Instructor : Asst Prof Dr.

Muhammad Imran
 In this chapter we will learn
▪ How to design state feedback controller using
pole placement to meet transient response
specifications
▪ How to design an observer for systems where the
states are not available to controller
▪ How to design steady state error characteristics
for system represented in state space (Integral
Control)
 In chapter 3 we introduced concepts of state
space analysis & system modeling
 These tools are used for analyzing and designing
feedback systems
 In this chapter we will use state space approach to
design controller, observer for achieving desired
system response
 Frequency domain technique like root locus do
not allow us to specify all poles of system higher
than 2 because they do not allow for sufficient no
of unknown parameters to place all closed loop
poles uniquely
 Here we will discuss how to introduce additional
parameter into system so that we can control
location of all closed loop poles
 Nth order feedback control system has an nth
order closed loop characteristic equation of the
form
 There are n coefficients whose values
determines the system closed loop locations
 So we need to introduce n parameters to system
to change their locations to desired locations
 Consider a plant represented in state space
by

are shown where light lines are scalars and

heavy lines are vectors
 In a typical feedback system o/p is only
feedback to summing junction
 Now topology of design changes instead of
feedback y we will feedback all state variables
 If each state variable is fed back to control u,
through gain Ki, there would be n gains , Ki
,that should be adjusted to yield the required
closed loop values
 The feedback through gain Ki is represented
in fig by feedback vector -K
 The state equations for closed loop system
can be written as
 Design of state feedback for closed loop pole
placement consists of equating the
characteristic equation of closed loop system
to desired characteristic equation and then
finding values of feedback gains Ki
 This method will only work for phase variable
form
 To apply pole placement methodology to plants
represented in phase variable form, we take the
following steps
▪ Represent Plant in phase variable form
▪ Feedback each phase variable to i/p of plant through a
gain ki
▪ Find characteristic equation for closed loop system
represented in step 2
▪ Decide upon all closed loop pole locations and
determine an equivalent characteristic equation
▪ Equate like coefficients of characteristic equation
from step 3 & 4 and solve for ki
 Following these steps phase variable
representation of plant is given by

 Characteristic equation for plant is

 Now form the closed loop system by feeding
back each state variable to u, forming

 Where

 Ki’s are phase variable feedback gains

 The system matrix A-BK for closed loop
system is
 Since above system is in phase variable form,
the characteristic equation of closed loop
system can be written by inspection as
 Now by assuming desired characteristic
equation for proper pole placement is

 Where di’s are desired coefficients

 By equating above equation by

 We get
 Example 12.1: For given plant design phase
variables feedback gains where closed loop
poles are -5.1, -5.4 7.2j ?
 First draw signal flow graph of given plant

 Next feedback all state variables to control u,

through gain Ki
 Now write state equations from above
system and represent in matrix form
 Closed loop characteristic equation becomes

 Desired characteristic equation from given

poles becomes

 Equating two equations we get

 After controller design our system becomes
 Controllability is the connection of input to
the states
 i/p can be changed and change the states of
system accordingly
 In order to control any state of system it
should be connected to the i/p
 Otherwise there is no way to set state
feedback to stabilize that state
 “If an i/p to a system can be found that take
every state variable from a desired initial
state to a desired final state, the system is
said to be controllable , otherwise system is
uncontrollable”

 Pole placement is only applicable for

controllable systems
 Controllability in parallel from is easy to
check when system states are decoupled
 When system is not in parallel from then we
will go for controllability matrix from
 An nth order plant whose state equation is

completely controllable if

is of rank n. Cm is controllability matrix

 Example 12.2: Given a system with signal flow
graph determine its controllability?
 State equation of system in matrix form
becomes

 Check controllability via controllability matrix

we get

 Rank = 3 (Controllable)
 If we change matrix B as

given system becomes uncontrollable

because Cm becomes rank deficient i.e.
rank = 1
 Until now we have performed pole placement
for systems which are in phase variable form
 If systems are not in phase variable form
then we cannot apply pole placement
method directly
 Here we have some choices for design
methodology
▪ First Method
▪ Second Method
 Perform the same method of pole placement
as we have seen for phase variable form
 i.e. match the coefficients of det (SI-(A-BK))
with the coefficients of desired characteristic
equation
▪ Drawback
▪ This method leads to difficult calculations of feedback
gains especially for higher order systems.
 Example 12.3: Given a plant , Y(S)/U(S) = 10 /
[(s+1)(s+2)], design state feedback for the
plant represented in cascade form. Desired
characteristic equation is
 (% overshoot 15%, Ts=0.5)
 Signal flow diagram for the system is

 Feedback form is shown as

 From feedback form write state and o/p
equations and represents in matrix form

 Characteristic equation of above system

becomes
 By comparing this characteristic equation
with desired characteristic equation we get
gains [k1 k2]
 This method consists of transforming the
original system into phase variable form,
design feedback gains, and then re-transform
the designed feedback system into original
state variable system
 This method requires we first develop
transformation b/w a system and its
representation in phase variable form
 Assume a plant not represented in phase
variable form

 Whose controllability matrix is

 Assume that the system can be transformed
into phase variable (X) representation with
transformation
 Z=PX
 Substitute (12.36) into equation (12.34)

 Whose controllability matrix is

 Also from equation (12.35) and from (12.38)


-1
CMx = P CMz
 P=CMz CMx-1
  P=CMz CMx
-1
 This transformation matrix can be found from
two controllability matrices
 After transforming the system into phase
variable form, we design feedback gain as
done in previous section
 By including both feedback and input

equation (12.37 ) becomes

 This equation is in phase variable form

-1
Using Z=PX and X=P Z we transform (12.40)
back into original transformation

 By comparing above equation with

 State variable gain Kz for original system is
 Kz= KxP
-1
 Example 12.4: Design a state feedback
controller with desired characteristic
equation is for the
following plant represented in cascaded
form? (% overshoot 20.8%, Ts=4)
 First draw signal flow diagram of cascaded
connection

 Next we will write state equations and find

controllability matrix CMz
 Now we convert the system into phase
variable form by 1st finding characteristic
equation and using this equation to write
phase variable form
 Characteristic equation is obtained by
det(SI-Az)
 Phase variable representation is obtained as

 Controllability matrix for phase variable

system is
 Now we have both controllability matrices and
we can find transformation matrix P by
 P=CMz CMx
-1

 Now we design controller by using phase

variable representation and then by using eq
(12.49) to transform design back into original
representation
 State equation in phase variable form is

 Characteristic equation can be directly written as

 =0

 Desired characteristic equation is

 By comparing two characteristic equations
we get

 By using equations (12.42) & (12.49) we

transform controller back into original system
as Kz= KxP -1
 Final closed loop system with state feedback
is shown as
 By writing state equations and representing
in matrix form we get
 Controller design relies upon access to state
variables for feedback through adjustable
gains
 This access is provided by hardware e.g.
gyros can measure position & velocity of a
space vehicle
 Sometimes it become impractical to use this
hardware for reasons of cost, accuracy or
availability e.g. powered flight of space
vehicle
 In other applications, some of state variables
may not be available at all, or its too costly to
measure them or send them to controller
 In such cases, estimated states rather than
actual states are then send to controller
 An observer, sometimes called an estimator,
is used to calculate state variables that are
not accessible by plant
 Assume a plant

 And an observer

 Subtracting (12.58)
from (12.57) we get
 Dynamics of difference b/w actual and
estimated states are unforced. If plant is
stable, this difference due to difference in
initial state vector is small and approaches to
zero
 However speed of convergence b/w actual
and estimated state is same as transient
response of plant because characteristic
equation for (12.57) & (12.59) remains same
 To increase speed of convergence we use
feedback b/w actual and estimated states as
shown
 Error b/w o/p of plant and observer is fed
back to the derivative of observer states
 The system corrects to derive this error to
zero
 With feedback we can design a desired
transient response into observer that is much
quicker than that of plant or controlled closed
loop system
 For Controller (Controller Canonical Form)
 For Observer (Observer Canonical Form)
 Figure shows 3rd Order plant representation
in Observer canonical form
 Figure shows plant is configured as observer
with addition of feedback
 Design of observer is separate from design of
controller
 Similar to the design of controller vector K,
the design of observer consists of evaluating
the constant vector L in order to yield a rapid
updated estimate of the state vector
 We will first find the state equations for the
error b/w the actual state vector and the
estimated state vector (𝑥 − 𝑥) ො
 Then we will find characteristic equation for
error system and evaluate required L to meet
rapid transient response of observer
 By writing state equations from fig
State Equation of Plant
 Subtracting eq (12.60) from eq (12.61)

 Where (𝑥 − 𝑥)ො is error b/w actual state vector

(X) and estimated state vector (𝑥)
ො
 (y-𝑦)
ො error b/w actual o/p (y) and estimated
o/p (𝑦)
ො
 By substituting o/p equation y=Cx in state
equation, we obtain state equation for error
between estimated state and actual state
vector
 Let ex= 𝑥 − 𝑥ො we have

 Characteristic equation is found from above

equation
 Let us demonstrate procedure for an nth
order plant representation in observer
canonical form
 We will first evaluate A-LC
 Characteristic equation becomes
 Assuming desired characteristic equation to
be

 By comparing these two characteristic

equations and solve for Li’s we get
 Example 12.5: Design an observer for the
plant which is represented in observable
canonical form and desired characteristic
equation is
 Observer signal flow graph of above system becomes

 By writing state equations and writing in matrix form

we get
 The observer error is

 Characteristic equation becomes

 By comparing above equation with desired

characteristic equation we get
 L1 = 112, l2= 2483 & l3 = 49990
 Observability is the connection of output to
the states
 If state variable has no effect on o/p then we
cannot evaluate this state variable by
observing the o/p
 “If initial state vector x(t0), can be found from
u(t) and y(t) measured over finite interval of
time t0, then the system is said to be
observable, otherwise system is un-
observable”

 Pole placement for an observer is only

applicable for Observable systems
 Observability can be explored from the o/p
equation of a diagonalized system
 Observability in parallel from is easy to check
 When system is not in parallel from then we
will go for Observability matrix from
 An nth order plant whose state equation is
completely Observable if

is of rank n. Om is Observability matrix

 Example 12.6: Determine if given system is
observable?
 We first write state and output equations
from signal flow graph and represent I matrix
form

 Observability matrix becomes

 Rank Om= 3
 (Observable)
 Uptil now we have performed pole placement
for systems which are in observable canonical
form
 If systems are not in observable canonical
form then we cannot apply pole placement
method directly
 Here we have some choices for design
methodology
▪ First Method
▪ Second Method
 Perform the same method of pole placement
as we have seen for observable canonical
form
 i.e. match the coefficients of det (SI-(A-LC))
with the coefficients of desired characteristic
equation
▪ Drawback
▪ This method leads to difficult calculations of feedback
gains especially for higher order systems.
 This method consists of transforming the
original system into observable canonical
form, design Observer gains, and then re-
transform the designed feedback system into
original state variable system
 This method requires we first develop
transformation b/w a system and its
representation in observable canonical form
 Assume a plant not represented in observable
canonical form

 Whose Observability matrix is

 Assume that the system can be transformed
into observer canonical form (X) with
transformation
 Z=PX
 Substitute (12.86) into equation (12.84)
 Whose Observability matrix is

 Substituting (12.85) into (12.88) and solving

for P we get
 After transforming the plant into observer
canonical form, we design the feedback
gains Lx. Using matrices (12.87)

 Using Z=PX and 𝑥=Pො -1 𝑧Ƹ then

 ex= x-𝑥ො = P-1ez we transform (12.90) back into
original transformation
 By comparing above equation with (12.64a)

 We get observer gain vector

 Example 12.8: Design an observer for the
plant represented in cascaded form where
desired characteristic equation is
 First represent the system in original cascade
form
 Observability matrix is

 Rank Omz= 3 (Observable)

 Characteristic equation becomes from above
system
 We use coefficients of last characteristic
equation to form observer canonical form
 Observability matrix for observable canonical
form is

 From these two Observability matrices we

find transformation matrix
 Now we design observer for observer
canonical form. First form Ax-LxCx

 Whose characteristic polynomial becomes

 By comparing the computed characteristic
polynomial with desired characteristic
polynomial we get

 Transforming Lx back into original

representation