WRITING

BIBLIOGRAPHY/
REFERENCE
SECTION
What is Bibliography?

Taken from the Greek word 'biblion'

which means 'book' and 'graphia'
which means 'to write.'
Contains an alphabetical list of
sources like books, periodicals, and
websites used by the writer or
researcher.
What is Reference Section?

A reference list is the detailed

list of references that are cited
in your work.
What is the Difference Between Bibliography and
References
The main difference between bibliography and
references is that references contain the sources that
you have cited in your paper, whereas a bibliography
includes all the sources that you have used for your
paper, whether they are cited or not.

Both references and bibliographies appear at the end of

a scholarly work and share the same information
regarding a source of work. They help writers to avoid
plagiarism and allow the readers to refer to the original
sources and learn more information.
 THE 3 COMMON REFERENCE/ STANDARD STYLES
IN CITING LITERATURE

There are many different ways of citing resources from your

research. The citation style sometimes depends on the
academic discipline involved. For example:
-APA (American Psychological Association) is used by
Education, Psychology, and Sciences
-MLA (Modern Language Association) style is used by the
Humanities
-Chicago style is generally used by Business, History, and
the Fine Arts
 1.APA STYLE

§ APA style (also known as APA format) is a

writing style and format for academic documents
such as scholarly journal articles and books. It is
commonly used for citing sources within the field
of behavioral and social sciences, including
sociology, education, health sciences, criminal
justice, and anthropology, as well as psychology. It
is described in the style guide of the American
Psychological Association (APA), which is titled the
Publication Manual of the American Psychological
Association.
Examples:
Bibliography/References

One author
Floro, J.A. (2016). The Colds Virus. Quezon City:GB Press.

Two authors
Oropesa, N.C. and Danes, J.L. (2017). Coron islands. Baguio
City: KLM Company.

Three authors
Regala, C.A., Bautista, C.C. and Laya, G.F. (2017). The
Philippines' Flora and Fauna. Pasay City: ABC Press.
Three or more authors (Use the name of the first author listed on the title
page)
Bora, E.N. et al. (2016). BIR Regional Offices. Quezon City: Rex Bookstore.
Newspapers
Tan, C.S. "Beaches in Luzon". (2016). Philippine Daily Inquirer. 7 May.
Interviews
Corpuz, F. (April 2016). "Quantitative research: interview with Felicitas
Corpuz".
April 2016. Interview by Anabelle Gomez. The Manila bulletin.
2. MLA or Modern Language Association

§The Modern Language Association Handbook is

in its 9th edition and standardizes the way
scholars document their sources and format
their papers. When everyone documents their
sources and papers in the same way, it is
simple to recognize and understand the types of
sources used for a project. Readers of your
work will look at your citations not only to
understand them but possibly to explore them
as well.
§Basic format: Journal
Author’s last name, First name. “Article
Title.” Journal Title, Volume number, Issue
number (Year), page numbers, DIO or URL

Note: If you cannot find some of this

information, cite what is available.
 Examples:
1. Alberti, Marina. “Measuring Urban Sustainability.”
Environmental Impact Assessment Review 16 (1996):
381-424.
2. Dowding, Keith. “Explaining Urban Regimes.”
International Journal of Urban and Regional Research
25.1 (2001): 7-19.
3.Salenius, Sirpa. “Marginalized Identities and Spaces:
James Baldwin’s Harlem, New York.” Journal of Black
Studies, vol. 48, no. 8, Jul. 2016, pp. 883–902. Sage
Journals,
https://doi.org/10.1177/0021934716658862.
3. Chicago Manual of style

§The Chicago Manual of Style is a style

guide for American English published
since 1906 by the University of Chicago
Press. Its 17 editions have prescribed
writing and citation styles widely used in
publishing. It is "one of the most widely
used and respected style guides in the
United States".
§The Chicago manual style, when referring
to a source of information within the text
of a document, in its simplest form, gives
a short citation consisting of the name of
the author (or authors) and the date of
publication.
2. Journal article citation

Bibliography format:
Author last name, first name. “Title
of Article.” Name of Journal volume,
no. issue (month/season year): page
range of article. DOI if applicable.
Bibliography example:

Dickstein, Morris. “A Literature of One’s

Own: The Question of Jewish Book
Awards.” Princeton University Library
Chronicle 63, no. 1–2 (Winter 2002):
70–74.
https://doi.org/10.25290/prinunivlibrchr
o.63.1-2.0070.
What is citation?

§ Citations, which are called in-text citations, are

included when you’re adding information from
another individual’s work into your own project.
When you add text word-for-word from another
source into your project, or take information from
another source and place it in your own words
and writing style (known as paraphrasing), you
create an in-text citation. These citations are
short in length and are placed in the main part of
your project, directly after the borrowed
information.
 Standard style in citing

§ A citation style is a set of guidelines on how to cite sources in your

academic writing. You always need a citation whenever you quote,
paraphrase, or summarize a source to avoid plagiarism.
§ How you present these citations depends on the style you follow.
Typically, a citation can include the author's name, date, location
of the publishing company, journal title, or DOI (Digital Object
Identifier).
§ A citation style dictates the information necessary for a citation
and how the information is ordered, as well as punctuation and
other formatting.
APA In-text Citation

§When using APA format, follow the

author-date method of in-text
citation. This means that the author's
last name and the year of publication
for the source should appear in the
text, like, for example, (Jones, 1998).
One complete reference for each
source should appear in the reference
list at the end of the paper.
MLA In-text citation

§MLA in-text citation style uses the

author's last name and the page
number from which the quotation or
paraphrase is taken, for example:
(Smith 163). If the source does not
use page numbers, do not include a
number in the parenthetical citation:
(Smith)
Chicago In-text citation

§An in-text citation is used

to point readers toward
any source you quote,
paraphrase or refer to in
your writing.
§The Chicago Manual of Style has two options for
in-text citations:

vAuthor-date: you put your

citations in parentheses within the
text itself.
vNotes and bibliography: you put
your citations in numbered
footnotes or endnotes.
NOTE!!
§The main differences between MLA, APA,
and Chicago format are the way the title
page, in-text citations, and reference lists
are created. MLA uses the author-page
number style for in-text citations, while APA
uses the author-date citation style. Chicago
offers two citation styles: notes-
bibliography and author-date.
IDENTIFY!!

§(Morris, 2020)
§(Hudgens 117)
§(Westly 2022, 11-12)
RESEARCH DESIGN
What is Research Design?

§Research design refers to the

overall strategy utilized to carry
out research that defines a succinct
and logical plan to tackle
established research question
through the collection,
interpretation, analysis, and
discussion of data.
§Research design is the plan for how a
research study will be conducted. For
example, the researcher needs to
decide who the participants will be,
what type of design will be used,
where the study will take place, how
long the study will continue, and
what kinds of statistical analysis will
be conducted on the data collected.
The 4 Types of Research Designs

§Descriptive Research Design.

§Experimental Research Design.
§Diagnostic Research Design.
§Explanatory Research Design.
 Descriptive Research Design

§In Descriptive Research Design, the scholar

explains/describes the situation or case in
depth in their research materials.
§To explore one or more variables, a
descriptive design might employ a wide range
of research approaches. Unlike in
experimental research, the researcher does
not control or change any of the variables in
a descriptive research design; instead, he or
she just observes and measures them.
the main characteristics of this
research type:

§Quantitative research

§Nature of variables

§Cross-sectional studies

§Directs future research

1. Quantitative research:

§It is quantitative as it attempts to

collect and statistically analyze
information. This research type is
a powerful research tool that
permits a researcher to collect
data and describe the
demographics of the same with
the help of statistical analysis.
2. Nature of variables:

§The variables included in this

research are uncontrolled. They are
not manipulated in any way.
Descriptive research mostly uses
observational methods; thus, the
researcher cannot control the nature
and behavior of the variables under
study.
3. Cross-sectional studies:

§In this research type, different

sections of the same group are
studied. For instance, in order to
study the fashion preferences of
New York, the researcher can
study Gen Z as well as Millennials
from the same population in New
York.
4. Directs future research:

§Since this research identifies the

patterns between variables and
describes them, researchers can
further study the data collected here.
It guides researchers to discover
further why such patterns have been
found and their association. Hence, it
gives researchers a direction toward
insightful market research.
 Experimental Research Design

§Experimental research is a type of research

design in which the study is carried out
utilising a scientific approach and two sets of
variables.
§The first set serves as a constant against
which the variations in the second set are
measured. for example. If you lack sufficient
evidence to back your conclusions, you must
first establish the facts.
§Experimental research helps a
researcher gather the
necessary data for making
better research decisions and
determining the facts of a
research study.
Types of Experimental Research Designs

§1. Pre-experimental Research Design

-A research study could conduct pre-
experimental research design when a group or
many groups are under observation after
implementing factors of cause and effect of
the research. The pre-experimental design will
help researchers understand whether further
investigation is necessary for the groups under
observation.
 Types of Experimental Research Designs
§ 2. True Experimental Research Design
-A true experimental research design relies on statistical analysis to prove or disprove a
researcher’s hypothesis. It is one of the most accurate forms of research because it provides
specific scientific evidence. Furthermore, out of all the types of experimental designs, only a
true experimental design can establish a cause-effect relationship within a group. However, in
a true experiment, a researcher must satisfy these three factors —
ØThere is a control group that is not subjected to changes and
an experimental group that will experience the
changed variables
ØA variable that can be manipulated by the researcher
ØRandom distribution of the variables
 Types of Experimental Research Designs
§. Quasi-experimental Research Design
The word “Quasi” means similarity. A quasi-
experimental design is similar to a true experimental
design. However, the difference between the two is
the assignment of the control group. In this research
design, an independent variable is manipulated, but
the participants of a group are not randomly
assigned. This type of research design is used in field
settings where random assignment is either
irrelevant or not required.
Diagnostic Research Design

§Diagnostic research design is a type of

research design that tries to investigate
the underlying cause of a certain
condition or phenomena. It can assist you
in learning more about the elements that
contribute to certain difficulties or
challenges that your clients may be
experiencing.
Explanatory Research Design

§ Explanatory research is a method established

to explore phenomena that have not before
been researched or adequately explained. Its
primary goal is to notify us about where we
may get a modest bit of information. With this
strategy, the researcher obtains a broad
notion and use research as a tool to direct
them more quickly to concerns that may be
addressed in the future. Its purpose is to
discover the why and what of a subject under
investigation.
 SIGNIFICANCE OF RESEARCH DESIGN

§ Research design offers the investigator an

opportunity to carry out different research
operations efficiently. This makes research as
valuable as possible producing maximum
information with minimum effort, time and
money.Researcher needs to consider all necessary
precautions when preparing the design, as any
error may upset the whole project. The reliability
of result, which a researcher is looking, is
proportional with design thatn constitutes a firm
foundation of entire body of research work.
What is the contents of research design?

§The type of design you're using (e.g.,

a survey, experiment, or case study)
Your sampling methods or criteria
for selecting subjects. Your data
collection methods (e.g.,
questionnaires, observations) Your
data collection procedures (e.g.,
operationalization, timing and data
management)
The Principles of Research Design:

§ The purpose of a research design is

to provide a plan of study that
permits accurate assessment of cause
and effect relationships between
independent and dependent variables.
The classic controlled experiment is
an ideal example of good research
design.
The Principles of Research Design:

§The principles of research design are

basically the important decisions that
a researcher makes when he needs a
problem and what steps he takes to
solve that problem. Then a research
design is developed based on these
principles which is very important
for any research.
These are the following decisions:
§ What the study is about?
§ Why is the study being made?
§ Where will the study be carried out?
§ What type of data is required?
§ Where can the required data be found?
§ What periods of time will the study include?
§ What will be the sample design?
TYPES OF
RESEARCH DESIGN
1. Completely randomized design
A completely randomized design (CRD) is one where the
treatments are assigned completely at random so that
each experimental unit has the same chance of receiving
any one treatment. For the CRD, any difference among
experimental units receiving the same treatment is
considered as experimental error. Hence, CRD is
appropriate only for experiments with homogeneous
experimental units, such as laboratory experiments,
where environmental effects are relatively easy to
control. For field experiments, where there is generally
large variation among experimental plots in such
environmental factors as soil, the CRD is rarely used.
2. Randomized Complete Block Design
The RCBD is the standard design for agricultural
experiments where similar experimental units
are grouped into blocks or replicates.
It is used to control variation in an experiment
by accounting for spatial effects in field or
greenhouse. The field or space is divided into uniform
units
to account for any variation so that observed
differences are largely due to true differences
between treatments.
Treatments are then assigned at random to
the subjects in the blocks-once in each block.
3. CORRELATION

A correlational research design

investigates relationships between variables
without the researcher controlling or
manipulating any of them.
A correlation reflects the strength and/or
direction of the relationship between two
(or more) variables. The direction of a
correlation can be either positive or
negative.
Example

Invasibility and abiotic gradients: the

positive correlation between native
and exotic plant diversity

Benjamin Gilbert, Martin J Lechowicz

Ecology 86 (7), 1848-1855, 2005
We sampled the understory community in an old‐ growth,
temperate forest to test alternative hypotheses explaining the
establishment of exotic plants. We quantified the individual and net
importance of distance from areas of human disturbance, native
plant diversity, and environmental gradients in determining exotic
plant establishment. Distance from disturbed areas, both within and
around the reserve, was not correlated to exotic species richness.
Numbers of native and exotic species were positively correlated at
large (50 m2) and small (10 m2) plot sizes, a trend that persisted
when relationships to environmental gradients were controlled
statistically. Both native and exotic species richness increased with
soil pH and decreased along a gradient of increasing nitrate
availability.
Exotic species were restricted to the upper portion of the pH
gradient and had individualistic responses to the availability
of soil resources. These results are inconsistent with both the
diversity‐ resistance and resource‐ enrichment hypotheses
for invasibility. Environmental conditions favoring native
species richness also favor exotic species richness, and
competitive interactions with the native flora do not appear
to limit the entry of additional species into the understory
community at this site. It appears that exotic species with
niche requirements poorly represented in the regional flora
of native species may establish with relatively little
resistance or consequence for native species richness.
THANK YOU!!!
^-^ UwU