CARDIOVASCULAR

SYSTEM
PHYSIOLOGY
LECTURE 8
Vascular physiology
Regulation of cardiovascular function
 Components of the Cardiovascular System
1.The heart = the pump providing the
driving force for the blood transport
to all parts of the body, into the two
“circulations”:
- pulmonary (in the lungs) - at low

pressure;
- systemic (in the rest of the body)

- at high pressure;
2.The arteries = the system of
distribution of the blood into the
tissues;
3. The microcirculation, which includes
the capillaries = the exchange
region between blood and tissue;
4.The veins = serve as blood
reservoirs and to collect the blood to
return it to the heart.
 Morphological and functional features of
blood vessels
• Although blood vessels have distinct features in every tissue,
there are some common characteristics.
• The arteries transport the blood towards the tissues in a
high pressure system.
• they have strong walls containing many elastic fibers
which elongate whenever the blood flow is increased
(elastic vessels).
• The arterioles are the smallest branches of the arterial
system acting as blood flow regulators.
• posses a muscular wall, through which can significantly
increase or decrease their capacity (complete closure).
• this allows them to regulate the local blood flow in
accordance to the tissue needs.
 Morphological and functional features of
blood vessels

• The capillaries allow the changes between the blood and the
tissues (transcapillary exchange):
• ensure the nutrition of the tissues and remove the
catabolism products
• the capillary walls are very thin, made of a single layer of
endothelial cells on a basal membrane
• have “pores” permeable for water and small molecules
• The venules collect the blood from the capillaries.
• The veins act as blood transport system from the tissues back
to the heart serving as well as blood reservoirs.
• have a low pressure status
Structural characteristics of blood vessels
 Arterial blood pressure (BP)

• Arterial blood pressure = the pressure applied upon the

arterial walls, induced by the rhythmic contractile activity of
the heart.
• Can be defined as:
• Blood pressure (BP)
• Arterial tension (AT) = the tension developed in the vessel
walls against BP.
• BP = AT

BP AT
 Parameters of arterial pressure

• Systolic BP - SBP = 120-135 mmHg

• the maximal value of BP during
cardiac systole
• dependent of heart pump (systolic
volume)
• Diastolic BP - DBP = 60-80 mmHg
• the minimal value of BP during
cardiac diastole
• dependent of total vascular
resistance (TVR)
• Vasoconstriction (vc) - ↑TVR
• Vasodilation (vd) - ↓TVR
 Determining factors of BP
• Heart pump - determining factor for SBP
-SV
• because CO = SV x HR ⇒ SBP is dependent of -HR

• TVR - determining factor for DBP:

• vasomotricity: VC ⇒↑DBP (sympathetic stimuli)
VD ⇒↓DBP (parasympathetic stimuli).
• blood viscosity (η): η↑ (Ht↑)⇒↑ DBP
η↓ (Ht↓=anemia) ⇒ ↓ DBP
• elasticity of vessels - inversely related to DBP

• Blood volume (BV): ↑BV (excessive transfusion) ⇒↑BP

↓BV (hemorrhage)⇒↓BP.
 Physiologic variation of BP
• Exercise:
- trained person: - ↑SBP (↑CO)
- ↓ DBP (VD skeletal muscles)
- untrained person : - ↑SBP
- ↑/const. DBP

• Age: in children – lower values of BP

in adults - SBP = 120-135 mmHg
- DBP = 60-80 mmHg
The same normal values in healthy old persons!!!
 Physiologic variation of BP
• Gender: BP males > BP females;
• Posture:1) BP horizontal position < BP orthostatic position
2) At passage from clino- to orthostatic position:
-initial: ↓ BP (due to gravitation) ⇒ activates the
reflex regulatory mechanisms ⇒ final ↑ BP
-pathologic: initial BP↓↓ (orthostatic hypotension).
• Stress: ↑ BP
• Digestion: ↑SBP
• Pregnancy: ↑ BP (↑BV)
• Temperature (t) : ↑↑t ⇒ ↑↑VD ⇒ ↓ BP
↓t ⇒ VC in skin.
 Pathological variations of BP

• ↑BP ⇒ arterial hypertension if

• SBP >140mmHg; DBP >80mmHg
• Causes:- atherosclerosis;
- cardio-vascular diseases;
- cerebral tumour (Cushing sindrome)
⇒ characterized by ↑BP and ↓HR (reflex);
- renal diseases.
• ↓BP ⇒ arterial hypotension
- SBP < 100mmHg + symptoms
- Causes: heart failure, hemorrhage, shock
Main Variation of BP
BP measurement - the Auscultatory
Method
 REGULATION OF
CARDIOVASCULAR
FUNCTION
 Cardiovascular regulatory centers
• located in the reticular substance from the upper part of
medulla and inferior third of the pons
a. Pressor area = cardioacceleratory and vasoconstrictor
centers
• Effects - stimulation of the pressor area leads to:
• ↑ HR and ↑ Force of contraction ⇒↑CO;
• ↑ vascular tonus (VC) ⇒↑ TVR;
• ↑ BP
b. Depressor area = cardioinhibitory and vasodilator centers
• Effects: stimulation of the depressor zone leads to:
• inhibition of the pressor area
• stimulation of vagus, determining:
– ↓ HR and ↓ Force of contraction ⇒ ↓CO;
– ↓ Vascular tonus (↓ SNS tonus) ⇒ ↓ TVR
– ↓ BP.
Role of the receptors from carotid sinus and
aortic arch in regulation of the CV function
Role of baroreceptors from
carotid sinus and aortic arch
• Stimulation: distension of arterial
walls due to ↑BP
• Afferent pathway:
• nerve IX (glosopharyngeal)
• nerve X (vagus)
• Centers: Depressor zone
activation
• Efferent pathway:
• to heart: stimulating vagal
activity ⇒ ↓ HR;
• to vessels : ↓ sympathetic
tone ⇒ ↓TVR.
• Result = Depressor reflex:
• ↓ HR + VD (↓TPR) ⇒ ↓ BP.
 Role of the receptors from carotid sinus and
aortic arch in regulation of the CV function
Role of chemoreceptors from
carotid sinus and aortic arch
• Stimulation: changes in plasma
concentration:
• ↓ PO2 ( mainly);
• ↑ PCO2 and H+ ions.
• Afferent pathway:
• Nerve IX (glosopharyngeal)
• Nerve X (vagus)
• Centres : Pressor zone activation
• Efferent pathway:
• to the heart: cardiac nerves (SNS)
⇒ ↑HR and Fcontraction
• to vessels: ↑ sympathetic tonus
(SNS) ⇒ ↑TVR.
• Result = Pressor Reflex:
• ↑HR and VC (↑TVR)⇒ ↑BP
 Role of the viscero- proprio- or exteroceptive
zones in cardio-vascular regulation
1) Visceroceptive reflexogenic zones
• there are chemoreceptors in the superior larynx :
• stimulation with chloroform ⇒ depressor reflex → can
lead to cardiac arrest:
• afference = trigemen nerve
• efference = vagus nerve.
• stimulation with ammonia ⇒ pressor reflex.
• there are mechanoreceptors in eyes :
• eyeballs compression ⇒ depressor reflex
• eyeballs compression ⇒ mechanoreceptors stimulation →
afference = trigemen → cardio-vascular regulatory areas →
efference = vagus ⇒ ↓ HR + ↓BP.
• the vestibular apparatus has mechanoreceptors ⇒ excitation
⇒ cardio-vascular depressor reflex .
Role of the viscero- proprio- or exteroceptive
zones in cardio-vascular regulation
2) Proprioceptive reflexogenic zones are located in
muscles, ligaments and joints. Stimulation by active or
passive movements triggers a cardio-vascular depressor
reflex (especially in legs).

3) Exteroceptive reflexogenic zones are located in skin.

• Moderate temperature or massage has a tonic pressor
effect.
• Warm/cold alternance has a stimulating effect on cardiac
function.
• Sudden changes of temperature, especially from heat to
cold, determine a cardio-vascular depressor reflex, even to
cardiac arrest (e.g.: contact with cold water after long time
exposure to sun).
 Humoral regulation of circulation –
vasoconstrictor substances
1) Cathecolamines – epinephrine and norepinephrine
• Synthesised and released by the adrenal medulla
• Effects:
• on α-adrenergic vascular receptors ⇒ VC ⇒ ↑TVR ⇒ ↑BP
• on β1-adrenergic miocardial receptors ⇒ ↑HR, ↑
Fcontraction ⇒ ↑ CO
• on β2-adrenergic vascular receptors ⇒ vasodilationin
skeletal muscles and coronary circulation

2) Endothelial vasoconstrictor factors:

Tromboxan A2 – from membrane lipids

induce vasoconstriction

Induce platelet clot formation

Endothelina – endothelial derived constrictor factor (EDCF)
 Humoral regulation of circulation –
vasoconstrictor substances
3) Renin-angiotensin-
aldosterone system
• Activated by the release of
renin - enzyme secreted by the
juxtaglomerular apparatus
(JGA) of the kidney.
• Main factors that stimulate renin
release:
• ↓BP
• ↓ Blood volume (BV)
• ↓ plasmatic [Na+];
 Humoral regulation of circulation –
vasodilator substances

1) Acetylcholine (Ach) ⇒ VD
2) Local metabolic factors - effect on microcirculation:
↑H+, ↑PCO2, ↓ PO2, ↑ toC, adenozine ⇒ local VD
3) Prostaglandines – from arachidonic acid from cells membrane
Only local effect (they are rapidly inactivated in the blood) ⇒
VD
4) Atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP).
- a substance hormon-like released from atrial myocites