Polymer Composites and Nanocomposites P 2563
POM components of the friction force: deformation and
Polymer Composites and
Nanocomposites
S. S. PESETSKII, S. P. BOGDANOVICH
Department of Polymer Composites, V.A. Belyi Metal-
Polymer Research Institute of National Academy of
Science, Gomel, Belarus
Synonyms
Plastic materials; Plastics; Polymer materials and
nanomaterials
Definition
Polymer composites are materials consisting of polymer
matrix and modifying additives (fillers, plasticizers, lubri-
cants, stabilizers, modifiers, etc.), that alter their service
performance. Polymer nanocomposites contain at least
one of the components in the form of particles or fibers/
films of size between 5 and 100 nm.
For producing polymer composite materials (PCM)
and polymer nanocomposites (PNC), natural and syn-
thetic polymers are used as binders (matrices). This pro-
cess occurs at the stage of producing and processing PCM
and PNC, based on thermoplastics (materials that are
reversibly viscous-flow in heating) or thermosets (mate-
rials that when heated and/or in the presence of a curing
agent lose the ability to transit to the viscous-flow state).
Scientific Fundamentals
Friction is determined by a cooperative influence of two
major factors: (1) internal friction caused by mechanical
damping or dissipation of energy in the surface layers; and
(2) surface shearing in the contact.
For polymers, internal friction is the most important
cyclic process, for example, in operation of rolling bear-
ings or automobile tyres. The value of friction coefficient m
for rolling of a hard (metallic) ball over a plastic surface is
found from the following expression (Flom 1961):
rffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
P
m ¼ 0:115 tan d ; bonds to break. If shearing happens to be the basic factor
G0 r 2
where P is the load applied to the rolling ball of radius r, G0
is the dynamic shear modulus of the plastic over which the
00
ball is rolling, and tan d ¼ GG0 is the mechanical loss
tangent. For the plastic, it is the ratio of the imaginary
part of the dynamic shear modulus, or loss modulus (G00 )
to the real part, or storage modulus (G0 ); tan d is, in fact,
the ratio of the energy dissipated during a cycle to the
maximum potential energy accumulated during the cycle.
the better are conditions for heat dissipation at rubbing.
The thermal conductivity and hardness of polymeric coat-
ings can be improved by filling porous metallic matrixes,
e.g., porous bronze, with polymers.
When employing PCM in tribosystems, their ability to
become electrified, which is followed by local impulsing
micro-discharges, should be taken into consideration. The
electric charge potential on polymer surfaces may be hun-
dreds to thousands of volts, which raises the friction force
significantly and increases heating of the rubbing bodies. In
sliding bearings, high potentials occur when a metallic
bushing contacts a polymeric shaft. If a metallic shaft is in
contact with a polymeric bushing, microdischarges appear
more often, which prevents large static charges from accu-
mulating. To diminish static charge, it is advisable to make
elements from polymers that simultaneously acquire oppo-
site charges at rubbing. Lubrication generally reduces the
potential of electrization.
Electrization of PCM affects wear in friction pairs,
predominantly the member losing electrons suffers wear.
The material of this member spreads over the counterface.
Electrization of non-polar polymers (e.g., polytetrafluor-
oethylene) produces boundary lubricating layers formed
from long-chain diphil aliphatic molecules.
The effect of boundary lubrication is much more pro-
nounced for a PCM/steel pair than for polymer/polymer
pairs. This is explained by dense adsorptive layers formed
on metals. An increase in the temperature above
some critical point may cause disorientation along with
desorption of the boundary lubricant, thus increasing the
coefficient of friction and wear.
Addition of substances with lamellar structure (e.g.,
molybdenum disulphide (MoS2) or graphite, 5–30 wt%)
with extremely low friction coefficients can improve the
antifrictional characteristics of polymers. Liquid plasti-
cizers and some of long-chain low-molecular weight ali-
phatic compounds can diffuse to the polymer surface and
form boundary lubricating layers to decrease m. The effi-
ciency of these layers increases with increasing load and
hardness of polymer, as well as the wettability of the
contacting bodies and the sliding speed.
Effect of Nanofillers on Tribology of PCM
Polymer nanocomposites are prepared using
nanoparticles of the following types: carbon (fullerenes
C60 and C70; single-walled and multi-walled nanotubes;
nanodiamonds, nanofibers, nanobands, and nanosoot);
ceramics (Al2O3, CaF2, CuO, PbTe, SiC, Si3N4, SiO2,
SnS2, TiO2, ZnO, and ZrO2), organometallic compounds
containing Co, Cu, Fe, W, etc., and polymers (PTFE,
liquid-crystalline polymers, etc.).
2564 P Polymer Composites and Nanocomposites
hydrogenation (catalyzed by alloys containing Co, Cu,
0.4
tanδ, PC
rel. un. PA6
0.2
PET
0.1
0 component due to the transfer films formed on the metal-
–150 –100 –50 0 50 T, ºC
5 the tribological characteristics depend on the transfer
G′,
POM
GPa
3 effect on the friction force (Bely et al. 1982; Bartenev and
2
PET
PC
1 friction force depends on the adsorptive activity of mac-
PC PA6
0 romolecules, which is governed by functional groups pre-
–150 –100 –50 0 50 T, ºC
Polymer Composites and Nanocomposites, Fig. 1
0
Temperature dependences of tand and G of polyamide 6
(PA6), polyethylene terephthalate (PET), polyoxymethylene
(POM), and polycarbonate (PC). Test conditions: inverse torsion
pendulum, frequency 1 Hz
An important characteristic of different types of poly-
mers is the dependence of their elastic modulus and tan d
on the temperature. Usually, the curve of temperature
dependence of the dynamic shear modulus shows a kink
in the relaxation transition region owing to the modulus
reduction at elevated temperatures; but tan d reaches the
maximum value (see Fig. 1). The range of similar damping
peaks is a peculiar “calling card” of polymer. Variations
in the dynamic shear modulus and tan d with the temper-
ature largely determine the temperature effect upon
m-values. The region of transition from the glassy to highly
elastic state is the main temperature region where tan d
is maximal irrespective of the polymeric material; the
m-value usually rises.
Mutual sliding of rubbing surfaces causes the interface
at friction, then the coefficient of friction is found from
the following expression:
t tribochemical transformations in macromolecules and
m¼ ;
P y
where t is the shear strength of the softer material of the
friction pair and Py is the yield point of the softer material.
As with most other materials, the friction of polymers
against hard surfaces is governed by two independent
Polymer Composites and Nanocomposites
The efficiency of nanofillers is explained by their
extremely rough surface and active adsorptive
(chemisorptive) interaction with matrix polymers. The
effect of nanofillers on tribological properties of polymers
may result from the following:
● Increased mechanical characteristics of the materials;
● Impact on relaxation processes;
● Lubricating effect;
● Inhibition of oxidation and degradation of binder’s
macromolecules;
● Energy dissipation in bulk of polymer matrix and
blocking of crack growth;
● Change in roughness (smoothing) of the contacting
surfaces;
● Modification of friction-transferred layers.
Several researchers (Ray and Okamoto 2003) have
established that a considerable rise in mechanical charac-
teristics can be achieved with nanofiller concentrations
between a few tenths of percent and a few percent. Every-
thing else being equal (identical size of nanoparticles in
the polymer and approximately similar values of mechan-
ical characteristics), wear rates depend on interaction at
polymer/nanofiller interphase: higher interaction inten-
sity leads to improved tribological characteristics of PNC.
Nanofiller particles interact actively with macromole-
cules and often change temperatures of major relaxation
transitions, particularly, causing an increase in the
a-transition temperature. This allows one to use polymers
at a higher PV and a higher temperature in the boundary
layer of the material.
If nanoparticles get into the friction zone, they can func-
tion as a lubricant similar to a solid lubricant – like graphite
or MoS2 – that separates the rubbing surfaces while acting
as tiny “rollers,” thus changing sliding friction to rolling
friction on local contact spots (Pesetskii et al. 2008).
Owing to their rough surfaces, nanoparticles can influ-
ence many tribochemical processes: thermal oxidation and
mechanical degradation of macromolecules become
inhibited, cracks “heal,” and macromolecular rearrangement
accelerates to form cellular wear-resistant structures.
Unlike conventional composites, PNC have
a homogeneous bulk structure (Devaprakasam et al.
2007). As a result, the frictional energy generated on local
contact spots dissipates much easier into material’s bulk.
Besides, microparticles – unlike nanoparticles – have
weaker bonds with polymeric matrix leaving it more vul-
nerable to shearing stresses caused by rubbing.
Because nanoparticles are very tiny, they can stick in
cavities among microasperities of the harder (metallic)
counterface, thus smoothing it and reducing abrasive wear.
adhesion (Bowden and Tabor 1954; Bely et al. 1982).
The mechanical component results from the resistance
to “ploughing” of the softer surface by asperities of the
harder one. The adhesion component results from adhe-
sion bonds formed between bodies in friction contact on
the contact spots. It is assumed that for polymers the
adhesion component exceeds considerably the mechanical
150
lic counterface. For most metal-polymer friction systems,
layer (Bahadur 2000). Such factors as contact load,
sliding speed, and temperature also have a pronounced
Lavrent’ev 1972).
It can be assumed that the adhesive component of
150 sent in the polymer and molecular mobility that depends
on the temperature. That is why blocking of functional
groups by incorporation of substances capable of adsorp-
tive interaction with macromolecules and limiting molec-
ular mobility would strongly influence the tribological
properties of polymers.
With rubbing of polymers against metals,
tribochemical processes in zones of real contact apprecia-
bly affect the tribological behavior. The direction and
kinetics of chemical transformations in polymers are
connected not only with the chemical structure of
macromolecules but also with the molecular arrangement,
P
perfection and size of crystallites, orientation of macro-
molecules, and molecular mobility. Structural heteroge-
neity of polymers results in irregular distribution of
additives and reactants in their bulk. For example, in
case of partly crystalline polymers, low molecular weight
substances are concentrated in the amorphous areas of
polymer; most reactive fragments of macromolecules are
also found there. Local concentrations of reactants may
largely differ from average values; consequently, local rates
of tribochemical reactions should also differ. That is
why incorporation of additives, which affect the physical
structure of polymers, will unavoidably influence the
tribological properties.
Metal counterface can have an active impact upon
wear of polymer. The role of this factor rises with more
severe load-velocity regimes (Pesetskii et al. 2008).
Such elements as Cr, Mo, Pt, Pd, Rh, Ta, and Ti are the
most effective catalysts of chemical processes that proceed
in polymers by radical mechanisms. No effect is caused
by Au or Ag. Typical tribochemical processes are
P 2565 2566 P Polymer Composites and Nanocomposites
Conventional and nanodisperse fillers added together
to a polymer give better results in comparison with PCM,
into which only one filler is incorporated (the wear rate
can be additionally reduced 2–3 times).
Tribological Behavior and Key
Applications of PCM and PNC
Tribological behavior of PCM and PNC depends on the
chain structure of macromolecules of the polymer binder
and the effect of fillers and other modifiers (see Fig. 2). It is
assumed that in polymer friction a great role is played by
the thin surface layers of the bodies in contact.
Antifrictional PCM
These can be based on both thermoplastic and thermoset-
ting polymeric binders.
Thermoplastic Materials
Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) is the best antifrictional
material to operate without lubrication. Under light contact
pressures, it can be used over a wide range of sliding speeds.
PTFE shows a high resistance to impact loading, solvents,
and chemically active substances. Its disadvantages include
a high cold flow ability, a low mechanical strength and
hardness (see Table 1). These disadvantages can be over-
come by designing special PCM based on PTFE, such as
materials filled with carbon and glass fibers, MoS2, graph-
ite, and powdery bronze in an amount of 40–50 wt%.
PTFE-based PNC show much better tribological proper-
ties compared with the original polymer. Fullerene as well as
its derivatives, carbon nanotubes, metal oxides, etc., serve
P
as nanofillers. They increase considerably the wear resistance:
# 20 vol.% of carbon nanotubes can increase the PTFE
wear resistance 300 times (see Fig. 3) (Chen et al. 2003).
Textolite made of PTFE and phenol-formaldehyde-
based binder is an antifrictional material designed for
operation under heavy loads and at low sliding speeds.
Metal-fluoro-plastic bushings find a wide application
in bearings. They are steel bands covered with porous
bronze filled with PTFE containing up to 20 wt% of lead
or some other solid lubricant.
PTFE-based PCM are unique antifrictional materials
that operate in liquid hydrogen and oxygen.
Key applications: light duty friction units, among them
those operated at high speeds. PTFE can be used as the
antifriction filler for other polymers.
PCM and PNC based on aliphatic polyamides contain
a matrix polymer (mostly polyamides 6, 66, 46, and 610),
reinforcements (glass fibers, carbon fibers, and fillers),
Fe, Ni, Pt, and Re), dehydrogenation (catalyzed by oxides
of alkali-earth, transition, and rare-earth elements; sul-
fides, tellurides, stibides, and arsenides of Ca, Cd, Cr,
Mg, Mo, Ni, Zn, and some others; borides, nitrides, car-
bides, silicides, and phosphides of Cr, Mo, Ti, V, W, and
others; metals – Cu, Ni, Os, Pd, Pt, Ru, Ru, and others);
oxidation (partial oxidation is catalyzed by systems based
on oxides of metals of V–VIII groups; most active oxides
have high bond energy in metal-oxygen systems with Bi,
Co, Mo, Fe, and others; deep oxidation up to CO2 and
H2O is catalyzed by metals of platinum group: Pd, Ph, Pt,
and Ni as well as by Co; by simple and complex oxides of
metals of VI–VIII groups). Compounds formed by inter-
action of macromolecules and products of tribochemical
transformations have diverse chemical structure. Often,
especially for rubbing in air, these may be coordination
compounds.
The coefficient of friction is not a constant, even in
cases where at least one of the elements in a friction pair is
either PCM or PNC, because it depends on the rubbing
conditions, environment, and design of the pair. For
instance, m for rubber tyres running over dry asphalt is
0.7–0.8, while on wet asphalt it is 0.15–0.25.
Depending on m, PCM are subdivided into
antifrictional and frictional. Antifrictional materials
show a low (below 0.2) m and a high wear resistance.
Frictional PCM show value of m above 0.2.
Generally, depending on the type of PCM and operating
conditions, friction coefficients may be between a few hun-
dredths and unity. The value of m usually decreases with
increased polymer crystallinity. As polymeric materials are
viscoelastic bodies, their contact area in the friction zone
depends on time. This has an especially strong impact on
the static m, which may perceptibly rise with time.
Application of polymers as antifrictional materials is
limited by: (1) a high temperature coefficient of expansion
(tens of times as high as those of metals); (2) a low thermal
conductivity (hundreds of times as low as those of metals);
(3) a low hardness; (4) high mechanical compliance (low
moduli of elasticity), which reduces the role of plastic
deformations, thus hindering the running-in of friction
surfaces; and (5) low efficiency of boundary lubrication.
The coefficient of thermal expansion for polymers can
be suppressed by using fiber (felt) as a filler. Powdery fillers
are added to enhance the hardness and thermal conduc-
tivity of PCM. The low hardness of polymers can be
effectively compensated for by covering metals with
a thin polymer layer. A hard sublayer of metal decreases
compliance of polymeric materials, i.e., the real area
of contact. The smaller the polymer coating thickness,
0.8
50
f
40 0.6
I ( 10–5mm3 / N / m)
30
0.4
20
0.2
10
0 0
1 2 3 4 5 6
Composite
Polymer Composites and Nanocomposites, Fig. 2 Wear rate
(l) and coefficient of friction (f) of unfilled PA6 (1) and PA6 filled
with 3 wt% of nanoclay (2), 5 wt% of nanocopper (3), 15 wt%
of graphite (4), 15 wt% of fluoroplastic (5) and 5 wt% of grease
(6). Friction conditions: contact load 1 MPa, sliding speed
0.63 m/s, friction time 60 min., alloyed steel counter-body
(0.36–0.44 wt% C, 0.8–1.1 wt% Cr, 0.17–0.37 wt% Si, 0.5–0.8
wt% Mn, upto 0.3 wt% Ni and Cu, up to 0.035 wt% S and P)
lubricants (PTFE, MoS2, graphite, and greases), and
nano-modifiers (stratified silicates, metal oxides, and
solid lubricants in nanodispersed form). Polyamides can
be produced as microporous structures their pores are
filled with a lubricating oil (oil concentration is up to
50 wt%). Porous oil-filled polyamides are suitable for PV
$ 10 MPa·m·s%1. However, polyamide-based materials
show high water sorption. A change in water content in
polyamide-based PCM causes variations in the geometri-
cal dimensions of the friction unit, which affects its ser-
viceability. In case of polyamide 6 containing 30 wt% of
glass fibers 1 wt% of water results in # 0.1% change in the
linear dimensions of the friction member.
Polyamides reinforced with fibrous fillers show 100& C
(and higher) increase in the heat resistance.
Tribological materials based on blends of polyamides
and polyolefins, rubbers, aromatic polyamides, etc. are
widely used.
PCM containing hybrid glass-and-carbon fiber fillers
in combination with a nanofiller – stratified clay mineral –
find commercial application.
Key applications: bushes, pulleys, sliding bearings,
rollers, guides, gaskets, sprockets, gears; can also be used
in heavy-duty friction assemblies with limited supply of
lubricant.

Polymer Composites and Nanocomposites, Table 1 Tribological characteristics of some polymeric materials
Working
temperature
Material m range, & C Advantages
Aliphatic polyamides 0.2 ' 0.5 %40 ' +85
Aromatic polyamides 0.1 ' 0.3 %100 ' +200 High wear resistance; cyclic loading resistance; High cost; increased
Fluoroplastics 0.01 ' 0.05 %269 ' +260 Low friction coefficient; resistant to aggressive
media
Polycarbonate 0.2 ' 0.5 %60 ' +125
Polyacetals 0.1 ' 0.3 %50 ' +120
Polyolefins 0.1 ' 0.3 %100 ' +100 High resistance to aggressive media
Polyalkylene 0.1 ' 0.3 %20 ' +115
terephthalate
Thermoplastic 0.3 ' 0.6 %60 ' +120
elastomers
Polyetheretherketone 0.2 ' 0.4 %30 ' +250
Polyphenylene sulfide 0.2 ' 0.5 %30 ' +220
1000 0 Polyoxymethylenes (polyacetals) and composites based
I ( 10–6mm3 / N / m)
100
10 5 Key applications: components to operate under heavy
10
20
1
[CNT], vol. %
Polymer Composites and Nanocomposites, Fig. 3
Dependence of wear rate of PTFE on CNTs concentration
Thermosetting Materials
There are PCM containing crosslinked rubber (a mixture
of rubbers) as the matrix material. Such PCM-rubber mate-
rials show a high m (up to 0.8) at dry sliding. Rubber –
as an antifrictional material – is used first of all in
water-lubricated bearings. Rubber is superior to other
antifrictional materials where the lubricant contains abra-
sive particles (sand, for instance). These particles may get
into the clearance between the metallic shaft and rubber
bearing and press into the elastically deformable bearing
without penetrating it. As rubber is easily deformed
elastically, a thin interlayer of water may remain in the
clearance between the bearing and shaft after the latter is
stopped. This interlayer makes the next start easier. Soft
rubbers are preferred for making bearings. Rubbers can
operate at temperatures up to 110& C. They are widely
applied in sealing devices, where various hydroxyl-
containing compounds serve as lubricants which do not
cause any considerable swelling.
As antifrictional materials, common rubbers have
a disadvantage: they cause carbon steels to corrode;
this necessitates the producers to cover shafts with either
stainless steel or alloys of non-ferrous metals.
Textolites are PCM containing thermosetting
oligomers (usually phenol formaldehyde, polyester or
epoxy resins, up to 50 wt. %) and a fabric filler.
Textolites – PCM containing graphite # 10 wt% – can
be used as self-lubricating materials. Textolites have high
moduli of elasticity and strength (especially at compres-
sion) that depend little on the temperature that is impor-
tant for sliding bearings. Fabric-containing textolites can
endure a short-term rise in the temperature up to 120& C.
Textolites with asbestos fabric can withstand continuous
operation at temperatures up to 115& C. Generally,
textolites show a high wear resistance. This property can
be improved as follows: but-ends of the fabric should
make the working surface of bearing bushes while threads
should run in parallel to the shaft axis. Textolite bearings
are best to operate with water lubrication, which
ensures extremely low coefficients of friction. Textolite
can absorb a few percent of water and swells perpendic-
ularly to the fabric layers. They negligibly swell along
threads.
Wood-Containing Plastics. Laminated wood-
containing plastics are used for making bearings operat-
ing with water lubrication; in all veneer sheets the
direction of wood fibers is the same. The bearing’s work-
ing surface should be formed by fiber butt ends. As
a result, the wear resistance of the bearings gets improved;
variations in the clearance between the bearing body and
shaft decrease because some water is absorbed by the
Polymer Composites and Nanocomposites P 2567 2568 P Polymer Composites and Nanocomposites
Shell for ball joint Rubbing
surface
Important tribological characteristics
Disadvantages
High wear resistance; cyclic loading resistance High water sorption,
increased coefficient of
friction
increased heat- and thermal stability water sorption
Creep under load; low
mechanical strength
Rod cap Cross-section
High mechanical strength; resistant to Low resistance to
for steering wheel
aggressive media; dimensional stability hydrocarbons; low
fatigue strength Polymer Composites and Nanocomposites, Fig. 4 Polymer Composites and Nanocomposites, Fig. 5 Sealing
High wear resistance; resistant to cyclic loading; Can abrade the Polyacetal-based PCM machine parts for cars ring of gas-main pipeline ball cocks made from antifriction
dimensional stability counterface owing to
PCM based on polyester thermoplastic elastomers
high rigidity
Low resistance to
Polyacetals and polyacetal-based PCM find a wide
hydrocarbons; low
application in production of members for friction units
mechanical strength
operating under reciprocating conditions with limited belong to polar TPE; in dry rubbing against a metallic
High resistance to environment; resistant to Sensitive to hot water
lubricant supply. counterface they show a high m (see Table 1).
aggressive media (except alkalis and strong (water vapor)
Key applications: Gears with low elastic modulus, The friction coefficient can be reduced to 0.15–0.25 by
acids); heat resistance
cams, heavy-duty bearings and rollers, gears with small introducing antifrictional additives (PTFE, graphite, and
Highly elastic; resistant to aggressive media High friction coefficient;
backlash, valve seats, inserts in spherical bearings for greases) to TPE-based PCM compositions. Similar mate-
low mechanical strength
automobiles (see Fig. 4), and precision parts. rials can be used to produce antifrictional members. In
High heat- and atmosphere resistance; resistant High cost
PCM based on polyalkylene terephthalates – particular, PCM based on polyester TPE are used to fab-
to aggressive media and g-radiation
polyethylene terephthalate (PET) and polybutylene tere- ricate seals (seats) for ball cocks in gas mains (see Fig. 5).
High resistance to aggressive media; high wear High cost
phthalate (PBT) – reveal a high abrasion resistance and They can operate at temperatures from %60& C to +130& C.
resistance and resistance to cyclic loads
a weak dependence of tribological properties on environ- Modified TPE are processed by injection moulding to
mental humidity; they are resistant to cracking under fabricate noiseless gears, bearing cages, members of elastic
P stress as well as to atmospheric ageing. drives (toothed and V-belts), and self-lubricating mem-
For tribosystems, PCM reinforced with glass fibers in bers for seals.
combination with solid lubricants like PTFE, graphite, or Key applications: sealing elements (e.g., seals for ball
MoS2 are most suitable. PET can be modified by crystal- cocks) to operate in reversing regime.
on them show a little tendency to creep, a high fatigue lization accelerators added to PCM along with chain Superstructural plastics are PCM combining high
resistance, and a low water absorption capacity; they are extenders to prevent molecular weight reduction during mechanical and tribological properties along with an
melt processing and to maintain the resistance to improved thermal stability. The macromolecular structure
resistant to solvents and chemically active substances and
show low creep at elevated temperatures. They also remain hydrolytic thermal degradation. Machine parts made of of PCM matrix materials contains aryl rings directly
strong and rigid up to 100& C. crystallized PET are suitable for operation at temperatures bonded to each other. These materials are represented by
Polyacetals are thermoplastics with a high crystallinity between %60& C and +220& C. polysulfone, polyethersulfone, polyetherketone, and
liquid-crystalline polymers. They are thermally stable at
(up to 95–98% for homopolymers and 60–80% for copol-
30 ymers). Polyacetals show little variations in shrinkage. loads with higher requirements to dimensional stability 150–170& C; 180; 240–250& C, and 200–300& C, respectively.
(e.g., bushes, guiding thrust washers, gears, rollers, pump These thermoplastics show an enhanced mechanical sta-
Therefore, they can be used in making parts for precision
friction pairs. components). bility and resistance to radiation. Reinforcing fibers (gen-
Polyacetal-based PCM are filled with fibrous Thermoplastic elastomers (TPE) are block copolymers erally carbon fibers) and antifriction additives (PTFE,
nanofillers, BaSO4, and solid lubricants. In certain situa- of ABA and AB types where A is a rigid thermoplastic MoS2, and graphite) added to them make their tribolog-
tions, polyacetals are blended with elastomers or other block and B is a flexible elastomeric block. TPE based on ical properties stable over a wide temperature range.
polymers to enhance the fracture toughness. polyurethanes and polyester elastomers are most often Key applications: pump components, valve seats, bear-
employed for making friction members, first of all, ings, rollers, gears, parts to operate in boiling water or
damping friction bearings. These two types of materials vapor; parts to operate at cryogenic temperatures.
Polymer Composites and Nanocomposites P 2569
laminated plastic. Gears are fabricated from laminated
wood-containing plastics, which have similar mechanical
properties in all directions. Such materials designed as
antifrictional ones contain 18–22% of a binder, usually
a phenol formaldehyde resin. In free state, these materials
can absorb water up to 20% and swell in normal direc-
tions to the fibers; under stress, water absorption
decreases.
Plasticized wood is successfully used under condi-
tions similar to those when laminated wood plastics are
used.
Moulding materials consisting of wood crumb, saw-
dust, fabric pieces, etc., impregnated with resole are also
used as antifrictional PCM. Self-lubricating antifrictional
PCM are produced by impregnation of these fillers with
solution of a lubricating oil in resol and introduction of
graphite into the material.
Of numerous species of wood intended as
antifrictional materials for bearings to operate in water,
guaiacum finds rather limited application. This wood
contains guaiacum resin up to 22–26% that makes the
surface “greasy.” In the free state, guaiacum absorbs
water up to 12–18%.
One of the most important trends in tribology is
development of frictional materials (FM). Such materials
must meet certain requirements: a high and stable coeffi-
cient of friction; a high wear and scoring resistance as well
as a high strength; resistance to temperature jumps, abra-
sion, and aggressive media. Asbestos-based polymeric
FM – often called asbofrictional materials – have been
widely applied, though recently they are changed for
asbestos-free materials as more ecologically friendly ones.
P
Asbestos-containing FM usually include up to 15 compo-
nents, which can be subdivided into three major groups:
(1) asbestos (15–60%); (2) binders (15–60%) and vulca-
nizing (or curing) agents; (3) and other fillers (20–60%).
Asbestos imparts the strength and heat resistance to poly-
meric FM. Chrysolite asbestos in the form of separate
fibers or fabric is used most often. To rise and stabilize
the coefficient of friction and the wear resistance of
FM, other fillers – organic particles (cured synthetic
resins) and inorganic ones – are usually introduced. The
coefficient of friction of polymeric FM decreases in the
following sequence: lead powder, lead litharge, and fine
colloidal silica. The linear wear increases in the following
sequence: graphite, silica filler, barite, iron powder, lead
powder, lead litharge, asbestos, kaolin, iron minium,
and brass chips. Binders are butadiene, butadiene-nitric,
and other rubbers; phenol- or cresol-formaldehyde and
other synthetic resins; and combinations of resins and
rubbers.