World Journal of Microbiology & Biotechnology (2006) 22: 587–593 Ó Springer 2006

DOI 10.1007/s11274-005-9075-3

Fungitoxicity of the essential oil of Citrus sinensis on post-harvest pathogens

Neeta Sharma* and Abhishek Tripathi

Mycology and Plant Pathology Division, Department of Botany, University of Lucknow, Lucknow, 226 007, India
*Author for correspondence: Tel.: +91-522-2308594, E-mail: dr_neeta_sharma2003@yahoo.com

Received 7 April 2005; accepted 3 October 2005

Keywords: Citrus sinensis, fungitoxicity, GC–MS, post-harvest pathogens, SEM

Summary

The essential oil extracted from the epicarp of Citrus sinensis exhibited absolute fungitoxicity against the 10 post-
harvest pathogens. GC–MS studies of the oil revealed the presence of 10 chemical constituents, of which limonene
was found to be the major component (84.2%). The activity of the oil was tested by the poisoned food technique
(PF) and the volatile activity (VA) assay and the oils showed greater toxicity in the VA assay than in the poisoned
food assay. The nature of the toxicity was studied in the VA assay and it was observed that the oil was fungicidal for
the 10 pathogens in the 700 ppm (mg/l) to 1000 ppm range. The oil was extremely toxic for spore germination and it
was found that at 700 ppm, spore germination was inhibited in the 10 test fungi out of the 12 tested. Treatment at
300 ppm concentration exhibited 70–100% inhibition of spore germination in most of the fungi tested. Scanning
electron microscopy (SEM) was done to study the mode of action of the oil in Aspergillus niger and it was observed
that treatment with the oil leads to distortion and thinning of the hyphal wall and the reduction in hyphal diameter
and absence of conidiophores.

Introduction potential to be safe fungicides to replace the synthetic

Post-harvest diseases caused by fungi are the major
cause of production loss in many crops. Fruits are very
susceptible to the attack by pathogenic fungi due to their
low pH, higher moisture content and nutrient compo-
sition, making them unfit for human consumption
(Phillips 1984; Moss 2002).
To control post-harvest diseases, fungicide applica-
tion is the usual practice. However, using synthetic
chemicals to control post-harvest diseases can cause
carcinogenicity, teratogenicity, high and acute residual
toxicity and other side effects on humans (Lingk 1991;
Unnikrishnan & Nath 2002). Resistance development is
also becoming a significant problem within the popula-
tions of the post-harvest pathogens due to the applica-
tion of these synthetic fungicides (Reimann & Deising
2000; Dianz et al. 2002). Thus, there exists a need for
alternative strategies to reduce losses incurred by post-
harvest pathogens that are perceived as safe by the
public and pose negligible risk to humans and environ-
ment (Wilson & Wisniewski 1989).
Phyto-compounds are expected to be far more
advantageous than chemicals for sheer magnitude of
complexity, diversity, novelty of chemicals and their
reactions (Sharma 1998). As they are biodegradable
in nature, non-pollutant and possess no residual or
phytotoxic properties these natural products have the
ones. The antimicrobial activity expressed by various
herbs is due to their essential oil fractions (Nychas 1995).
The general antifungal activity of essential oils is well
documented (Reuveni et al. 1984; Baruah et al. 1996;
Meepagala et al. 2002). There have been some studies on
the effects of essential oils on post-harvest pathogens
(Bishop & Thornton 1997). Some of the essential oils
have been reported to inhibit post-harvest fungi in in vitro
conditions (Bishop & Reagan 1998; Sharma 1998; de
Billerbeck et al. 2001; Hidalgo et al. 2002; Sharma &
Verma 2004). There are also some reports on essential oils
enhancing the storage life of fruits and vegetables by
controlling their fungal rotting (Dubey & Kishore 1988).
The potential of essential oils to control post-harvest
decay has also been examined by spraying and dipping
the fruit and vegetables (Tiwari et al. 1988; Dixit et al.
1995).
However, there are very few reports on antifungal
activity of the Citrus sinensis essential oil against dif-
ferent microbial species (Singh et al. 1993; Shukla et al.
2000). Effects of citrus oils on the growth and aflatoxin
production by Aspergillus parasiticus was reported by
Karapinar (1985). Ernestina et al. (2003) also reported
fungicidal activity of citrus oil against the causal agent
of anthracnose disease on the tropical fruits. An added
advantage of some of the essential oils is their bioac-
tivity in the vapour phase, a characteristic which makes
588
them attractive as possible fumigants for stored product
protection (Bishop & Thornton 1997). These findings
thus indicate the possibility of exploiting essential oil
extracted from epicarp of Citrus sinensis as an effective
inhibitor of the post-harvest pathogens of perishables.
In the present study, we have determined the anti-
fungal activity and in vitro toxicity of Citrus sinensis oil
against 12 post-harvest pathogens of five fruits. Scan-
ning electron microscopy (SEM) was carried out with
Aspergillus niger to study the mode of action of citrus
oil’s fungitoxicity.
Materials and methods
Essential oil
The fresh epicarp of Citrus sinensis (L.) Osbeck (Ruta-
ceae) was collected from various juice shops of Lucknow
District, Uttar Pradesh, India during the months of
May–October 2004. The essential oil was extracted from
the collected materials by hydro-distillation for 5 h
using the Clevenger-type apparatus (Guenther 1948). A
clear, light yellow-coloured, oily layer was obtained on
top of the aqueous distillate which was separated from
the latter and dried with the anhydrous sodium sul-
phate. The extracted essential oil was kept in air-tight
sealed glass vials and covered with aluminum foil at
4 °C until further analysis.
Microbial strains used
Strains of Aspergillus niger MPPLU 05 (An) and Bot-
ryodiplodia theobromae MPPLU 07 (Bt) isolated from
mango; Alternaria alternata MPPLU 01 (Aa), Clados-
porium fulvum MPPLU 12 (Cf) and Botrytis cinerea
MPPLU 09 (Bc) from tomato; Penicillium expansum
MPPLU 24 (Pe), Ulocladium chartarum MPPLU 46
(Uc) and Alternaria mali MPPLU 02 (Am) from apple,
Penicillium chrysogenum MPPLU 27 (Pc) and Clados-
porium cladosporioides MPPLU 14 (Cc) from grapes and
Myrothecium roridum MPPLU 31 (Mr) and Ulocladium
sp. MPPLU 48 (Us) from Bitter gourd (from the col-
lection of Mycology and Plant Pathology Division,
Botany Department, University of Lucknow) were used.
The cultures of the phytopathogenic organisms were
maintained on Potato Dextrose Agar (PDA) at 4 °C.
Gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC–MS)
analysis of essential oil
The GC–MS of the essential oil was analysed on a Shi-
madzu QP-2000 instrument at 70 eV and 250 °C. GC
Column: ULBON HR-1 equivalent to OV-1, fused silica
capillary 0.25 mm
50 M with film thickness 0.25 lm.
The GC–MS was operated under the following condi-
tions: 60-5-5-250, meaning that the initial temperature
was 60 °C for 5 min and then heated at the rate of 5 °C/
min to 250 °C. The carrier gas (helium) flow was 2 ml/min.
N. Sharma and A. Tripathi
The identification of components was based on the
comparison of their mass spectra fragmentation patterns
with those of Mass Spectrometry Data Centre, the Royal
Society of Chemistry. UK. (Eight Peak Index of Mass
Spectra, 3rd Ed. 1983) and those reported in the relevant
literature (Adams 1995).
Fungitoxicity assay
The antifungal activity was tested against the test
pathogens by two techniques. In the first, the fungitox-
icity of the oil was evaluated against the test fungi by the
poisoned food technique (PF) of Grover and Moore
(1962). PDA (20 ml) was poured into sterilized petri
dishes (90 mm diameter) and measured amount of oil
was added to give desired concentrations (25, 50, 100,
200, 300, 400, 500, 600 and 700 ppm). In media, 0.05%
Tween-80 was added for even distribution of the oil in
the medium. The medium was supplemented with the
same amount of distilled water instead of oil for the
control sets. The test fungi were incubated at 25±2 °C.
On day 7, the growth of the test fungi was recorded and
the percentage inhibition was computed after compari-
son with the control.
In the second method, tests for the volatile activity
(VA) of oil were carried out in the 90 mm petri plates
containing 20 ml of solidified PDA. A 5 mm diameter
disc of inoculum of the test species, cut from the
periphery of an actively growing culture on PDA plates,
was placed on the agar in each petri plate and was kept
in the inverted position. In the upper lid of petri plates
sterilized cotton swab was placed and in that different
concentration of oil were poured and the plates were
sealed by parafilm to check the release of the volatile oil.
For each corresponding control equal amount of water
was poured on the sterilized cotton swab. The petri
plates were kept at 25±2 °C for 7 days.
Fungitoxicity was expressed in terms of percentage of
mycelial growth inhibition and calculated following the
formula of Pandey et al. (1982).
dc dt
Percentage of mycelial growth inhibition ¼
100
dc
where dc=Average diameter of fungal colony in control
dt=Average diameter of fungal colony in treatment
The fungitoxicity (fungistatic/fungicidal nature) of the
essential oil was tested by using the technique of
Thomson (1989). The nature of toxicity was tested in the
case of VA assay. The inhibited fungal discs of the oil-
treated sets were reinoculated into fresh medium and
revival of their growth was observed.
In the spore germination assay, 10 concentrations of
oil (25, 50, 100, 200, 300, 400, 500, 600 and 700 ppm)
were tested against each test fungus. The fungal spores
obtained from 10-day-old cultures of the fungi were
taken and placed on the glass slides in triplicate. The
slides containing the spores were incubated in a moist
Fungitoxicity of Citrus oil
chamber at 25 ± 2 °C for 24 h. Each slide was then
fixed in lactophenol-cotton blue and observed under the
microscope for germination of the spores. About 200
spores were counted and the number of spores germi-
nated was scored to calculate the percentage of the spore
germination (Surender et al. 1987).
Scanning electron microscopy
Five-day-old fungal cultures of Aspergillus niger on
PDA treated with 400 ppm conc. of oil and control
without oil were used for SEM to study the mode of
action of oil. The segments measuring 5 mm
10 mm
were cut at periphery of the colony from the cultures
growing on the potato dextrose plates and promptly
placed in vials containing 3% glutaraldehyde in 0.05 M
phosphate buffer (pH 6.8) at 4 °C and fixed for 48 h and
then dehydrated in an ethanol series (30, 50, 70, and
95%), for 20 min in each alcohol dilution and finally
with absolute ethanol for 45 min. The samples were then
dried at critical point in liquid carbon dioxide and then
mounted on standard ½ inch Cambridge SEM stubs
and coated with gold–palladium electroplating (60 s,
1.8 mA, 2.4 kV) in a Polaron SEM Coating System
sputter coater. Then samples were viewed in a Cam-
bridge LEO S-430 SEM operating system at 15 kV at
300
level of magnification.
Results
The epicarp of C. sinensis on hydro-distillation yielded
1.8% essential oil which was pale yellow in colour with a
strong and fragrant odour. A typical GC–MS chro-
matogram of the essential oil is shown in Figure 1 while
the results of the quantitative analysis are presented in
Figure 1. GC–MS Chromatogram of Citrus sinensis (L.) Osbeck essential oil, peak 4 showing major component limonene.
589
Table 1. The GC–MS studies of the oil revealed the
presence of 10 chemical constituents. The most abun-
dant component in the investigated oil was limonene
(peak 4, 84.2%) followed by linalool (4.4%) and myr-
cene (4.1%) (Figure 1, Table 1).
The fungitoxicity of the oil was measured by percent
radial growth inhibition using the PF and the VA assay.
As it is evident from Table 2, out of 12 post-harvest
pathogens tested, all except Ulocladium chartarum and
Ulocladium sp. were inhibited by C. sinensis oil. In the
PF the MIC was found to be 500 ppm (mg/l) for
Alternaria mali, Botrytis cinerea and Cladosporium
cladosporioides. For Alternaria alternata, Penicillium
chrysogenum and P. expansum MIC was 600 and
700 ppm for Aspergillus niger and Cladosporium fulvum.
It was observed that in the vapour toxicity assay the
MIC was lower as it was 400 ppm in case of Alternaria
mali, Botrytis cinerea, Cladosporium cladosporioides,
Penicillium chrysogenum and P. expansum, while for
Alternaria alternata, Aspergillus niger and Cladosporium
fulvum, the MIC was 500 ppm. Plates with essential oil
at a concentration lower than 700 ppm did not prevent
fungal growth of Botryodiplodia theobromae and
Myrothecium roridum in the PF, however 700 ppm was
the dose to sufficient to check the growth in the vapour
activity assay.
As VA showed promising results, the volatile assay
was used to determine the nature of toxicity against 10
pathogens except Ulocladium chartarum and Ulocladium
sp. It is evident from Table 3 that the oil showed fun-
gicidal activity at 700 ppm for Alternaria mali, Botrytis
cinerea, Penicillium chrysogenum and P. expansum but
was fungistatic for the other fungi. Besides these four
pathogens, the oil exhibited fungicidal activity at
800 ppm against Alternaria alternata, Aspergillus niger,
Cladosporium cladosporioides and Cladosporium fulvum.
590 N. Sharma and A. Tripathi
Table 1. Components of Citrus sinensis (L.) Osbeck epicarp essential germinated in presence of low concentrations of oil
oil identified by GC–MS. produced small germ tubes as compared to the control.
Peak no. Components Retention Percentage Investigations were also carried out to study the mode
time (scan) in total oil of action of the essential oil from Citrus sinensis epicarp
against A. niger. As this fungus is opportunistic by
1 a-Pinene 12.36 (192) 0.9
2 b-Pinene 13.70 (232) 0.6
nature, it is capable of growing on wide range of organic
3 Myrcene 14.60 (259) 4.1 substrates causing biodeterioration of stored products.
4 Limonene 16.60 (319) 84.2 The effects of C. sinensis essential oil on the morpho-
5 Linalol 18.60 (379) 4.4 logical changes in A. niger were examined by SEM and
6 Citral 19.96 (420) 0.5 are shown in Figure 2a and b. In control, the A. niger
7 a-Terpineol 21.10 (454) 0.8
8 Terpinolene 21.56 (468) 1.3
mycelium grown on PDA medium presented regular,
9 Citronellal 22.93 (509) 1.9 homogenous hyphae with smooth cell walls and clear
10 Geraniol 23.86 (537) 1.3 development of conidiophore (Figure 2a). However,
presence of essential oil in the culture medium
(400 ppm) showed clear absence of conidiophore and
induced cell wall modifications (Figure 2b).
For Botryodiplodia theobromae and Myrothecium rori-
dum the fungicidal concentration was found to be 900
and 1000 ppm, respectively. Thus citrus oil showed Discussion
fungicidal activity against all the 10 post-harvest
pathogens at 1000 ppm concentration (Table 4). Citrus sinensis essential oil exhibited the broad spectrum
In the spore germination study, at 300 ppm concen- of fungicidal/fungistatic activity against the test organ-
tration of oil there was complete inhibition of spore isms. The MIC against the test pathogens in the VA
germination in Alternaria mali and Botrytis cinerea. In assay (400–500 ppm) was lower in comparison to that
case of Alternaria alternata, Aspergillus niger and Cla- observed in the PF (500–700 ppm). Essential oils pre-
dosporium cladosporioides spore germination was inhib- viously tested against various pathogens have been
ited at 400, 500 ppm concentration checked spore reported to exhibit higher MIC values as compared to
germination in case of Cladosporium fulvum, Penicillium MIC values stated in this study (Singh et al. 1980;
chrysogenum and P. expansum. However, for Botryo- Pandey et al. 1982; Zambonelli et al. 1996; Antonov
diplodia theobromae and Myrothecium roridum, 600 and et al. 1997; Beg & Ahmad 2002; Nguefack et al.
700 ppm, respectively, were required to check the spore 2004).The difference in the values for MIC obtained
germination. In case of Ulocladium chartarum and with the essential oil show that the level of antimicrobial
Ulocladium sp. concentration of 700 ppm was found activity of essential oil is closely dependent on the
ineffective. It was also observed that those spores which screening methods used (Delespaul et al. 2000). The

Table 2. Effect of different concentrations of Citrus sinensis oil on percent radial growth inhibition by PF and VA assay of different test fungi at
25±2 °C.

Conc. of oil (ppm) Percent radial growth inhibition

Aa Am An Bc Bt Cc Cf Mr Pc Pe Uc Us

Control PF – – – – – – – – – – – –
VA – – – – – – – – – – – –
25 PF 8.6 10.2 5.9 6.8 2.6 5.7 4.2 3.1 9.0 3.2 1.6 1.2
VA 12.3 19.6 12.9 14.6 8.9 15.6 13.6 10.6 18.9 11.6 4.1 3.6
50 PF 16.2 19.3 14.1 18.6 8.9 13.2 12.6 8.8 18.6 13.4 5.2 4.8
VA 20.1 27.8 26.5 29.6 15.6 31.3 21.8 14.3 30.6 20.6 10.1 9.8
100 PF 28.3 32.6 31.4 32.3 12.3 28.9 25.3 15.6 31.3 23.7 12.6 11.2
VA 35.6 44.6 41.2 46.3 21.3 43.6 36.9 26.4 49.8 43.8 15.2 14.6
200 PF 49.8 53.3 47.0 51.4 25.4 44.6 41.2 29.2 51.2 46.3 17.2 15.3
VA 59.3 77.9 59.6 69.5 39.2 54.6 48.3 39.2 71.5 62.5 19.3 21.3
300 PF 65.1 68.1 63.0 76.3 46.1 67.2 60.1 41.2 73.6 63.2 21.2 22.6
VA 73.5 93.6 80.1 88.3 51.2 83.6 71.6 53.1 85.9 79.1 25.7 27.8
400 PF 80.4 89.2 78.8 89.4 62.5 89.0 73.2 59.1 86.1 81.2 28.2 29.0
VA 97.8 100 96.3 100 76.3 100 93.8 68.9 100 100 31.0 37.4
500 PF 96.5 100 87.0 100 71.3 100 88.4 70.2 99.1 98.6 36.1 39.3
VA 100 100 100 100 88.5 100 100 81.2 100 100 41.2 45.3
600 PF 100 100 92.9 100 79.8 100 97.6 82.1 100 100 43.2 46.1
VA 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 93.2 100 100 50.1 51.3
700 PF 100 100 100 100 82.6 100 100 96.2 100 100 49.2 53.2
VA 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 58.9 59.3
Fungitoxicity of Citrus oil 591
Table 3. Nature of toxicity of Citrus sinensis oil in VA assay against different post-harvest pathogens at 25±2 °C.

Conc. of oil (ppm) Percent radial growth inhibition

Aa Am An Bc Bt Cc Cf Mr Pc Pe

400 T 97.8 100 96.3 100 76.3 100 93.8 68.9 100 100
R 81.5(–) 83.1(S) 79.6(–) 89.6(S) 65.2(–) 82.3(S) 76.8(–) 48.3(–) 88.7(S) 85.6(S)
500 T 100 100 100 100 88.5 100 100 81.2 100 100
R 89.2(S) 90.3(S) 85.6(S) 95.6(S) 72.3(–) 87.9(S) 85.9(S) 69.2(–) 93.2(S) 91.6(S)
600 T 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 93.2 100 100
R 96.5(S) 98.4(S) 95.4(S) 99.1(S) 85.4(S) 95.6(S) 93.2(S) 81.3(–) 98.5(S) 97.6(S)
700 T 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100
R 99.2(S) 100(C) 98.6(S) 100(C) 93.4(S) 98.7(S) 97.8(S) 85.6(S) 100(C) 100(C)
800 T 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100
R 100(C) 100(C) 100(C) 100(C) 96.5(S) 100(C) 100(C) 91.6(S) 100(C) 100(C)
900 T 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100
R 100(C) 100(C) 100(C) 100(C) 100(C) 100(C) 100(C) 98.6(S) 100(C) 100(C)
1000 T 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100
R 100(C) 100(C) 100(C) 100(C) 100(C) 100(C) 100(C) 100(C) 100(C) 100(C)
1100 T 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100
R 100(C) 100(C) 100(C) 100(C) 100(C) 100(C) 100(C) 100(C) 100(C) 100(C)
1200 T 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100
R 100(C) 100(C) 100(C) 100(C) 100(C) 100(C) 100(C) 100(C) 100(C) 100(C)

T=Treated, R=reinoculated, letter in parenthesis indicates static or cidal nature, S=static and C=cidal.

Table 4. Effect of different concentrations of Citrus sinensis oil on percent inhibition of spore germination of 12 post-harvest pathogens at
25±2 °C.

Conc. of oil (ppm) Spore germination (%)

Aa Am An Bc Bt Cc Cf Mr Pc Pe Uc Us

Control 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0
25 71.2 70.6 74.3 66.1 88.9 73.6 78.8 100.0 86.2 89.3 100.0 100.0
50 58.3 43.6 46.2 32.4 68.3 44.8 58.3 98.6 65.6 69.8 100.0 100.0
100 43.2 19.1 21.0 15.6 59.6 31.3 49.6 79.8 53.4 54.8 100.0 100.0
200 19.6 5.6 10.2 9.6 44.2 19.4 35.2 61.9 38.6 37.6 100.0 100.0
300 8.2 0.0 4.5 0.0 31.6 12.6 21.3 48.6 25.2 28.3 100.0 99.5
400 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 24.2 0.0 11.2 35.3 11.8 13.6 96.8 91.8
500 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 12.6 0.0 0.0 21.6 0.0 0.0 84.4 81.2
600 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 11.2 0.0 0.0 73.6 68.9
700 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 61.2 59.2

general antifungal activity of essential oils and their
effects on post-harvest pathogens in in vitro conditions
are well documented (Bishop & Reagan 1998; Hidalgo
et al. 2002).
The effect of C. sinensis oil on percentage inhibi-
tion of spore germination indicates that 300–500 ppm
concentration is sufficient to check spore germination
in most of the pathogens tested. This concentration is
less than many other essential oils previously tested
by various workers (Antonov et al. 1997; Beg &
Ahmad 2002). Similar results have been reported by
using different testing methods (Jain 1977; Begum
et al. 1993; Pattnaik et al. 1996). Soliman & Badeaa
(2002) reported complete inhibition of Aspergillus
flavus, A. parasiticus and A. ochraceus by the oils of
thyme and cinnamon (<500 ppm), marigold
(<2000 ppm), spearmint, basil (3000 ppm). Treatment
with 300 ppm concentration exhibited 70–100% inhi-
bition of the spore germination in most of the fungi
tested.
The effects of C. sinensis oil on the morphology of
Aspergillus niger hyphae examined by SEM revealed
alterations in the morphology of the hyphae, which
appeared severely collapsed and squashed due to lack of
cytoplasm. Our observations find support from the
findings of the surface modifications in SEM study as
observed by de Billerbeck et al. (2001) using Cymbopo-
gon nardus essential oil against A. niger. Zambonelli
et al. (1996) reported similar findings in Pythium ulti-
mum and Colletotrichum lindemuthianum treated with
thyme and lavender oil. Such modifications induced by
essential oils may be related to the interference of
essential oil components with enzymatic reactions of
wall synthesis, which affects fungal morphogenesis and
growth. Zambonelli et al. (1996) reported fungal growth
inhibition associated with degeneration of fungal
hyphae after treatment with Thymus vulgaris essential
oil. The present piece of work is an attempt to stan-
dardize Citrus sinensis essential oil based on its fungi-
toxic property against post-harvest pathogens. The
592
Figure 2. (a) Aspergillus niger control after 5 days of inoculation at
25±2 °C showing clear mycelium and conidial heads on conidio-
phores. (b) Aspergillus niger treated with 400 ppm citrus oil after
5 days of inoculation at 25±2 °C showing distorted mycelium, cell
wall disruption and squashed hyphae.
citrus oil as fungitoxic agent presents two main char-
acters, the first is its natural origin which means more
safety to people and environment and the second is that
it has to be considered at low risk for resistance devel-
opment by post-harvest pathogens. It is believed that it
is difficult for the pathogens to develop resistance to
such a mixture of oil components with apparently dif-
ferent mechanisms of antifungal activity.
Conclusions
In conclusion, Citrus sinensis essential oil possesses
antifungal activity inhibiting the growth of various post-
harvest pathogens tested and leading to deleterious
morphological modifications in A. niger. The oil as such
may be exploited for its fungitoxic potency because of the
synergistic activity of its different compounds. Because
of its broad antifungal activity in the vapour phase and
its availability as a natural volatile product, C. sinensis
oil appears to have promise as an ambient and surface
disinfectant. Keeping in view the residual toxicity and the
side effects of synthetic fungicides, the essential oil of C.
sinensis may be exploited as a fungitoxicant in the
management of post-harvest pathogens of perishables.
N. Sharma and A. Tripathi
Acknowledgements
Abhishek Tripathi, gratefully acknowledge the Univer-
sity Grant Commission (UGC), New Delhi, India for
the financial support in the form of Junior Research
Fellowship (JRF). Special thanks to staff of Electron
Microscopy Unit, Birbal Sahni Institute of Palaeobo-
tany, Lucknow for their help.
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