape of
chlorite water absorptions.
Diagnostic MgOH
absorption.
The wavelength
Artefact of strong Fe 2+and Diagnostic FeOH position is typical of
hull quotient processing. absorption (see plot of Mg No Fe-rich Chlorites
Strong Fe 2+can mask out vs wavelength). The FeOH can (see plot of Mg N o
the chlorite OH feature here. in rare cases be deeper than the vs wavelength)
MgOH feature.
CHLORITE
C
VIS -NIR-SWIR
H
L
(Mg,Al,Fe)12[(Si,Al)8O20](OH)16
O
R
I
T
E
S
Spectral Library 89
2240-2256
~750 2320-2360
~928
~1130
Chlorite FeOH and

MgOH absorptions
(see the other chlorite
Wavelength (nanometres) spectra for discussion)
Diagnostic iron absorptions of chlorite, these
three features are present in most common
chlorites and can allow chlorite to be identified
in mixtures when the SWIR features are either
masked or weak.
CHLORITE
C COMPOSITION
H
L  Wavelength of MgOH absorption
versus Mg Number
O
R  Wavelength of FeOH absorption
versus Mg Number
I
T
E
S
Spectral Library 91
Wavelength MgOH versus MgNo

2262
2260
2
2258 R = 0.8619
Wavelength (nm)
2256
2254
2252
2250
2248
2246
2244
2242
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Mg Number
Wavelength FeOH versus MgNo

2365
2360 2
R = 0.85
2355
Wavelen gth (nm)
2350
2345
2340
2335
2330
2325
2320
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Fe-rich Mg-rich
Mg Number
Important NOTE: the chlorite MgOH can be affected by the presence of carbonate which
overlaps the chlorite MgOH absorption. It is therefore usually more reliable to use the FeOH
absorption for determination of chlorite composition.
NOTES
Spectral Library 93
THE BIOTITE-
PHLOGOPITE G R O U P
PHLOGOPITE I
Phlogopite I
PHLOGOPITE II
BIOTI TE Phlogopite II
Biotite
PLUS
BIOTI TE 1300 1400 1500 1600 1700 1800 1900 2000 2100 2200 2300 2400 2500
V I S -NI R - S WI R
PHLOGOPITE I
B
I K2(Mg,Fe+2)6[Si6Al2O20](OH,F)4
O
(Mg Biotite)
T
I
T
E
S
Spectral Library 95
2433
~2244
2378
2325
1300 1400 1500 1600 1700 1800 1900 2000 2100 2200 2300 2400 2500
This absorption
may be present
in some spectra
This FeOH absorption is
common but not always This secondary MgOH
present (e.g. Phlogopite II) absorption is common
in all Mg-minerals
Wavelength position of the MgOH absorption

is characteristic of Mg-rich Biotite-Phlogopite micas.
B PHLOGOPITE II
I
O K2(Mg,Fe+2)6[Si6Al2O20](OH,F)4
T
(Mg Biotite)
I
T
E
S
Spectral Library 97
1379
2433
2377
2326
1300 1400 1500 1600 1700 1800 1900 2000 2100 2200 2300 2400 2500
This absorption
may be present
in some spectra
This absorption
(secondary MgOH)
is common in all
Mg-minerals
Wavelength position of this MgOH absorption
is characteristic of Mg-rich biotite-phlogopite micas.
B BIOTITE
I
O
K2(Mg,Fe+2)6-4(Fe+3,Al,Ti)0-2
T [Si6-5Al2-3O20](OH,F)4
I
T
E
S
Spectral Library 99
2255
2350-2360
1300 1400 1500 1600 1700 1800 1900 2000 2100 2200 2300 2400 2500
Artefact of strong Fe 2+response
This 'peak' between
and hull quotient processing
the 2 biotite absorptions
usually sits higher
relative to the hull
than for chlorites.
Note that biotite
absorptions are typically
deeper and sharper than
chlorite absorptions.
Diagnostic MgOH
absorption.
Note long wavelength
position diagnostic of
o
Fe-Biotite.
Diagnostic FeOH absorption.
Note that in some rare cases the
FeOH can be deeper than the MgOH
in some biotite spectra.
BIOTITE
B VIS -NIR-SWIR
I
O K2(Mg,Fe+2)6-4(Fe+3,Al,Ti)0-2
T [Si6-5Al2-3O20](OH,F)4
I
T
E
S
Spectral Library 101
Possible minor
chlorite
~900
~1165
2240-2256
2380
2320-2360
Biotite FeOH and

MgOH absorptions
(see the other biotite
Common shapes and wavelengths of the ferrous (Fe) 2+ spectra for discussion)
iron absorptions of biotite, these two features are present This biotite is
in many biotites and can allow discrimination from probably phlogopitic
chlorite spectra. However, there is some variability in (Mg-biotite).
their wavelengths between different biotites and they are
not diagnostic of biotite per se.
NOTES
T H E A M P H I B O L E S
A C T I N O L I T E -T R E M O L I T E
HORNBLENDE
Actinolite/Tremolite
Hornblende
1300 1400 1500 1600 1700 1800 1900 2000 2100 2200 2300 2400 2500
A ACTINOLITE/
M TREMOLITE
P
H
Ca2(Mg,Fe+2)5[Si8O22](OH,F)2
I
B
O
L
E
S
~2117
~1399
~2384
~2301
~2314
1300 1400 1500 1600 1700 1800 1900 2000 2100 2200 2300 2400 2500
Diagnostic absorption distinguishes
Actinolite/Tremolite from Talc
Hull
Single sharp
absorption
Diagnostic
secondary
MgOH feature
of amphiboles
Drop in reflectance
due to Fe2+ in Actinolite Diagnostic actinolite doublet Wavelength and doublet
Note: This drop is not MgOH feature. diagnostic of these
present in Tremolite Shorter wavelength absorption amphiboles
of doublet is at a different
wavelength than that in Talc
HORNBLENDE
A
M (Na,K)0-1Ca2(Mg,Fe+2,Fe+3,Al)5
P [Si6-7Al2-1O22](OH,F)2
H
I
B
O
L
E
S
~2320-2330
~2390-2400
1300 1400 1500 1600 1700 1800 1900 2000 2100 2200 2300 2400 2500
Note that the OH feature

is less sharp and deep
compared with actinolite/tremolite. Diagnostic secondary MgOH absorption
Diagnostic amphibole MgOH absorption. of hornblende note that this absorption is
Note that this absorption is “fat” and not typically at longer wavelengths than the
an obvious doublet, compared with the similar absorption for the other Mg minerals
MgOH absorption of actinolite/tremolite. (i.e. actinolite, talc or phlogopite).
Most amphiboles except actinolite/tremolite

have this absorption between 2390-2410nm,
which can be useful to discriminate the
Mg minerals when occurring in mixtures.
NOTES
T H E C A R B O N A T E G R O U P
Calcite
CALCI TE
ANKERI TE Ankerite
SIDERI TE
Siderite
DOLOMI TE
Dolomite
MAGNESI TE
Magnetite
PLUS 1300 1400 1500 1600 1700 1800 1900 2000 2100 2200 2300 2400 2500
FE-CARBONATE
V I S - N I R - S WI R
C CALCITE
A
R CaCO3
B
O
N
A
T
E
S
2156
1880
1992
2340-2345
1300 1400 1500 1600 1700 1800 1900 2000 2100 2200 2300 2400 2500
Weaker carbonate absorptions

are not present in mixed
spectra
Diagnostic carbonate absorption.

Wavelength diagnostic of Calcite.
This is the only absorption
that persists in mixtures.
C ANKERITE
A
R Ca(Mg,Fe+2,Mn)(CO3)2
B
O
N
A
T
E
S
Hull
2153
2330-2340
1300 1400 1500 1600 1700 1800 1900 2000 2100 2200 2300 2400 2500
Hull
Reflectance
This is not an absorption
feature, but is an artefact
of hull quotient processing
and the strong influence of Fe
in the reflectance spectrum
Drop in reflectance due to Fe2+ feature. Diagnostic carbonate absorption
See the vis-NIR-SWIR Fe carbonate figure) (Note that the wavelength
position is diagnostic of Ankerite
and is the only absorption
that persists in mixtures)
C SIDERITE
A
R FeCO3
B
O
N
A
T
E
S
~2157
~1990
~2320-2350
1300 1400 1500 1600 1700 1800 1900 2000 2100 2200 2300 2400 2500
Weaker carbonate absorptions

are not present in mixed
spectra
This is not an absorption feature

but an artefact of the hull quotient Diagnostic carbonate absorption.
processing on a steep Fe slope that Wavelength varies depending on Mg and Mn substitution.
is typical of the Fe carbonates Typically Mg-rich siderites have shortest wavelengths (2320nm)
(see viv-NIR-SWIR spectrum) and more Mn-rich siderites go to longer wavelengths (2350nm) .
This is the only absorption that persists in mixtures.
C DOLOMITE
A
R CaMg(CO3)2
B
O
N
A
T
E
S
~2140
~1865
~1940
~2320-2328
1300 1400 1500 1600 1700 1800 1900 2000 2100 2200 2300 2400 2500
Artefact of minor Fe2+and Distinctive Features

Hull Quotient processing.
(Present in Fe dolomites only) Carbonate absorptions
Artefact of Hull
Quotient Processing
Diagnostic Carbonate absorption.

Wavelength position diagnostic
Water (not always present) of dolomites. This absorption is
the only one to persist in mixtures
C MAGNESITE
A
R MgCO3
B
O
N
A
T
E
S
~1850 ~2130
~2302
1300 1400 1500 1600 1700 1800 1900 2000 2100 2200 2300 2400 2500
Carbonate absorptions
Water (not always present) Diagnostic carbonate absorption

Note wavelength position which is
diagnostic of Magnesite
C FE-
A CARBONATE
R
VIS -NIR-SWIR
B
O
N
A
T
E
S
~1270
~1060
2320-2335
(Fe dolomite-ankerite)
2320-2360
(siderite)
Carbonate CO3 features, the

Diagnostic Ferrous (Fe2+) iron absorptions of Fe carbonate.
wavelength indicates ankerite-Fe
This feature can be identified even if the SWIR carbonate
dolomite.Siderite has a similar Fe2+
feature is masked by other minerals (i.e. in mixtures with
feature in the vis-NIR but more
white mica or other clays). The intensity of this feature can
widely variable wavelength for the
be used to measure the proportions of Fe carbonate in a suite
carbonate feature From 2320-
of samples where the carbonate CO3 feature is masked.
2360nm depending on Mg, Fe and
Mn contents.
NOTES
THE CU A N D MN
CARBONA T E GRO U P
RHODOCHROSI TE Rhodochrosite
AZURI TE
MALACHITE
Azurite
Malachite
M R HOD OCHROS ITE

N
- MnCO3
C
A
R
B
O
N
A
T
E
~550
~445
~2360
~407
Rhodochrosite can have ferrous iron features here, similar in

shape and wavelengths to those observed in the Fe carbonates.
Diagnostic
Wavelength (nanometres) rhodochrosite
carbonate absorption,
Common shapes and wavelengths of the Mn absorptions of note the long
rhodochrosite, these features are typical of rhodochrosite and wavelength of this
can help identify the presence of rhodochrosite in mixtures. feature compared to
other more common
carbonates.
C
AZURITE
U
-
C Cu3CO3(OH2)
A
R
B
O
N
A
T
E
Hull Quotient
Reflectance
~448 ~2040
~1496
~790 ~2283 ~2352
Azurite CO3 features,

Wavelength (nanometres) also distinctive in
wavelength and shape.
Diagnostic Cu absorptions and peak which gives
the azurite its characteristic blue colour.
C
U MALACHITE
-
C
Cu.CO3(OH)2
A
R
B
O
N
A
T
E
Hull Quotient
Reflectance
530
~2400
~2355
~2265
~830
Malachite CO3
absorptions are
distinctive in
wavelength and shape.
Diagnostic Cu absorptions and peak which gives

the malachite its characteristic green colour.
NOTES
T H E S U L P H A T E G R O U P
ALUNITE Alunite
GYPSUM
JAROSITE Gypsum
Jarosite
PLUS
JAROSITE
V I S -NI R - 1300 1400 1500 1600 1700 1800 1900 2000
2100 2200 2300 2400 2500
S WI R
ALUNITE
S
U (K,Na) Al3 (SO4)2.(OH)6
L
P
H
A
T
E
S
~2324
~1760
~1429-1440
~1474-1496
~2160-2170
1300 1400 1500 1600 1700 1800 1900 2000 2100 2200 2300 2400 2500
Diagnostic double This absorption

absorptions. may be modified
Wavelengths will in shape in mixtures
vary with composition withpyrophyllite,
(i.e. Na:K). kaolinite and dickite
K-alunite has wavelengths Diagnostic absorption
usually <1480nm wheras
Na-alunite has wavelengths
usually >1490nm.
GYPSUM
S
U CaSO4.2H20
L
P
H
A
T
E
S
~2215
~1750
~1535
~1490
~1449
~1948
1300 1400 1500 1600 1700 1800 1900 2000 2100 2200 2300 2400 2500
These weak absorptions

may not persist in
mixtures
Three diagnostic
water features
Wavelength of water absorption

Diagnostic OH can be diagnostic even when minor
sulphate feature gypsum is present
JAROSITE
S
U KFe3 (SO4)2 (OH)6
L
P
H
A
T
E
S
~1512-1544
~1468-1477
~1844-1855
~2206
~2262-2277
1300 1400 1500 1600 1700 1800 1900 2000 2100 2200 2300 2400 2500
Two diagnostic
OH absorptions
(Note their shape and
wavelength)
This absorption
usually persists
in mixtures
Diagnostic absorption
JAROSITE
S VIS -NIR-SWIR
U
L
P
H
A
T
E
S
~750
~925
~435
Diagnostic jarosite
Diagnostic jarosite Wavelength (nanometres) SWIR absorptions (see
the main SWIR
absorption, this is a weak
jarosite spectrum)
sharp feature characteristic Ferric (Fe3+) iron absorption of jarosite. The
of jarosite and evident in wavelength of this absorption can be affected by
mixtures. the presence of iron oxides as well, so this
feature is not diagnostic of jarosite in mixtures.
NOTES
C A L C S I L I C A T E
EPIDOTE
C
A EPIDOTE
L
C Ca2Fe+3Al2O.OH.Si2O7.SiO4
S
I
L
I
C
A
T
E
~1830
1947
~1545
~2256
2335-2342
1300 1400 1500 1600 1700 1800 1900 2000 2100 2200 2300 2400 2500
Diagnostic absorption which

often persists in mixtures
Diagnostic OH absorption
distinguishes Epidote
from Chlorite and helps
identify epidote in
mixtures.
Diagnostic epidote absorptions.

Diagnostic FeOH absorption Typically does not vary much
of epidote. Typically does not in wavelength.
shift muchin wavelength.
NOTES
M G P H Y L L O S I L I C A T E S
TALC Talc
SERPENTINE
Serpentine
1300 1400 1500 1600 1700 1800 1900 2000 2100 2200 2300 2400 2500
M TALC
G
- Mg6[Si8O20](OH)4
M
I
N
E
R
A
L
~2390
~1396
~2288
~2310
1300 1400 1500 1600 1700 1800 1900 2000 2100 2200 2300 2400 2500
Note differences in absorptions
compared to Actinolite/Tremolite
Diagnostic
secondary
MgOH absorption
Single sharp
OH absorption
Diagnostic Talc MgOH doublet.

Wavelength position of Wavelength positions of absorptions
this secondary absorption in doublet are diagnostic of Talc
is different from Actinolite/Tremolite
M SERPENTINE
G
- Mg3[Si2O5](OH)4
M
I
N
E
R
A
L
~2128
~2098
~1393
~2326
1300 1400 1500 1600 1700 1800 1900 2000 2100 2200 2300 2400 2500
Single sharp
OH absorption
Diagnostic Serpentine
Diagnostic absorption MgOH absorption with a
Note, this absorption characteristic asymmetric shape
is not always doubled
NOTES
A L U M I N I U M
H Y D R O X I D E S
GIBBSITE Gibbsite
DIASPORE
Diaspore
1300 1400 1500 1600 1700 1800 1900 2000 2100 2200 2300 2400 2500
A
L
GIBBSITE
-
H Al(OH)3
Y
D
R
O
X
I
D
E
S
~1549 ~2356
~1521
~2268
~1452
1300 1400 1500 1600 1700 1800 1900 2000 2100 2200 2300 2400 2500
Diagnostic OH absorptions
This absorption is
diagnostic of gibbsite
and can persist strongly
in mixtures
A
L DIASPORE
-
H
-AlO(OH)
Y
D
R
O
X
I
D
E
S
1798
1300 1400 1500 1600 1700 1800 1900 2000 2100 2200 2300 2400 2500
Distinctive broad absorption
Diagnostic deep and broad absorption

which can be identified in mixtures.
NOTES
T H E Z E O L I T E G R O U P
NATROLITE
NATROLITE
Z
E Na2[Al2Si3O10].2H20
O
L
I
T
E
S
1770 1815
1338
1486 2198
~1456 ~2077
~2007
~1940
1300 1400 1500 1600 1700 1800 1900 2000 2100 2200 2300 2400 2500
Diagnostic multiple water absorptions
NOTES
A M M O N I U M M I N E R A L S
NH 4 I L L I T E NH4 Illite
BUDDINGTONITE/
NH 4 F E L D S P A R Buddingtonite/NH4 Felspar
1300 1400 1500 1600 1700 1800 1900 2000 2100 2200 2300 2400 2500
N NH4 ILLITE/
H SERICITE
4
- (Ca0.05Na0.03K0.61)(Al1.53Fe+30.22Fe+20.03Mg0.28)
(Si3.4Al0.6)O10(OH)2
M (NH4 substitutes for K)
I
N
E
R
A
L
S
1554
1912
2013
~1410
2112
2180-2228
1300 1400 1500 1600 1700 1800 1900 2000 2100 2200 2300 2400 2500
Illite/sericite
absorptions
(showthe same
wavelength variations
as normal illite/sericite)
Illite/sericite absorption
shows the same
wavelength variations
as normal illite/sericite
Diagnostic NH4 absorptions.

These are observed in any mineral
containing Ammonia and are not
necessarily of Nh4 illite.
N
BUDDINGTONITE/
H
NH4 FELDSPAR
4
-
M KAlSi3O8
(NH4 substitutes for K)
I
N
E
R
A
L
S
1912
2013
2112
1300 1400 1500 1600 1700 1800 1900 2000 2100 2200 2300 2400 2500
As k-feldspars do not have any Distinctive Features

diagnostic absorptions in the SWIR
the spectrum typically only shows NH 4absorptions
Weak sericite
absorptions due to
weak alteration of
feldspar
Diagnostic NH4 absorption
166 Spectral Interpretation Field Manual
NOTES
PY R O X E N E G R O U P
MI N E R A L S
ORTHOPYROXENE Orthopyroxene
CLINOPYROXENE
Clinopyroxene
O R T H O P Y R O X E N E
P
Y (Mg,Fe,Ca)(Mg,Fe,Al)(Si,Al)2O6
R
O
X
E
N
E
S
~1165
~900
Weak sharp features

are associated with
minor talc in this
sample.
Orthopyroxene vis-NIR-SWIR spectra are dominated by the

broad but intense ferrous iron features of OPX, as shown. These
broad features can be superimposed over the sharper OH and
water features of the hydroxylated silicates in mixed spectra.
P C LINOPY ROXE NE
Y (Ca,Mg,Fe,Na)(Mg,Fe,Al)(Si,Al)2O6
R
O
X
E
N
E
S
Hull Quotient
Reflectance
~702
~1040
Weak sharp features

are associated with
amphibole and chlorite
in this sample.
Clinopyroxene spectra are dominated by the broad but intense

ferrous iron features of CPX, as shown. These features are only
observed in the vis-NIR in contrast to the broad SWIR iron
feature of OPX.
NOTES
MISCELLANEO U S
SILICATES GR O U P
Prehnite
PREHNITE Topaz
TOPAZ
T O U R M A L I N E Tourmaline
ZUNYITE
OTTRELITE
Zunyite
Ottrelite
PLUS
1300 1400 1500 1600 1700 1800 1900 2000 2100 2200 2300 2400 2500
W a ve le ng th (n an om e tres )
TOURMALINE AND OTTRELITE VIS-

NI R -S WI R
M
I PREHNITE
S
C
- Ca2Al(AlSi3O10)(OH)2
S
I
L
I
C
A
T
E
S
2277
2234
1478 2355
1300 1400 1500 1600 1700 1800 1900 2000 2100 2200 2300 2400 2500
Diagnostic prehnite OH absorption. This absorption persists in

This absorption is at a distinct mixtures, and can be seen as a
This absorption can appear
wavelength compared with other strong feature in mixtures where
weaker in mixtures, but may be
silicate OH features. It typically it will often significantly
seen only as a shoulder at these
persists in mixtures and is often a increase the depth of the MgOH
wavelengths.
distinctive indication of the presence absorptions of other minerals
of prehnite along with the 2355nm such as chlorite. However, can
feature. only be taken to be due to
prehnite if the sharp 1478nm
feature is also present.
M TOPAZ
I
S
Al2(SiO4)(OH,F)2
C
-
S
I
L
I
C
A
T
E
S
1405
2080
1300 1400 1500 1600 1700 1800 1900 2000 2100 2200 2300 2400 2500
Another topaz absorption

feature but this one is not
as persistent in mixtures
as the 2080nm feature
and is only seen when
topaz is more dominant in
the sample. The topaz secondary features are
Diagnostic topaz absorption. typically evident where topaz is
This absorption persists in mixtures, and dominant in the sample, whereas
can be seen even as a distinctive weak the 2080nm feature can persist as
feature when topaz is in low proportions in a weak sharp feature even in
a sample. It is easy to spot as there are no cases of low topaz proportions,
other minerals that have a strong feature at even though the secondary
this wavelength. features are not evident or clear.
M
I TOURMALINE
S
C Na(Mg,Fe,Mn,Li,Al)3Al6(Si6,O18)(BO3)3(OH,F)4
-
S
I
L
I
C
A
T
E
S
1440
2306
2366
2206
2244
1300 1400 1500 1600 1700 1800 1900 2000 2100 2200 2300 2400 2500
Diagnostic tourmaline
absorption, this one will
often persist n mixtures
and allow identification
of tourmaline The ~2366nm tourmaline
Diagnostic tourmaline absorptions, note that absorption is quite distinctive in
these are typically sharp and narrow. wavelength and can allow
These three absorptions can vary in relative tourmaline to be identified in
depths to each other between different mixtures if the 2206 and 2244nm
tourmalines and any one of them can be the features are masked by the
deepest. presence of white mica and
chlorite. Note that the ~1440nm
feature would be expected to be
observed as well.
M TOURMALINE
I V I S -NIR-SWIR
S
C Na(Mg,Fe,Mn,Li,Al)3Al6(Si6,O18)(BO3)3(OH,F)4
-
S
I
L
I
C
A
T
E
S
Tourmaline 1
Tourmaline 2
~710-760
~1115
Diagnostic tourmaline
Wavelength (nanometres) FeOH andMgOH
absorptions.
Common shapes and wavelengths of the ferrous (Fe2+) iron
absorptions of tourmaline, these two features are present in
many tourmaline spectra and can allow identification of
tourmaline in mixtures, where some of the SWIR absorptions
are obscured by other minerals.
M
I ZUNYITE
S
C Al13Si5O20(OH,F)18 Cl
-
S
I
L
I
C
A
T
E
S
~1560 ~1776
~1924
~1478
~2130
~1409
1300 1400 1500 1600 1700 1800 1900 2000 2100 2200 2300 2400 2500
Possible
minor
pyrophyllite
(2165nm)
Additional diagnostic
zunyite absorption
features This feature can appear Diagnostic zunyite
sharper and narrower. absorption.
M
I OTTRELITE
S V I S -NIR-SWIR
C (Mn,Fe,Mg) 2Al4Si2O10(OH)4
- (Manganese chloritoid)
S
I
L
I
C
A
T
E
S
~2030
~680
~1780 ~1912
~1490
~1412
~915
~2291
~1245
~2388
~2327
Diagnostic ottrelite
absorption features
This feature is also
Diagnostic ottrelite observed in mixtures
Fe features – these
are very distinctive,
even in mixtures.
NOTES
F E O X I D E
G R O U P
HEMATI TE
GOETHITE
Hematite
Goethite
F HEMATITE
E
- Fe2O3
O
X
I
D
E
S
Weak water
Weak water
~750
~660
shoulder
~860-890
NOTE: Iron oxide
absorption features
are all best viewed
Diagnostic hematite
in the reflectance
peak which gives it
spectrum.
its distinctive red
colour.
Intense drop in
reflectance due to
charge transfer,
diagnostic of the iron
oxides. The steepness Weak water
of this slope can be absorptions can be
used as a measure of present but generally
iron oxide intensity in Diagnostic ferric (Fe ) iron
3+
hematite has a high
a sample. absorption of hematite. Note the reflectance in the
Weaker ferric (Fe3+)
iron absorption of wavelength, which discriminates SWIR.
hematite (seen here as hematite from goethite.
a shoulder feature).
M
I GOETHITE
S
C FeO.OH
-
S
I
L
I
C
A
T
E
S
Weak water
Weak water
~760
~660
~910-940
NOTE: Iron oxide
absorption features
are all best viewed
Diagnostic goethite
in the reflectance
peak which gives it
spectrum.
its distinctive red-
orange colour.
Intense drop in
reflectance due to Weak water
charge transfer, absorptions can
diagnostic of the iron often be present.
oxides. The steepness Many but not all
of this slope can be goethites have the
used as a measure of slope in the SWIR
iron oxide intensity in 3+
Diagnostic ferric (Fe ) iron absorptions of goethite. seen in this
a sample. Note the wavelength, which discriminates goethite spectrum.
from hematite. The 660nm absorption is often
present as a better developed absorption compared
with the shoulder feature in the hematite spectra.

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TERRASPEC STARTER PACK

AusSpec International Ltd., 2012

Interpreting SWIR Spectra 18

Mineral Group Index 30

Spectral Search Index 34

The Kandite Group 43

The White Mica Group (Illite-Sericite-Muscovite) 59

The Smectite Group 69

The Chlorite Group 81

The Biotite-Phlogopite Group 93

The Amphiboles 103

The Carbonate Group 109

The Cu and Mn Carbonate Group 123

The Sulphate Group 131

Aluminium Hydroxides 151

The Zeolite Group 157

Ammonium Minerals 161

Pyroxene Group Minerals 167

Miscellaneous Silicates Group 173

Fe Oxide Group 185

AusSpec supports the application of the TerraSpec with specialist

 Assisting clients with understanding the potential

 Providing specific and tailored training programs that

 Delivering advanced processing methods to optimise

 Technically supporting the use of TerraSpec and TSG

 Delivering QA/QC support to clients to ensure that the

This support service can be accessed by:

 A Mineral Spectral library, providing essential

 A Spectral Interpretation Manual for use with the

AusSpec’s SIFM is well established and the descriptive notes

Most of the enclosed spectra are hull quotient corrected and

Most spectra demonstrated here are of the SWIR spectral

The spectral library contains three indexes:

1 A Mineral Group index, which lists the minerals according

2 A Mineral Index which lists mineral spectra according to

3 A Spectral Search Index which lists mineral spectra

The spectral search index is an important tool of the Library

MINERAL ANALYSIS USING SWIR

Although the molecular vibrations have primary (or, more

These absorptions are represented in the reflectance

The bonds giving rise to absorption features in the SWIR

The majority of the spectral absorption features that

The spectra of sulphates have diagnostic OH absorptions that

In addition to mineral identification, SWIR spectra can also

Generally, variations in crystallinity are reflected by variations

Spectral analysis can also be used to discriminate

Compositional variations are typically represented by shifts in

It is the hydroxyl anion that produces the majority of the

The carbonate anion produces characteristic SWIR

In contrast to OH and CO3, the absorption features

It is the minerals in these groups that have diagnostic

 Broad water bands, associated with fluid inclusions in

 Clay absorptions, due to weathering/alteration of

 OH ~1400nm (also ~1550nm and

 CO3 ~2300-2370nm (and also at 1870nm,

The wavelength positions of these absorptions can also give

These absorption features are significant because in noisy or

Note: If the deepest absorption

Water and OH OH Water AlOH

Figure 2: Major spectral absorption bands in the SWIR.

MINERAL ANALYSIS USING THE

The majority of the absorption features commonly observed

In summary, minerals with diagnostic absorption features in

 Iron oxides, goethite, hematite: ferric features (Figure