Construction and Building Materials 18 (2004) 269–280

Moisture ingress in rammed earth: Part 1—the effect of soil particle-size

distribution on the rate of capillary suction
Matthew Hall*, Youcef Djerbib
Centre for the Built Environment, Sheffield Hallam University, Unit 9 Science Park, Howard Street, Sheffield S1 1WB, UK

Received 19 November 2003; received in revised form 24 November 2003; accepted 24 November 2003

Abstract

The novel initial rate of suction (IRS) ‘wick’ test has been presented, and is suitable for determining the rate of capillary
moisture ingress in unstabilised rammed earth that slakes on contact with water. Experimental testing was performed using the
‘wick’ test to investigate the effect of soil particle-size distribution on moisture ingress in rammed earth. Rammed earth generally
absorbs much less water due to capillary suction, and at a slower rate, than conventional masonry building materials such as
bricks and concrete. Moisture ingress in rammed earth, due to capillary suction, increases linearly per unit inflow surface area
against the square root of elapsed time yt . The particle-size distribution of the soil is critical in determining the rate at which
Ž .
moisture may ingress. In a suitable soil, the ratio between the total specific surface area (SSA) of the aggregate fraction and the
mass of the binder fraction appears to be positively linked with the rate of capillary suction in rammed earth. Experimental data
have been included.
䊚 2003 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Rammed earth; Moisture ingress; Capillary suction

1. Introduction
Rammed earth can be defined as ‘«an ancient earth
building technique that involves dynamically compact-
ing moist sub-soil between removable shuttering to
create an in-situ monolithic compressed earth wall that
is both strong and durable’ w1x. Figs. 1 and 2 show a
rammed earth dwelling constructed by RAMTEC Pty
Ltd in Western Australia, illustrating the current levels
of sophistication in design and application of this natu-
ral, sustainable material. Some current public percep-
tions of rammed earth as being a material with low
climatic durability are misguided but not entirely
unfounded. Rammed earth construction is popular and
performs well in warm, dry climates. However, research
is essential in determining the application of rammed
earth in temperate damp climates if it is to succeed in
counties such as the UK. Cavity wall masonry construc-
tion, which is by far the most common form in Britain,
has largely eliminated the problems of penetrating damp-
*Corresponding author. Tel.: q44-0-114-225-3200; fax: q44-0-
114-225-3206.
E-mail address: m.hall@shu.ac.uk (M. Hall).
ness that often plagued the solid walls of older buildings.
As rammed earth walls are monolithic, the capillary
movement of moisture within them is a particular
problem, especially since there are no chemically dosed
layers of mortar to suppress it w2x. A variety of chemical
additives and admixtures that are available commercially
could be used to alleviate the problem but current data
relating to their effectiveness is not forthcoming and so
poses serious problems for earth building contractors.
These problems may be exacerbated depending upon
the composition of the soil mix used to form the rammed
earth walls; the first logical step is to understand the
material before investigating how best to treat it.
We have tried many things before regarding admixtures for damp
ingress-all too expensive or unreliable«Does adding clay make it
better or worse? Does removing clay (e.g. by washing) make it
better or worse? Does lessening clay% (e.g. by adding washed
sand) make it better or worse? These are real questions w2x.
2. Moisture ingress by capillary suction
Excessive moisture content in building elements is
referred to as damp w3x. Dampness can enter into and

0950-0618/04/$ - see front matter 䊚 2003 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2003.11.002
270 M. Hall, Y. Djerbib / Construction and Building Materials 18 (2004) 269–280
Fig. 1. Modern rammed earth house in Western Australia (Courtesy
RAMTEC Pty Ltd 䉷2001).
move within the fabric of porous construction materials
by a variety of different processes. Porous materials are
often permeable by air and moisture because they
contain a network of open channels. According to the
Building Research Establishment w4x, there are two
classifications for these channels dependent upon their
diameter. A channel with a nominal diameter of 5 mm
or above is classed as a pore whereas a channel with a
nominal diameter of less than this value is classed as a
capillary or a micropore. It should be noted that pores
and capillaries are not cylindrical but in fact often
exhibit a high level of tortuosity w5x. They may also be
interlinked; the extent of which largely determines the
permeability of a porous material.
Hall w6x observed that if, hypothetically, the solid
material of a porous building material is assumed to be
inert (i.e. no mass transfer occurs), and that specific
boundary effects and dissolved atmospheric gases in the
water are ignored a considerable simplification ensues.
The role of the solid porous material is then reduced to
acting as a pore network that ‘partially constrains the
boundary surfaces of the water phases’ to a particular
geometry. The system then contains a single compo-
nent—water—that may exist in any combination of
solid, liquid or gaseous form. The specific moisture
content w of this idealised porous solid can thus be
Fig. 3. Reference moisture contents, adapted from de Freitas et al. (1996).
Fig. 2. Inside a modern rammed earth home (Courtesy RAMTEC Pty
Ltd 䉷2001).
determined, where mw denotes the mass of water and
ms the mass of the dry solid:
mw
ws . (1)
ms
In practice, the value of w is determined gravimetrically
as the difference between the total weights of the sample
when it is oven dried to a constant weight at 105 8C,
and when it is wet.
The conventional description of the reference moisture
content of a porous material allows us to clearly distin-
guish between the hygroscopic moisture content and the
capillary moisture content, as can be seen from Fig. 3.
The theoretical point of total saturation (Wmax) is rarely
achieved, and neither is a completely water-free state
(0). In the nominal dry state a degree of hygroscopic
water remains, defined by the point Wh, whereas above
the nominal point of saturation (Wsat) techniques such
as vacuum saturation are required in order to achieve
higher levels of moisture content.
Movement of moisture in walls is controlled by the
masonry and by discontinuities (e.g. fracturing) within
the material w5x. In terms of the mechanisms of moisture
movement we are dealing with ‘«a single fundamental
process, the movement of water through a permeable
material whose water content is non-uniform and gen-
 M. Hall, Y. Djerbib / Construction and Building Materials 18 (2004) 269–280 271

erally less than saturation’ w6x. To illustrate the process because surface tension of the capillary wall material is
of moisture ingress by capillary suction, Hall w6x used a ‘monotonously decreasing function of temperature’.
the classic example of a dry brick that has been placed Conversely, water held within a capillary of uniform
in a shallow tray containing clean water (i.e. the initial temperature but with a gradient in diameter will flow
rate of suction test). From the moment this is done towards the narrower diameter. Consequently, if two
water is absorbed into the brick by capillary action, and capillaries communicate with one another moisture
then attempts to distribute itself throughout the pore transfer will occur between the material with larger pore
network of the brick itself. The imbibed water partially diameters to that with the smaller pore diameters until
displaces the air that previously occupied the pores, the gradient of unequal surface tension has been resolved
whilst at the surfaces that are not actually in contact through equilibrium w12x.
with water evaporation has begun to occur. At this point,
equilibrium can be achieved between evaporative loss 3. Initial rate of suction (IRS) test
and water absorption.
The British Standard BS 3921 w13x test for determin-
However, evaporation entails cooling at the boundary
ing capillary suction of water into masonry materials is
surfaces, which results in a heat flow process being
known as the initial rate of suction (IRS) test. The test
generated inside the brick. The resultant heat gradient
method is essentially a gravimetric determination of
modifies the rate of flow of moisture inside the brick.
sorbed water in a partially immersed porous building
Soluble salts are often dissolved and redeposited at the
material (due to capillary suction) over time, the value
surface where evaporation is occurring, and the resultant
for which is expressed in kilograms per meter square
crystalline deposits referred to as efflorescence. As a
minute. Hall w14x previously observed the cumulative
material approaches saturation, the capillary suction
absorbed mass of water (mw) per unit area of the inflow
approaches zero w7x. Capillary suction in porous mate-
surface, increases linearly against the square root of
rials, therefore, occurs by the progressive displacement
elapsed time Žyt.. The sample is to be kept ‘dry’ prior
of water so that pockets of air entrapped in the pore
to testing. The current IRS test is, however, of little use
and capillary system cannot stop it w8x. The only
for materials that slake (e.g. earth materials) because
exception to this occurs where the capillary pressure is
the determination of imbibed water mass requires the
simply counteracted by the pressure of entrapped air in
mass of the sample to be kept constant. Furthermore,
a duct that is sealed and has no outlet.
the test requires the wetted sample surface to be wiped
Vos and Tammes w9x performed various experiments
with a damp cloth to remove excess water. This presents
on the capillary movement of water and concluded that
a large degree of operator error and a potential drying
water moving through a porous material by capillarity
effect depending upon the type, and moisture content,
could travel twice as far in a horizontal direction than
of the cloth.
in a vertical direction, owing to the effects of gravity.
The testing procedure can be enhanced by maintaining
Kieslinger w10x noted that a good correlation between
a constant water temperature of 20 8C ("18) in order
field data and the equation for determining the height
to ensure constant viscosity. Hall and Kam-Ming Tse
of capillary rise had been observed: w15x recommend that the weighing operation be com-
2s pleted as quickly as possible, ideally within 30 s. Minke
hs (2) w16x has discussed the German standard version of the
Rd IRS test, DIN 52 617, within the context of earth
building materials. The main differences involve encas-
where h: water height achieved (cm); s: (constant)
ing the sample cube sides in fibre-reinforced polyester
0.074 gycm3; d: density of water (approx. 1 gycm3); R:
resin, gluing filter paper to the test face and then placing
radius of capillary (cm).
it on a submerged polyurethane foam base. However,
Capillary rise is therefore dependent on the diameter
this level of sample intervention is perhaps excessive
of the tube and the liquid within the system. Mamillan
w11x gives the following example where, in theory, a 1 and deviates significantly from the ‘natural’ conditions
of the BS 3921 IRS test. The impermeable resin coating
mm pore could enable water to rise by 15 mm; a 0.1-
constricts the natural expansion of the sample and
mm pore enables a capillary rise of 150 mm; and a 0.01
restricts the displacement of air from the pore network
mm pore enables a rise of 1500 mm. The durability of
caused by the imbibed water. Furthermore, equilibrium
many types of natural building stones has been related
between evaporative loss at the sample faces and water
to pore size w5x, such that those with high microporosity
absorption cannot occur.
are often less durable than those with a lower content
of micropores. 4. The IRS ‘wick’ test
According to Vos and Tammes w12x, if a temperature
gradient exists along a capillary then water flow will The IRS ‘wick’ test is a novel adaptation of the
occur in the direction of lower temperature. This is current BS 3921 IRS test apparatus (see Fig. 4) devised
272 M. Hall, Y. Djerbib / Construction and Building Materials 18 (2004) 269–280
Fig. 4. BS 3921 IRS test apparatus with IRS ‘wick’ test peripherals.
by the author (Hall). A 30-mm high Oasis娃 ‘wick’,
which is 80 mm in diameter, acts as the point of contact
for the sample and represents free water being sorbed
from another saturated porous medium that offers neg-
ligible capillary resistance. However, according to the
studies on interface phenomena performed by De Freitas,
Abrantes and Crausse w17x, theoretically there should be
a small degree of hydric resistance that conditions the
maximum flow of moisture transmitted from the wick
to the sample face being tested. The contact area is
constant and there are no edge effects or meniscus errors
on inflow-surface area calculations, as was previously
the case in the BS 3921 IRS test. Materials that slake
in contact with water are stable throughout the test and
negligible mass loss occurs as the inflow surface is
retained by the self-weight of the sample acting on the
solid surface of the wick. The wick itself can simply be
taken out, washed and reused to maintain accuracy and
repeatability.
Testing was performed on C30 concrete 100=100-
mm cubes and 3 types of brick; London Brick ‘Fletton’
(high porosity), London Brick ‘Dapple Light’ (medium
porosity) and Engineering Brick (low porosity). Six
representative samples of each material type were select-
ed. The bricks were cut on a diamond bit saw to give a
100=100-mm inflow-surface area the same as the cube
samples. Firstly, the IRS test was performed in accor-
dance with BS 3921 w13x for a period of 5 min for each
sample with gravimetric moisture determinations taken
at 1-min intervals. Secondly, the same samples were
dried and repeat-tested, as described above, but instead
using the IRS ‘wick’ test apparatus. Hall w14x previously
observed that no changes occurred in the pore structure
of fired clay bricks during repeat-tests of this nature.
The IRS ‘wick’ test values were in close agreement
with those obtained using the BS 3921 IRS test. Fig. 5
illustrates the comparison between BS 3921 IRS and
IRS ‘wick’ test data obtained during testing. Note that
the mass of sorbed water in the ‘wick’ test samples is
around half that of the BS 3921 IRS test samples due
to the inflow-surface area also being approximately half
that of the latter. A good correlation is indicated by a
similar IRS value, calculated as the mass of sorbed
water per unit of surface area over time. It was observed
that for very porous samples a greater disparity occurred
between values obtained using the IRS test and the IRS
‘wick’ test. However, rammed earth is particularly dense
with a low porosity and so the IRS ‘wick’ test is
considered a suitable means with which to test this
material.
The variation that occurs between results for individ-
ual test specimens is significant and is an inherent
problem with both the BS 3921 IRS test and the IRS
‘wick’ test. The average level of variation between
rammed earth samples was observed to be between
approximately 20 and 40%. These parameters are well
within the typical variations observed in our laboratory
for fired clay bricks after several thousand cycles of BS
3921 IRS testing. This emphasises the myopic nature of
testing masonry building materials at this scale when,
for example, the behaviour of a construction element
(e.g. a wall) cannot be defined by the performance of
an individual brick. However, testing a randomly select-
ed batch of samples can be used to give a good
indication of a porous masonry materials performance
in terms of moisture ingress due to capillary suction
through a set of average values.
5. Rammed earth testing
The authors have recently proposed recommendations
for the production of rammed earth cube samples using
synthetically blended soils whose particle-size distribu-
tion can accurately be specified and controlled w1x. The
 M. Hall, Y. Djerbib / Construction and Building Materials 18 (2004) 269–280 273

Fig. 5. Comparison between BS 3921 IRS test and IRS ‘wick’ test results.

same ten soil recipes, specified previously, have been
used for the experimental work detailed in this article,
as can be seen from the particle-size distribution chart
illustrated in Fig. 6. Further details on the physical and
mechanical properties of the rammed earth cube samples
have been previously illustrated, by the authors, in depth
w1x. This method of rammed earth sample production
was found highly repeatable and consistent in terms of
density, dimensional stability and compressive strength.
The rammed earth samples were tested in accordance
with the previously defined IRS ‘wick’ test, which is a
peripheral to the BS 3921 IRS test. Six samples from
each of the ten soil types identified above were used as
the test specimens. Each sample was tested for a period

Fig. 6. BS 1377 Particle-size distribution chart with rammed earth soil data.
274 M. Hall, Y. Djerbib / Construction and Building Materials 18 (2004) 269–280

Table 1
The average amount of sorbed water during a 5-min IRS ‘wick’ test

Masonry type Dry massavg (g) Average wm (g) Average wm (%)

London brick – Fletton 851.0 10.95 1.29
London brick – Dapple light 923.2 7.12 0.77
Engineering brick 1316.6 12.47 0.95
C30 concrete 2165.8 6.72 0.31
Rammed earth – 532 2136.9 3.17 0.15
Rammed earth – 622 2132.0 3.37 0.16
Rammed earth – 712 2068.8 8.45 0.41
Rammed earth – 802 2030.6 15.15 0.74
Rammed earth – 433 2180.5 3.42 0.16
Rammed earth – 523 2101.3 4.22 0.20
Rammed earth – 613 2120.0 4.15 0.20
Rammed earth – 703 2058.4 5.95 0.29
Rammed earth – 424 2067.3 5.92 0.28
Rammed earth – 514 2089.0 3.12 0.15

of 5-min and the mass of sorbed water (mw) recorded
at 1-min intervals. After testing the samples were then
allowed to dry before the IRS ‘wick’ test regime
(described above) was repeated using the same samples
and the same inflow-surfaces. This time, however, only
three from each of the six samples (in each set) were
selected for the re-testing. The samples selected from a
particular soil type all had a similar IRS value, thereby
eliminating the upper and lower values from the repeat-
test results. Weight determinations were made at 1-min
intervals but the total test duration was extended to give
values for 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 10, 20, 30, 40, 50 and 60-min
elapsed time intervals.
6. Results and discussion
Rammed earth generally has a very low initial rate of
suction compared to conventional masonry materials
such as concrete and fired clay bricks, and absorbs much
smaller amounts of water over a given time span. This
is perhaps due to its relatively high density and resultant
lower bulk porosity, as defined earlier. This has been
clearly illustrated in Table 1 where the average mass of
sorbed water, during a 5-min IRS ‘wick’ test, for each
material tested has been expressed as a percentage of
the sample’s dry mass. The initial rate of suction over
a period of 5 min has been illustrated in Fig. 7 to show
the comparison between rammed earth and conventional
masonry materials. Fletton bricks and Engineering
bricks, for example, have a higher suction rate than
every rammed earth sample apart from 802. C30 con-
crete is just above 703, which is the third poorest
rammed earth sample. The fired clay brick IRS curves
are a different gradient to rammed earth, but concrete is
almost the same indicating similarities between their
internal pore structure. The large degree of variation
that occurred between individual test specimens was
attributed to natural variations in pore structure both
within the cube and, more importantly, at the inflow test
face.
The surface finish of the inflow test face appears to
be critical in determining the level of moisture ingress
in rammed earth. It is controlled by the particle-size
distribution of the soil and by the random location of
different sized particles towards the facade.¸ Larger
particles in this region appear to cause micro-cracking
and internal fissures that allow large volumes of water
to be imbibed. In addition, moisture ‘tracking’ may
occur where the migrating moisture follows the contour
of larger (e.g. gravel) particles, within the matrix, due
to their surface tension. This factor may be magnified
on small-scale laboratory tests such as this where, for
example, a piece of 14 mm gravel represents over 1y
8th the width of an 80 mm inflow surface test area. In
addition, moisture ingress in rammed earth facades
¸ was
observed to be much greater at the compaction planes
(i.e. the zones between layers of compacted soil) where
the inherent degree of compaction is slightly less.
Discretionary operator control during small-scale lab-
oratory testing introduces factors that would not nor-
mally be present in the testing of a full-sized wall.
Sample faces that were free from defects, for example,
were selected for testing to reduce the variability of
results and random effects. This level of control is
acceptable for small-scale laboratory testing, as the
number of variables should be minimised wherever
possible. The use of full-sized test walls would lessen
these considerations and, in one sense, provide a more
realistic representation of the materials performance in-
situ. However, accuracy and quality control tend to
diminish as the scale of the test increases.
Fig. 8 shows the comparison between the ten rammed
earth soil types tested over a 60-min duration. The IRS
curves exist in three distinct bands: high (802), medium
(712, 703, 424) and low (523, 613, 433, 622, 532,
514). Beyond the 10-min point, the IRS of all samples
 M. Hall, Y. Djerbib / Construction and Building Materials 18 (2004) 269–280
Fig. 7. IRS ‘wick’ test results (5-min regime) for rammed earth vs. conventional masonry.
begins to decrease significantly and by 50–60 min, all
samples are at a very similar IRS value. Notably, it has
been observed previously that after approximately 3 h
of testing mw is proportional to t giving experimental
confirmation of a steady state in three-dimensional water
absorption scenarios such as this. The ‘wick’ test is
three-dimensional because Hall w14x previously observed
that, in a modified IRS test, a spherical inflow source
in the centre of sample face allows for lateral spreading
of the sorbed water within the material. It is possibly
more realistic than the one-dimensional BS 3921 IRS
test for experimentally determining the ingress of mois-
ture, due to capillary suction, and comparing the results
obtained to those for full-sized test walls. Furthermore,
the geometry and dimensions of inflow-surface area on
the IRS ‘wick’ test can be transposed to other three-
dimensional moisture ingress test methodologies, such
as the Initial Surface Absorption (ISA) test, to allow
for comparison between the obtained data.
Differences were observed, in the IRS of a given
sample, between being tested in the 5-min regime, and
275
being re-tested in the 60-min regime. Re-testing rammed
earth appears to result in lowering its IRS value. The
average variation between results, due to repeat testing,
indicates an approximate decrease in IRS value from as
little as 5% up to as much as 44%. The quantity of
reduction in IRS appears to coincide with samples that
absorb more water due to capillary suction, as can be
clearly seen from Fig. 9. This indicates that the ingress
of water may have changed the properties of the mate-
rial, such as its internal pore structure, especially since
the surface finish had visibly become altered following
the first regime of testing.
Theoretically the yt law (detailed above) is only
applicable for the one-dimensional case of the BS 3921
IRS test where the inflow of sorbed water is normal to
the inflow surface w14x. Hall states that for the circular
source, with three-dimensional lateral internal spreading
(i.e. IRS ‘wick’ test), cumulative absorption should
increase more rapidly than yt for common clay bricks
w14x. However, the results obtained for rammed earth
show that when the mass of sorbed water wmw(g)x is
276 M. Hall, Y. Djerbib / Construction and Building Materials 18 (2004) 269–280
Fig. 8. IRS ‘wick’ repeat-test results (60-min regime) for rammed earth.
w z
plotted against the root of time xyytŽmin.|~ the relationship
is clearly linear as can be seen from Fig. 10. This may
be because the total mass of sorbed water is considerably
less in rammed earth, and the internal pore structure is
quite different. The linear value allows for interpolation
and future forecast of the amount of water taken up by
a given mass of rammed earth after a given elapsed
time. It also shows the performance of each soil type
more clearly allowing direct comparisons to be made
more easily. Notably, the same three bands appear: high,
medium and low, as described earlier.
The bulk porosity of the samples was calculated by
first determining the particle density of each soil type
in accordance with BS 1377 w18x. The calculation of
void space (bulk porosity) within a rammed earth
sample can thus be calculated when its dry mass and
volumetric proportions are known. Fig. 11 illustrates the
positive relationship that exists between bulk porosity
and the IRS value taken after 1 min of testing. The bulk
porosity (total void space) of rammed earth is therefore
likely to be a similar value to the apparent porosity, i.e.
the amount of void space that is permeable and not
enclosed. This indicates that much of the pore space
within rammed earth is possibly interlinked and poten-
tially permeable to moisture. Linear increasesydecreases
in the compressive strength of rammed earth, however,
were found to give no obvious pattern or relationship
with the IRS value.
The total specific surface area (SSA) value for each
soil type was calculated using the retained mass values
obtained during sieve analysis. Assuming each individ-
ual soil particle to be spherical, its surface area can be
simply calculated using 4pr2. The mass retained for
each particle diameter is known; therefore the SSA can
be calculated and expressed in millimetre square per
gram. The total SSA for a given soil type is simply the
summation of the SSA values obtained for each sieve
size. The author hypothesised that the binder is not as
effectively distributed amongst the aggregate particles
when the specific surface area of the latter is increased
beyond a certain value. This may result in the enhanced
ability of the aggregate to adsorb moisture, due to
surface tension, resulting in increased capillary potential
within the matrix. It may also lead to areas of pore
space that are devoid of binder leaving few obstructions
to impede the flow of imbibed water. This decrease in
effective binder distribution within the matrix of the
material may lead to a more open-structured pore net-
work capable of allowing a greater rate of moisture
ingress and subsequent migration. In support of this
theory, Figs. 12 and 13 show an increase in average IRS
value coinciding with a relative increase in the mass of
particles with diameters between 63 um and 3.35 mm,
 M. Hall, Y. Djerbib / Construction and Building Materials 18 (2004) 269–280 277

Fig. 9. Variation of IRS in rammed earth samples due to single repeat-testing.

but with a sharp decrease in the mass of particles above
3.35 mm. This may indicate that a rise in the number
of particles )3.35 mm can give a sufficient decrease in
total SSA such that the effectiveness of binder distri-
bution returns to a level where capillary potential is
significantly reduced. It can be observed that when the
ratio of )3.35 to -3.35 mm particles (defined here as
the ‘3.35 ratio’) is greater than 5, the amount of water
imbibed due to capillary suction increases to measurably
significant levels. This observation has been clearly
illustrated in Fig. 14.
7. Conclusions
The novel IRS ‘wick’ test has been devised as a
peripheral to the established BS 3921 IRS test, and is
suitable for use with unstabilised earth materials that
slake on contact with water. It produces consistent results
that, for dense samples such as rammed earth, are in
good agreement with the original BS 3921 IRS test.
Rammed earth generally outperforms conventional
modern masonry materials significantly in terms of the
rate and quantity of moisture ingress due to capillary
suction. However, the particle-size distribution of the
soil is critical in determining the rate at which moisture
may ingress due to capillary suction. The ingress of
moisture into rammed earth appears to alter its properties
such that in a repeat test the IRS is reduced. The amount
by which the IRS value is reduced in a repeat test
appears to be proportionally indexed to the original IRS
value prior to repeat testing.

Fig. 10. Relationship between mass of sorbed water and square root of elapsed time.
278 M. Hall, Y. Djerbib / Construction and Building Materials 18 (2004) 269–280

Fig. 11. Relationship between the bulk porosity of rammed earth and its IRS value.

Moisture ingress in rammed earth, due to capillary
suction, increases linearly per unit inflow surface area
against the square root of elapsed time Žyt. . This allows
predictions to be made on the rate and amount of
moisture ingress at a given future point in time. The
results obtained are in good agreement with current non-
saturated flow theory further supporting the validity of
the proposed IRS ‘wick’ test.
In a suitable soil, the ratio between the total specific
surface area (SSA) of the aggregate fraction and the
mass of the binder fraction appears to be positively
linked with the rate of capillary suction in rammed
earth. When the mass of the binder fraction in a suitable
soil is less than 10% of the total soil mass, it would
appear that the rate of moisture ingress, due to capillary
suction, in rammed earth is significantly increased. It is
hypothesised, therefore, that through granular stabilisa-
tion (i.e. artificially modifying the particle-size distri-
bution through additionysubtraction of material) the rate
of capillary moisture ingress in rammed earth can be
controlled. A simple initial suggestion may be to ensure
a minimum binder quantity of approximately 10% by

Fig. 12. Particle-size distribution and IRS values for rammed earth soils with two parts binder.
 M. Hall, Y. Djerbib / Construction and Building Materials 18 (2004) 269–280 279

Fig. 13. Particle-size distribution and IRS values for rammed earth soils with three parts binder.

Fig. 14. Relationship between IRS value and ‘3.35 ratio’ for rammed earth soils containing two and three parts binder.

mass. A ‘3.35 ratio’ of 5 has been proposed as a
potential target value by which to attenuate the required
approach to granular stabilisation. The 802 soil (worst),
for example, can have its ‘3.35 ratio’ lowered from
above 20.0 to below 5.0 by adding 12% by mass of 10
mm pea gravel. This should have the effect of lowering
the rate of moisture ingress due to capillary suction, or
even achieving an optimum value. This observation has
significant practical applications but requires testing in
the field in order to prove or disprove the hypothesis.
Acknowledgments
The author wishes to acknowledge the help of the
following parties: Stephen Dobson (RAMTEC Pty Ltd)
for pictures, helpful advice and discussion Stephen
Hetherington (Sheffield Hallam University) for techni-
cal support Paul Scholey (Rotherham Sand & Gravel
Co Ltd.) for generous donation of earth materials.
References
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