9

Transistors

BASIC ELECTRONICS

Transistor has two junctions and three terminals called Emitter, Base & Collector. It is of 2 types :a. NPN Transistor.
C

n E B

p C

n
B

Fig.1 In PNP transistor, conduction is by ELECTRONS. For transistor to work as an amplifier, E-B junction is forward biased and C-B junction is reverse biased. The electrons emitted by the Emitter cross the E-B junction. Since the base is very thin, almost all the electrons cross the B-C
n p n R

Fig.2 junction and are collected by the collector which has been given a +ve voltage. The number of electrons flowing into the collector can be controlled by varying the base voltage and hence the gain of the amplifier. Comparison with Vacuum Triode An NPN transistor is equivalent to a vacuum triode because charge carriers in both are electrons. Electrode equivalence is as follows : NPN Transistor Emitter Base Collector . . . Vacuum Triode Cathode Grid Anode

DIFFERENT TYPES OF TRANSISTOR AMPLIFIERS 1. Common Emitter Amplifier : Since the E-B junction is forward biased, the input resistance of transistor in Common Emitter is low (a few hundred ohms) and

STI(T) Publication

71

001/HC/2001

Helper Course because the Collector to base junction is reverse biased, output resistance is high (of the order of several k ohms). Power gain of this amplifier is maximum.
C B

RL

E VBB VCC

Fig.3 2. Common-Base Amplifier : E-B junction is forward biased and so input resistance is low. Because C-B junction is reverse biased, output resistance is very high. It has high voltage gain but its current gain is less than 1.
E C

B VBB VCC

RL

Fig.4 3. Common Collector Amplifier :

C B V E RL Output

Fig.5 It has very high input resistance and a low output resistance. Its Voltage gain is less than 1. It is mainly used as a buffer (for matching between high resistance and low resistance).

STI(T) Publication

72

001/HC/2001

Basic Electronics It is also called Emitter Follower because emitter voltage follows the base voltage. b. PNP Transistor : A PNP transistor is identical in its working to an NPN transistor except with the difference that the conduction is through HOLES instead of electrons and the polarities of batteries are reversed.
p E B n p B C E C

Fig.6 DIGITAL BASICS Analog Signal A continuously varying electrical signal is called analogue signal i.e. output of a microphone.

Fig. 7 Analog and Digital Signals Digital Signal A digital signal is discrete i.e. either it is 1 or 0 (present or absent). Example
+5v Switch Output Y

Fig. 8 Output Y = 1 if switch is closed. = 0 if switch is open. BASIC LOGIC GATES 1 AND Gate

Its output is one if and only if both its inputs are 1.

STI(T) Publication

73

001/HC/2001

Helper Course

Fig. 9 Symbol of AND gate A 0 0 1 1 2. OR Gate The output of OR gate is 1 if one or both its inputs are 1. Truth Table B 0 1 0 1 Y 0 0 0 1

Fig. 10 Symbol of OR gate Truth Table A 0 1 0 1 3. B 0 0 1 1 Y 0 1 1 1

NOT Gate (Inverter) The output of NOT Gate is 1 if its input is 0 and 0 if its input is 1.

Fig. 11 Symbol of NOT gate Truth Table A 0 1 Y 1 0

STI(T) Publication

74

001/HC/2001

Basic Electronics DIODE VALVE Introduction Diodes are used as rectifiers in power supplies, and as detectors, noise limiters and automatic volume control valves in radio receivers. Whatever their applications, diodes are used because they allow current to flow in one direction only. A diode has only two electrodes, a cathode and an anode. A filament of resistance wire, called a "heater," which heats the cathode, is not considered to be an electrode. These two electrodes are enclosed in a glass envelope from which all the air has been removed. Air is removed form the valve because it will prevent the filament from burning away, also the air molecules will interfere with the flow of electrons. Some times the air may be replaced by an inert gas.

Fig.12 How a Diode Valve Works The filament is heated by supplying a current. At the same time the cathode is also heated because it is placed very near to the filament. When cathode is heated up electrons are emitted forming a "space charge" region near the cathode. Driving electrons out of a substance by heat is known as "thermionic emission." When a positively charged anode is placed round the cathode, the electrons are attracted from the free charge. The number of electrons, which flow to the anode, depends on the relative voltages of the anode and the cathode. Since conduction in a valve is due to the flow of electrons through the valve , following observation can be made: 1. Current through the valve flows only when anode is supplied with positive potential (called forward bias), because it attract electrons from the cathode surface. 2. Current does not flow when anode is supplied with negative potential (also called reverse bias)

STI(T) Publication

75

001/HC/2001

Helper Course The two cases are dicussed in the following figure.

Fig.13 THE TRIODE Introduction One of the most important applications of valve is their use to change a small voltage input into a large voltage output. This process is called amplification. For example, in an ordinary radio set, the valves take a signal of a few millionths of a volt from the aerial and change it into a powerful signal which is capable of driving a loudspeaker. This requires a great deal of amplification. This amplification is achieved with the help of valves. One of the valves, which can produce amplification is the triode. You will find that valves are used to produce amplification in receivers, in transmitters, in line equipments and in radars etc. Construction The triode is similar in construction to the diode valve with addition of a third electrode.

Fig.14 The third electrode in the triode is called a "grid," or more specifically called the "control grid." it is a very thin wire wound in a spiral round the cathode so that the electron stream can pass through its spacings.

STI(T) Publication

76

001/HC/2001

Basic Electronics

How triode valves work The anode of a triode is normally connected to a high positive voltage. The grid of the triode is usually kept at a negative voltage with respect to the cathode. Because electrons are negatively charged they tend to be repelled by the negative grid. The grid being closer to the cathode than is the anode has a greater effect in controlling the valve current then does the positive anode. If the grid becomes less negative more electrons will get through it from the cathode to the anode; If the grid becomes more negative, fewer electrons will get through to the anode. When the grid is made sufficiently negative with respect to the cathode, its tendency to repel the electrons near the cathode will just equal the pull of the anode on the electrons, and no current will flow. The point at which the two effects are balanced is called "cutoff". When the negative voltage on the grid is reduced, a few electrons manage to get from the space charge to the anode, and a small current flows.

Fig.15 When the negative voltage is reduced further,or is made equal to zero, more current will flow from the space charge to the anode. If the grid is made positive with respect to thecathode, still more current will flow. A point will be reached when the grid is so positive that the emission of electrons from the cathode is a maximum. This is saturation, beyond which no further increase in positive voltage on the grid can have any effect. How amplifiers work If proper voltages are supplied to various valve electrodes, a small change in voltage applied to the grid will cause a large change in voltage on the anode. This production of a large voltage change from a small voltage change is called "amplification." Three cases of amplifier working is given in the following diagram.

STI(T) Publication

77

001/HC/2001

Helper Course

Fig. 16 THE TETRODE The Construction The grid to anode capacitance in a triode produces undesirable effects at high frequencies. It may even prevent the valve from amplifying properly. In a tetrode a second grid is placed between the anode and the grid, to reduce the total capacitance. This second grid called the "screen -grid," has the effect of shielding the anode from the first grid, and allows the tetrode to be used at high frequencies.

Fig.17 Normally, the screen grid has a high positive voltage and it attracts electrons from the space charge just as the anode did in the triode. However because the screen grid is a spirally-wound thin wire most of the electrons pass right through it and reach the anode. The screen in fact draws off only a little of the current.

STI(T) Publication

78

001/HC/2001

Basic Electronics

The anode is usually kept at higher voltage than the screen, and the anode circuit does not differ much from that which is used with triodes. Secondary Emission in the tetrode In any valve diode or triode when one electron strikes the anode, it knocks several other electrons out of it, This is known as "secondary emission"; it happens because the electrons are hitting the anode at high speed. In a tetrode some of these electrons are attracted to the screen. Obviously, any flow of secondary electrons from the anode to the screen adds to the screen current and subtracts from the anode current.

Fig. 18 Normal Operation of the Tetrode Cathode bias in the tetrode is obtained in the same way as in the triode, except that in the tetrode the current flowing through the cathode resistor is the sum of the screen and the anode currents. The control grid voltage varies with the input signal; it tends to produce variations in both anode and screen currents, and consequently variations in anode and screen voltages. Variation of voltage on the screen grid is avoided by the connecting a screen decoupling capacitor to earth. In this way, the screen is maintained at a fixed d.c. voltage; and the only variation of a.c. current which results from a signal will be in the anode circuit. With a.c. on the control grid of the valve, the anode voltage will vary because of the drop in the load resistor (just as in the triode). When the tetrode is used to give high amplification, the anode voltage varies over a wide range; and if it drops below the screen grid voltage, secondary emission effects cause distortion in the output.

STI(T) Publication

79

001/HC/2001

Helper Course

(a) Biasing of tetrode

Fig.19

(b) Application of a tetrode

To prevent this, the anode supply voltage would have to be very large to keep the anode at a higher potential than the screen, regardless of the amount of voltage variation at the anode. THE PENTODE Introduction The main disadvantage of a tetrode is the need for a high anode voltage to prevent distortion in its output caused by the effect of secondary emission. The pentode is designed to eliminate the flow of secondary electrons between the anode and the screen grid. This is accomplished by the inclusion of a third grid, between the anode and the screen grid. The schematic of a pentode is given in the figure below.

Fig.20

STI(T) Publication

80

001/HC/2001

Basic Electronics The suppressor grid is usually kept at cathode potential, so that it is always very negative with respect to the anode. Therefore any electron which may be in the region between the suppressor and the anode, is attracted back to the anode, and is prevented from getting through the suppressor to the screen. How the Pentode Works In a triode amplifier, a decrease of the negative grid voltage produced an increase in the current and a decrease in the anode voltage. The anode voltage change was more than the change in grid voltage. We called the ratio of anode voltage change to grid voltage change 'amplification' You remember, too, that the anode voltage in a triode amplifier also affected the current flow. The decrease in anode voltage had a tendency to decrease the current, while the grid was trying to increase the current. The decrease in anode voltage was therefore opposing the effect of the decrease in negative grid voltage. In order to get maximum amplification from the valve for a given change in grid voltage, the effect of the change of anode voltage on the anode current must be reduced. This is achieved with the help of the suppressor grid in a pentode. A comparision of a pentode with a triode is shown below (fig.21)

Fig.21 SEMICONDUCTORS Introduction According to atomic theory, all materials consist of various combinations of about one hundred different types of atoms. The atom is defined as the smallest unit into which an element may be divided before it loses its physical and chemical identity. All atoms consist of a positively charged nucleus, around which one or more negatively charged electrons rotated. The electrons rotate in orbits, which make up rings or cells located at varying distances from the nucleus. The number of electrons in the various rings or cells determine the specific element to which atom belongs.

STI(T) Publication

81

001/HC/2001

Helper Course The electrical characteristic of an atom is determined by how tightly the nucleus holds on outer electrons. If outer electrons are easily removed, the material will conduct easily, and is known as "conductor." If, however, the outer electrons are difficult to dislodge from their orbits, the material is known as "insulator." The material, which is used in transistors and semi-conductor diodes, is known as "semiconductor" material. Its conductivity lies between conductor and insulator. The materials, which are of greatest use in present day transistor applications, are germanium and silicon.

Fig. 22 The diagram shows a simplified picture of a pure crystalline semi-conductor material such as germanium and silicon. Every atom has four outer electrons, which are shown as small minus signs. The inner electrons, which are bound to the nucleus and the nucleus itself, are shown as a single solid black dot. N-Type Semiconductor: Semi-conductor materials can be made to conduct more easily if impurity atoms are added which enter the crystalline structure, but which have excess outer electrons not bonded to the structure. Current flow is by the excess negatively charged electrons flowing through the crystal to the positively charged terminal. Electrons are majority carriers and holes are minority carriers in N -type Semiconductor. P-Type Semiconductor: Better conduction can also be obtained by adding impurity atoms, which lack sufficient outer electrons to fill all the crystal bonds. The unfilled spaces or defects are known as "holes" and have the characteristics of positive charges. Holes are majority carriers and electrons are minority carriers in P-type semiconductors.

STI(T) Publication

82

001/HC/2001

Basic Electronics

(a)

Fig. 23

(b)

Junction Diode: A junction diode consists of P and N-type semi-conductor materials in close contact. The junction can either be formed during the crystal growing process (grown junction), or by a melting and recrystallization process (alloy-junction).

Fig. 24 Froward bias: The P-N junction biasing arrangement shown is known as "forward bias." Only a small voltage is required to cause all holes and excess electrons to flow to the junction, and so give maximum rated current flow. Current is normally of the order of milli-amperes(mA) and resistance of diode is small in forward bias.

Fig. 25

STI(T) Publication

83

001/HC/2001

Helper Course Reverse bias: When the junction biasing connections are the reverse of forward bias, nearly all holes and excess electrons flow away from the junction, and so do not enter into a continuous current flow. Only stray holes and electrons can enter into a continuous current flow. High voltage are required to enable them to do so, however, and the maximum current is only a small fraction of that obtained with forward bias. Current in reverse biased diode is of the order of micro-amperes (A) and its resistance is high.

Fig. 26 Applications of semi-conductor diodes Semi-conductor diodes can be used in most applications for which metal rectifiers or diode valves are employed. The advantage of using semi-conductor diode as a replacement is that it is generally smaller, more efficient and can be operated at higher frequencies. Semi-conductor diodes are used in power supply circuits as half wave and full wave rectifiers. It is also used in voltage doubler circuits. In receiver circuits, the semi-conductor diode can be used efficiently as a mixer or a detector.

Various types of junction diodes, which are commercially available, along with their notation, are given below.

Fig. 27 STI(T) Publication

84

001/HC/2001

Basic Electronics

DECIBEL (dB) In communication engineering, signals vary over a large range (from micro volts to several volts). Therefore, for convenience sake, these signals are represented on a logarithmic scale instead of a linear scale. Decibel is defined as

P2 where P1 and P2 are two powers to be compared. P2 is called reference level and can be any unit like mW, W. etc. Decibel can also be expressed in terms of voltage ratio.
V1 V2 where V1 and V2 are power level being compared. dB = 20 log10

dB

10 log10

P1

dBm

If P2 = 1 mW (reference power) then decibel ratio is called dBm. dBm = 10 log10 P2

Where P2 is in milli watts. Note : 1 mW =

Example 1.

1 watt 1000

Convert a signal of 100 mW into dBm

dBm = 10 log10 100 = 10 log10 (10 )2 1

Sol.

= 10 2 = 20 dBm
Example 2.

Convert a signal of 1 W into dBm.

1 w = 1000 mW dBm = 10 log10 1000 1
3

= 10 log10 (10 )

= 10 x 3 = 30 dBm

STI(T) Publication

85

001/HC/2001

Helper Course Example 3.

Compare a signal of 6 V with that of 1 V in dB.

dB = 20 log10 = 20 log 6 = 20 x 0.778 = 15.56 dB 6 1

Example 4

Compare a signal of 8V with 4V in dB V1 = dB = = = = 8V, V2 = 4V 20 log 10 (8/4) 20 log 10 2 20 x 0.3 6 dB

Here

VU means volume units It is a unit for measurement of sound levels.

FREQUENCY RESPONSE The curve showing the output of an amplifier or studio chain or transmitter at different frequencies is called frequency response as shown.
Output

Fig.28

Frequency response of a transmitter may be + 1 dB which means that its output level will not be less than or more than 1 dB with a reference frequency say 1 KHz.
DISTORTION The output of an amplifier or a transmitter is not the exact reproduction of the input wave form due to non-linearities of the system. This difference in input and output wave shapes is called DISTORTION and is measured in terms of percentage e.g. the maximum distortion permissible in a MW transmitter is 4%.
Distortion Amplitude Output Wave-form

Input Wave-form t

Fig.29

STI(T) Publication

86

001/HC/2001

Basic Electronics NOISE LEVEL Every electronic or electrical device generates noise (called thermal noise) which gets added to the signal being amplified. Thus the noise level is more at the output of an amplifier than at its input. Example: The noise level at the output of a transmitter at 100% modulation should be 60 dB below the signal level. In other words, Signal-to-Noise Ratio at the output of transmitter should be 60 dB. 60 dB = 10 log 10 (S/N) S/N = antilog 10 (6) = 106 = 1000,000

Therefore, the signal level should be 106 times the noise level at the output of transmitter.
VU Meter :- VU meters employ special ballistics that averages out complex waveforms to properly indicate programme levels.

A VU meter reads the rms value of the waveform. Thus, the VU meter indicates considerably less than the instantaneous peak programme level. A VU meter cannot follow small instantaneous peak. Now a days, PPM (Peak Programme Meters) are used in many consoles, where signal peaks can be seen, and programme can be more accurately controlled.
Voltmeter

A voltmeter is a galvanometer in series with a high resistance

A Voltmeter is connected across the terminals AB whose potential difference is to be measured.

G RS Voltmeter A B

Fig.30 Ammeter

An ammeter is a galvanometer in parallel with a small resistance.

Ammeter is connected in series with the circuit whose current is to be measured.

G

RP A Ammeter B

Fig.31

STI(T) Publication

87

001/HC/2001

Helper Course Example : A moving coil instrument has a resistance of 10 and gives full scale deflection when carrying a current of 50 mA. Show how it can be adopted to measure voltages upto 750 V and currents up to 100 A.

(a)

As Ammeter
100A 10 0.05A G

99.95A Supply RP Load

Fig.32

Obviously, 10 0.05 = R p 99.95 Rp = 10 0.05 99.95 = 0.005

(b)

As Voltmeter
G 750V 10 0.05A RS 0.5V Load 749.5V

Fig.33

0.05 RS RS = =

749.5

749.5 0.05 14,990

STI(T) Publication

88

001/HC/2001

Basic Electronics

Frequency Ranges

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Medium Waves Short Waves Very High Frequency (VHF) Ultra High Frequency (UHF) S-Band C-Band

535-1605 KHz 3 MHz to 30 MHz 30 MHz to 300 MHz 300 MHz to 3000 MHz 2.5 to 3.5 GHz 4 to 6 GHz

Television Channel Allocations CCIR-B

Band I (41 to 68 MHz)

Channel 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

Frequency range, MHz 41-47 47-54 54-61 61-68 174-181 181-188 188-195 195-202 202-209 209-216 216-223 223-230

Picture carrier, MHz Not used for TV 48.25 55.25 62.25 175.25 182.25 189.25 196.25 203.25 210.25 217.25 224.25

Sound carrier, MHz 53.75 60.75 67.75 180.75 187.75 194.75 201.75 208.75 215.75 222.75 229.75

III (174-223 MHz)

Addl. Chl.
Note

1 MHz = 1000 KHz = 106 Hz 1 GHz = 1000 MHz = 109 Hz 1 KHz = 1000 Hz

STI(T) Publication

89

001/HC/2001

Helper Course

STI(T) Publication

90

001/HC/2001